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--- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html
+++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html
@@ -109,18 +109,18 @@
 <P align="justify">Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek 
   or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to 
   a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its 
-  phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical �role� it plays 
+  phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays 
   in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence 
-  <EM>It was me she saw</EM>, the use of the word �she� as opposed 
-  to �her� and the use of �me� as opposed to �I� 
+  <EM>It was me she saw</EM>, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed 
+  to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ 
   distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object 
   of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence <EM>Der 
-  Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann</EM> (= �The boy�s brother saw the 
-  man�), the words �der�, �des� and �den� 
-  distinguish the subject of the sentence �brother� (nominative case) 
-  from the possessor �boy� (genitive case) from the object �man� 
+  Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann</EM> (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the 
+  man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ 
+  distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) 
+  from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ 
   (accusative case).</P>
-<P align="justify">The concept of �case� can extend far beyond the 
+<P align="justify">The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the 
   notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, 
   there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether 
   a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. 
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@
 <P align="justify">Note that in regard to gender categories from other languages, 
   Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.), 
   although word-roots do fall into one of 17 morpho-semantic classes (see <A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm#Sec10o2">Sec. 
-  10.2</A>). However, there is no �agreement� or morpho-phonological 
+  10.2</A>). However, there is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological 
   concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements 
   in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or 
   feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives 
@@ -156,7 +156,7 @@
 </DIV>
 <P align="justify">In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level 
   of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct 
-  object, indirect object. The deeper level of �semantic role� is 
+  object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is 
   ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role 
   can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:</P>
 <BLOCKQUOTE>
@@ -165,26 +165,26 @@
     (1c) <EM>The wind opened the door.</EM><BR>
     (1d) <EM>The door opened.</EM></P>
 </BLOCKQUOTE>
-<P align="justify">In each of these sentences case is assigned based on �slot�, 
+<P align="justify">In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, 
   i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their 
-  semantic roles. Thus the �subjects� of the sentences are, respectively, 
+  semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, 
   <EM>John</EM>, <EM>the key</EM>, <EM>the wind</EM>, and <EM>the door</EM>. Yet 
   it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated 
   in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence 
   (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that 
-  the case of the noun �key� in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while 
+  the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while 
   in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role 
   in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. 
-  As for the noun �door,� it is marked as a direct object in the first 
+  As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first 
   three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role 
   in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a 
-  change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun �John� 
-  in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as �key� 
-  in (1b), the �wind� in (1c) and the �door� in (1d), 
-  yet the semantic role of �John� is entirely different than the role 
-  of �key� in (1b) and different again from �door� in 
+  change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ 
+  in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ 
+  in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), 
+  yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role 
+  of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in 
   (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act 
-  of opening. Finally, the noun �wind� in (1c), while marked as a 
+  of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a 
   subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of 
   the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while 
   being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed 
@@ -200,23 +200,23 @@
   or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns 
   in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the 
   underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western 
-  grammatical notions of �subject� and �object� have little 
+  grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little 
   meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.</P>
 <P align="justify">The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. 
-  They correspond roughly to the �subjects� and �objects� 
+  They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” 
   of Western languages:</P>
 <P align="justify"><STRONG>AGENT</STRONG>: The animate, (and usually conscious 
   and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing 
-  a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., �John� in Sentence 
+  a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence 
   (1a) above.</P>
 <P align="justify"><STRONG>FORCE</STRONG>: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an 
-  act such as a force of nature like �wind� in Sentence (1c) above.</P>
+  act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.</P>
 <P align="justify"><STRONG>INSTRUMENT</STRONG>: The noun which functions as the 
-  physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., �key� 
+  physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ 
   in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.</P>
 <P align="justify"><STRONG>PATIENT</STRONG>: The noun which undergoes a change 
   in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or 
-  by another noun, e.g., �door� in all four sentences above.</P>
+  by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.</P>
 <H3 align="justify"><BR>
   <A name="Sec4o1o2"></A> 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles</H3>
 <P align="justify">Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects 
@@ -243,9 +243,9 @@
   an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become 
   entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result 
   (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. 
-  In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary�s to determine, 
-  but rather the children�s, based on whether they �feel� a 
-  sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary�s act. And so, Mary is more like 
+  In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, 
+  but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a 
+  sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like 
   a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or 
   behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen 
   to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting 
@@ -254,7 +254,7 @@
   ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained 
   or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or 
   consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves 
-  unwilling �patients� to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, 
+  unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, 
   a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. 
   Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory 
   perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and 
@@ -262,44 +262,44 @@
   autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations 
   (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).</P>
 <P align="justify">This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence 
-  (2c) <EM>Mary sees the children</EM>, in which the verb �see� denotes 
+  (2c) <EM>Mary sees the children</EM>, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes 
   an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other 
   words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever 
-  a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb �see� 
-  does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of �seeing� 
-  (as would be implied by the verb �to look [at]�). Therefore, the 
-  �action� is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action 
+  a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ 
+  does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” 
+  (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the 
+  “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action 
   at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. 
-  In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of �patient,� 
+  In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” 
   as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction 
   to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled 
   states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such 
   as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are 
-  categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children�s role 
+  categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role 
   in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo 
-  any action. Certainly the process of �being seen� by Mary does not 
+  any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not 
   in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being 
-  seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as �initiating� the act of 
+  seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of 
   sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, 
-  the children�s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting 
+  the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting 
   originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun 
   participant.</P>
 <P align="justify">In Sentence (2d) <EM>Mary tells the children a story</EM>, 
   Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the 
   telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, 
   or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing 
-  RECIPIENT of information, the role of an �indirect object� in Western 
+  RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western 
   languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract 
   referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.</P>
 <P align="justify">The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence 
-  (2e) <EM>Mary wants children</EM>, where they function as the �object� 
-  of Mary�s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children 
-  undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary�s 
+  (2e) <EM>Mary wants children</EM>, where they function as the “object” 
+  of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children 
+  undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s 
   desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory 
-  referents. As for Mary�s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, 
+  referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, 
   being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation 
   similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, 
-  Mary�s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.</P>
+  Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -321,8 +321,8 @@
   will be shown later in <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o1">Section 
   8.1</A>.</P>
 <P align="justify">We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases 
-  in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to �subjects� 
-  and �objects� in Western languages.</P>
+  in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” 
+  and “objects” in Western languages.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -333,7 +333,7 @@
 </DIV>
 <P align="justify">The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify 
   nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms 
-  would be referred to as �subjects� and �objects� and 
+  would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and 
   most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these 
   cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1">Sec. 
   4.1</A> above. The eleven transrelative cases are the <FONT size="2">OBLIQUE, 
@@ -361,7 +361,7 @@
   in translating sentences such as <EM>Sam gave me <STRONG>a book</STRONG>, The 
   child likes <STRONG>cereal</STRONG></EM>. It is also the case associated with 
   existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb 
-  �to be� when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description 
+  ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description 
   of a noun as in the English sentences <EM><STRONG>That boy</STRONG> is blind</EM> 
   or <EM><STRONG>The house</STRONG> was built of wood</EM>. The <FONT size="2">OBLIQUE</FONT>, 
   being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun 
@@ -406,7 +406,7 @@
   an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or 
   the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o2">Section 
   4.1.2</A> above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil 
-  uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb �to have� in reference 
+  uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference 
   to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences 
   such as <EM>We're giving <STRONG>you</STRONG> a present, Jason lent a dollar 
   <STRONG>to his sister</STRONG>, Please grant <STRONG>me</STRONG> a wish, <STRONG>The 
@@ -460,9 +460,9 @@
   case, or as an ENABLER using the <FONT size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</FONT> case. The 
   former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would 
   mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate 
-  the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for �to drain,� �to 
-  pour� or �to empty.� The Ithkuil verb used in translating 
-  the sentence would simply mean �to remove.�</P>
+  the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to 
+  pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating 
+  the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’</P>
 <P align="justify">Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the affix 
   -<STRONG>V<FONT size="1">1</FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k<IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></STRONG> 
   to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences 
@@ -512,7 +512,7 @@
   experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, 
   blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; 
   automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising 
-  one�s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state 
+  one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state 
   such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, 
   anxiety, etc. </P>
 <P align="justify">Example sentences requiring the use of the <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT> 
@@ -542,18 +542,18 @@
   radical consonant. As described previously in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o1">Section 4.1.1</A>, 
   the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> denotes a noun which functions as the 
   INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing 
-  about a state. It is usually translated by English �with.� Examples 
+  about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples 
   of usage would be <EM>She killed him <STRONG>with a knife</STRONG>, The man 
   tripped over <STRONG>my foot</STRONG>, <STRONG>The password</STRONG> got him 
   inside</EM>. The <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> is also used to mark translations 
-  of an inanimate �subject� noun when its logical function is as the 
+  of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the 
   instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare <EM>I pressed the button <STRONG>with 
   my finger</STRONG></EM> with <EM><STRONG>My finger</STRONG> pressed the button</EM>, 
-  both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence�s 
+  both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s 
   missing agent, <EM>I</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">Note that the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> does not translate 
-  �with� in its meaning of �along with� or �accompanied 
-  by� (see the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> case below in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o6o9">Sec. 
+  ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied 
+  by’ (see the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> case below in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o6o9">Sec. 
   4.6.9</A>) as in <EM>She arrived with her father</EM>. Nor is it used to show 
   the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the 
   sentence <EM>He cooks with tomatoes</EM> (see the <FONT size="2">COMPOSITIVE</FONT> 
@@ -576,16 +576,16 @@
   J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ACTIVATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun engaged 
   in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, 
-  creates a hypothetical, �unrealized� situation which can potentially 
+  creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially 
   be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated 
   by the sentence <EM>Frank must go to Chicago</EM>, in which no actual travel 
   to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence 
   <EM>Mother needs to rest</EM>, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both 
-  sentences, the event which would �fulfill� the state described remains 
+  sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains 
   an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar 
   hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences <EM>The students want 
   you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay</EM>. 
-  Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of �modal� 
+  Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” 
   verbs such as <EM>want, need, can, must</EM>, etc. </P>
 <P align="justify">Notice that the subject of these English sentences (<EM>Frank, 
   Mother, the students, everyone, Joe</EM>) are functioning neither as AGENTS 
@@ -593,7 +593,7 @@
   as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects 
   are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, 
   needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, 
-  such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers �within� 
+  such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” 
   the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence <EM>Sam wants Shirley 
   to love him</EM>, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked 
   as EXPERIENCERS using the <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT> case. Consequently, 
@@ -629,11 +629,11 @@
   resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force 
   or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, 
   a noun in the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> can often be translated using 
-  phrases such as �due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result 
-  of.� Nouns in the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> can also appear in 
+  phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result 
+  of.’ Nouns in the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> can also appear in 
   appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun 
   in the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> denotes the abstract cause or reason 
-  for the other noun, e.g., <EM>the danger <STRONG>of fame</STRONG>, <STRONG>love�s</STRONG> 
+  for the other noun, e.g., <EM>the danger <STRONG>of fame</STRONG>, <STRONG>love’s</STRONG> 
   heartache, <STRONG>wind</STRONG> song</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">The second function of the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> 
   case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS 
@@ -710,27 +710,27 @@
   relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences: 
 </P>
 <BLOCKQUOTE> 
-  <P> <EM>the man�s hat</EM> = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s house</EM> = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s arm</EM> = part of his body [inalienable component]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s brother</EM> = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s happiness</EM> = he feels happy [affective experience]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s rescue</EM> = he was or will be rescued [target of others� 
+  <P> <EM>the man’s hat</EM> = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s house</EM> = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s arm</EM> = part of his body [inalienable component]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s brother</EM> = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s happiness</EM> = he feels happy [affective experience]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s rescue</EM> = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ 
     purpose]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s gift</EM> = the gift is for him [benefaction]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s gift</EM> = the gift is from him [source]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s world</EM> = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective 
+    <EM>the man’s gift</EM> = the gift is for him [benefaction]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s gift</EM> = the gift is from him [source]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s world</EM> = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective 
     association]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s team</EM> = the team he is associated with [interactive 
+    <EM>the man’s team</EM> = the team he is associated with [interactive 
     mutual association]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s story</EM> = the story about him [topical reference]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s painting</EM> = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]<BR>
-    <EM>the man�s command</EM> = his being a commander [role or function]</P>
+    <EM>the man’s story</EM> = the story about him [topical reference]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s painting</EM> = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]<BR>
+    <EM>the man’s command</EM> = his being a commander [role or function]</P>
 </BLOCKQUOTE>
 <P align="justify">In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, 
-  e.g., does �the man�s story� mean the one he wrote or the 
-  one about him? Regarding �the man�s rescue,� did the man do 
-  the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is �the man�s gift� 
+  e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the 
+  one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do 
+  the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ 
   one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature 
   of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed 
   by the seven Associative cases. The other sorts of relationships shown above 
@@ -768,7 +768,7 @@
   separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used 
   to translate English phrases such as <EM><STRONG>his</STRONG> coat</EM> (e.g., 
   the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), <EM><STRONG>the 
-  boy�s</STRONG> book</EM> (e.g., the one in his hand), <EM><STRONG>Father�s</STRONG> 
+  boy’s</STRONG> book</EM> (e.g., the one in his hand), <EM><STRONG>Father’s</STRONG> 
   chair</EM> (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant). 
 </P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
@@ -793,8 +793,8 @@
   convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the 
   <FONT size="2">POSSESSIVE</FONT> above, we can analyze the connotative difference: 
   <EM><STRONG>his</STRONG> coat</EM> (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether 
-  he is wearing it or not), <EM><STRONG>the boy�s</STRONG> book</EM> (e.g., 
-  the one he bought), <EM><STRONG>Father�s</STRONG> chair</EM> (e.g., the 
+  he is wearing it or not), <EM><STRONG>the boy’s</STRONG> book</EM> (e.g., 
+  the one he bought), <EM><STRONG>Father’s</STRONG> chair</EM> (e.g., the 
   one assigned to him). </P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -813,8 +813,8 @@
   noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or 
   association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent 
   or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) 
-  bond, e.g., <EM><STRONG>my</STRONG> hand, <STRONG>the building�s</STRONG> 
-  doors, <STRONG>the child�s</STRONG> father, the essence <STRONG>of that 
+  bond, e.g., <EM><STRONG>my</STRONG> hand, <STRONG>the building’s</STRONG> 
+  doors, <STRONG>the child’s</STRONG> father, the essence <STRONG>of that 
   woman</STRONG></EM>. </P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -834,9 +834,9 @@
   (see the <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT> case above) relationship with another 
   noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, 
   whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: 
-  <EM><STRONG>his</STRONG> pain, <STRONG>Mother�s</STRONG> guilt, <STRONG>the 
-  child�s</STRONG> cough, <STRONG>Dorothy�s</STRONG> mood, <STRONG>Davey�s</STRONG> 
-  happiness, <STRONG>the teacher�s</STRONG> stubbornness, <STRONG>my</STRONG> 
+  <EM><STRONG>his</STRONG> pain, <STRONG>Mother’s</STRONG> guilt, <STRONG>the 
+  child’s</STRONG> cough, <STRONG>Dorothy’s</STRONG> mood, <STRONG>Davey’s</STRONG> 
+  happiness, <STRONG>the teacher’s</STRONG> stubbornness, <STRONG>my</STRONG> 
   needs</EM>. </P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -852,7 +852,7 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ORIGINATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ORIGINATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun as 
-  being the literal or figurative source of another, e.g., <EM><STRONG>the man�s</STRONG> 
+  being the literal or figurative source of another, e.g., <EM><STRONG>the man’s</STRONG> 
   story</EM> (i.e., the one he told), <EM><STRONG>our</STRONG> gift</EM> (i.e., 
   the one we are giving), <EM>water <STRONG>from the river</STRONG>, the fruit 
   <STRONG>of the tree</STRONG></EM>. </P>
@@ -870,8 +870,8 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PRODUCTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PRODUCTIVE</FONT> identifies the creator, 
-  author or originator of another noun, e.g.,<EM> <STRONG>the girl�s</STRONG> 
-  poem, <STRONG>the clowns� </STRONG>plan, <STRONG>my</STRONG> statue</EM> 
+  author or originator of another noun, e.g.,<EM> <STRONG>the girl’s</STRONG> 
+  poem, <STRONG>the clowns’ </STRONG>plan, <STRONG>my</STRONG> statue</EM> 
   (i.e., the one I sculpted). </P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -889,7 +889,7 @@
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">INTERPRETATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun 
   acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the 
   noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, 
-  as exemplified by the phrases <EM><STRONG>Monet�s</STRONG> Paris</EM>, 
+  as exemplified by the phrases <EM><STRONG>Monet’s</STRONG> Paris</EM>, 
   <EM><STRONG>our</STRONG> world, life <STRONG>as seen by children</STRONG></EM>. 
 </P>
 <H3 align="justify"><BR>
@@ -913,7 +913,7 @@
   noun. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, 
   we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in <EM>cat 
   box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man,</EM> etc., or joined by the word 
-  �of� in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., <EM>box of coins, dreams 
+  ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., <EM>box of coins, dreams 
   of youth, sounds of laughter</EM>. The eleven Appositive cases are the <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE, 
   PURPOSIVE, INHERENT, CONDUCTIVE, MEDIATIVE, CONTRASTIVE, PARTITIVE, COMPOSITIVE, 
   CORRELATIVE, INTERDEPENDENT,</FONT> and <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT>. Following 
@@ -934,14 +934,14 @@
   A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun which 
   represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. 
-  As such, it usually translates English �for� when meaning �for 
-  the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.� Examples of usage would be 
+  As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for 
+  the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be 
   <EM>a cup for coffee</EM> (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), 
   <EM>a box for tools</EM> (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold 
   tools), <EM>a room for changing.</EM> Note that the use of the <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE</FONT> 
-  can extend to usages beyond English �for,� as in <EM>a �weapon� 
-  cat</EM> = �a cat used as a weapon,� or <EM>a �projectile� 
-  book</EM> = �a book used as a projectile.� </P>
+  can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in <EM>a “weapon” 
+  cat</EM> = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or <EM>a “projectile” 
+  book</EM> = ‘a book used as a projectile.’ </P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -960,10 +960,10 @@
   is subtly distinct from the <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE</FONT> above, in that 
   the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or 
   in given context, whereas the <FONT size="2">PURPOSIVE</FONT> defines another 
-  noun�s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual 
+  noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual 
   instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended 
-  use). It generally translates English �as,� �of� or 
-  �for� when meaning �for the purpose of� or alternately 
+  use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or 
+  ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately 
   an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would 
   be <EM>a <STRONG>coffee</STRONG> cup, a <STRONG>tool</STRONG>box, a <STRONG>litter</STRONG> 
   box, a <STRONG>trash</STRONG>can. </EM></P>
@@ -998,16 +998,16 @@
   inflected for a concrete perspective, i.e., either the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT> 
   or the <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, then it takes on the rather different 
   function of stating the actual existential identity (literally or figuratively) 
-  of the other noun and would be equivalent to the English construction �that/which/who 
-  is (a/the)�� as in <EM>the man who is president, the woman who is 
+  of the other noun and would be equivalent to the English construction ‘that/which/who 
+  is (a/the)…’ as in <EM>the man who is president, the woman who is 
   my wife, the house that is a model, a machine that is a vehicle, the teacher 
   who is her father, those trees that are larches</EM>. Through use of the <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> 
   case and the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT>/<FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT> perspectives, 
   these phrases would be rendered into Ithkuil phrases that would correspond literally 
-  to the sometimes awkward, even semantically anomalous English phrases <EM>�the 
-  president man,� �the my-wife woman,� �the model house,� 
-  �the vehicle machine,� �the her-father teacher,� �the 
-  larch trees.�</EM></P>
+  to the sometimes awkward, even semantically anomalous English phrases <EM>‘the 
+  president man,’ ‘the my-wife woman,’ ‘the model house,’ 
+  ‘the vehicle machine,’ ‘the her-father teacher,’ ‘the 
+  larch trees.’</EM></P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -1023,12 +1023,12 @@
   D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONDUCTIVE</FONT> identifies the meaningful 
   or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship 
-  signified by the expressions �having to do with,� �as it pertains 
-  to,� or �considered within the context of.� Examples of English 
+  signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains 
+  to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English 
   phrases translatable using this case are <EM>a <STRONG>circus</STRONG> clown, 
   a <STRONG>mountain</STRONG> man, a feeling <STRONG>of loneliness</STRONG>, the 
-  <STRONG>Mafia�s</STRONG> world, a realm <STRONG>of fear</STRONG>, my<STRONG> 
-  life</STRONG> achievement, <STRONG>childhood</STRONG> memories, Let�s 
+  <STRONG>Mafia’s</STRONG> world, a realm <STRONG>of fear</STRONG>, my<STRONG> 
+  life</STRONG> achievement, <STRONG>childhood</STRONG> memories, Let’s 
   discuss the morality<STRONG> of war</STRONG></EM>. </P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -1053,9 +1053,9 @@
   which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a 
   causative action. For example, in the sentence <EM>Call him on the phone!</EM>, 
   translating the phrase <EM>on the phone</EM> into the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> 
-  case would signify �Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call 
-  him,� whereas inflection into the <FONT size="2">MEDIATIVE</FONT> case 
-  would mean �Call him via the medium of telephony.� </P>
+  case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call 
+  him,’ whereas inflection into the <FONT size="2">MEDIATIVE</FONT> case 
+  would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’ </P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -1076,7 +1076,7 @@
   to the blue one); <EM>the <STRONG>science</STRONG> text</EM> (e.g., versus the 
   religious text); <EM><STRONG>my</STRONG> statue</EM> (i.e., a statue of me); 
   <EM>I want your recipe <STRONG>for stew</STRONG>, not <STRONG>soup</STRONG>; 
-  Don�t worry, it�s a <STRONG>pet</STRONG> snake</EM>.</P>
+  Don’t worry, it’s a <STRONG>pet</STRONG> snake</EM>.</P>
 <H3 align="justify">&nbsp;</H3>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -1104,8 +1104,8 @@
   12</A></FONT>, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., 
   full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, 
   a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not 
-  say �three boxes,� but rather �a trio of a box� or perhaps 
-  more eloquently, �a box trio.� </P>
+  say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps 
+  more eloquently, “a box trio.” </P>
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PARTITIVE</FONT> case is also used in constructing 
   words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed 
   in <FONT color="#FF0000"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">Chapter 
@@ -1151,9 +1151,9 @@
   J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CORRELATIVE</FONT> is used to indicate 
   an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another 
-  noun or verb. It translates general phrases such as �relative to,� 
-  �in relation to,� �in correlation with,� �in association 
-  with,� etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as <EM><STRONG>career</STRONG> 
+  noun or verb. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ 
+  ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association 
+  with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as <EM><STRONG>career</STRONG> 
   goals, the soup o<STRONG>f the day</STRONG>, the direction o<STRONG>f that road</STRONG>, 
   The elapsed time <STRONG>relative to the distance </STRONG>determines the winner, 
   Our next topic is sex <STRONG>and (</STRONG></EM>or<EM><STRONG> in) art</STRONG></EM> 
@@ -1178,12 +1178,12 @@
   which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship 
   with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal 
   in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within 
-  it�s natural context, e.g., <EM>the<STRONG> students</STRONG>� teacher, 
+  it’s natural context, e.g., <EM>the<STRONG> students</STRONG>’ teacher, 
   an <STRONG>army</STRONG> general, the blood <STRONG>in my veins</STRONG>, the 
-  driver <STRONG>of the truck</STRONG>, the nation�s leader, <STRONG>his</STRONG> 
-  team</EM> (i.e., the one on which he�s a member). Note that this case 
+  driver <STRONG>of the truck</STRONG>, the nation’s leader, <STRONG>his</STRONG> 
+  team</EM> (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case 
   does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the <FONT size="2">GENITIVE</FONT> 
-  case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate <EM>the book�s pages</EM>, 
+  case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate <EM>the book’s pages</EM>, 
   or <EM>the leaves of a tree</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -1201,16 +1201,16 @@
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun which 
   constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), 
   or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by 
-  the phrases �based (up)on,� �dependent (up)on� or �relying 
-  on.� Examples of use are <EM>a book <STRONG>dependent on a publisher</STRONG>, 
+  the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying 
+  on.’ Examples of use are <EM>a book <STRONG>dependent on a publisher</STRONG>, 
   a man <STRONG>relying on charity</STRONG>, laws <STRONG>based in reason</STRONG>, 
   Can success <STRONG>supported by murder</STRONG> be sustained?</EM></P>
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> should be distinguished 
   from Transrelative cases such as the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> or <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT>, 
   in that the <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> does not denote a cause, merely 
   the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to 
-  translate <EM>anxiety based on terror</EM>, as the anxiety does not �rely� 
-  or �depend� on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in 
+  translate <EM>anxiety based on terror</EM>, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ 
+  or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in 
   the phrase <EM>an attitude fueled by greed</EM>, the attitude derives from or 
   results from greed, but is not relying on it.</P>
 <H3 align="justify"><BR>
@@ -1247,7 +1247,7 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ESSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series A 
   vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ESSIVE</FONT> identifies the role or name 
-  by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English �as� 
+  by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ 
   in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would 
   be used in translating the English sentences <EM>They called him <STRONG>a clown</STRONG>, 
   The woman entered the club <STRONG>as an equal</STRONG> of any man, We consider 
@@ -1267,7 +1267,7 @@
   B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical 
   consonant. The <FONT size="2">ASSIMILATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun used as 
   a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a 
-  verb. Thus, it translates English �like� or �as� in 
+  verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in 
   the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of 
   usage are <EM>She sings <STRONG>like a bird</STRONG>, <STRONG>As children </STRONG>they 
   seemed to me</EM>.</P>
@@ -1288,7 +1288,7 @@
   or the adverbial use of <EM>with</EM>, identifying the manner in which an action, 
   event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to 
   characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately 
-  by the phrase �in a manner characterized by�.� Examples would 
+  by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would 
   be: <EM>She dances <STRONG>gracefully</STRONG> </EM>(i.e., in a manner characterized 
   by grace),<EM> The boys ate <STRONG>with gusto</STRONG>, That clown is speaking 
   <STRONG>nonsense</STRONG>, Father speaks <STRONG>with such fortitude</STRONG></EM>.</P>
@@ -1306,8 +1306,8 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">TRANSFORMATIVE</FONT> case is marked by 
   Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">TRANSFORMATIVE</FONT> identifies the outcome 
-  or final state of a process, often translatable by �to,� �until,� 
-  or �into� in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone 
+  or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ 
+  or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone 
   some transformation. Example usages would be <EM>The house burned <STRONG>to 
   ashes</STRONG>, The clown reached a state <STRONG>of tranquility</STRONG>, The 
   clowns will turn our children <STRONG>into slaves</STRONG>, Her father drank 
@@ -1326,11 +1326,11 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">REFERENTIAL</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">REFERENTIAL</FONT> identifies a noun functioning 
-  as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as �about,� 
-  �regarding,� �concerning,� �in regard to,� 
-  �in reference to,� �pertaining to,� or �as for.� 
+  as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ 
+  ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ 
+  ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ 
   Examples of use would be <EM>a song <STRONG>of love</STRONG>; <STRONG>As for 
-  those books</STRONG>, burn them!; Let�s talk <STRONG>about clowns</STRONG>; 
+  those books</STRONG>, burn them!; Let’s talk <STRONG>about clowns</STRONG>; 
   His attitude <STRONG>toward women</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -1347,10 +1347,10 @@
   F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONSIDERATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun 
   as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs 
-  or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as �according 
-  to,� �pursuant to,� �as per,� �in the opinion 
-  of.� Examples of usage would be <EM><STRONG>In my opinion</STRONG> he�s 
-  a coward; He�s leaving town <STRONG>as per orders</STRONG> from the court; 
+  or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according 
+  to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion 
+  of.’ Examples of usage would be <EM><STRONG>In my opinion</STRONG> he’s 
+  a coward; He’s leaving town <STRONG>as per orders</STRONG> from the court; 
   You were arrested <STRONG>pursuant to law</STRONG>; <STRONG>According to our 
   teacher</STRONG>, humans are descended from apes</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -1378,7 +1378,7 @@
   periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature 
   of an event. Examples would be <EM><STRONG>Month by month</STRONG>, their departure 
   crept closer; <STRONG>Year after year</STRONG>, I see more and more clowns; 
-  <STRONG>Day in</STRONG>,<STRONG> day out</STRONG>, he�s always working; 
+  <STRONG>Day in</STRONG>,<STRONG> day out</STRONG>, he’s always working; 
   The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, <STRONG>bag upon bag</STRONG>; 
   <STRONG>Patient by patient</STRONG>, the nurse administered injections</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">Note that the <FONT size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</FONT> would not 
@@ -1401,8 +1401,8 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DEFERENTIAL</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">DEFERENTIAL</FONT> translates the English 
-  phrases �out of respect for,� �for the sake of,� or 
-  �in deference toward,� identifying the noun to which deference is 
+  phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or 
+  ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is 
   paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would 
   be <EM>He remained silent <STRONG>for her sake</STRONG>, They went on with the 
   ceremony <STRONG>out of respect for the families</STRONG>, They dressed in robes 
@@ -1421,9 +1421,9 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish 
-  or Estonian, the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> translates the English �with� 
-  in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., �along with�) as in <EM>The 
-  child went <STRONG>with the clown </STRONG>to the party</EM>. Like English �with,� 
+  or Estonian, the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> translates the English ‘with’ 
+  in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in <EM>The 
+  child went <STRONG>with the clown </STRONG>to the party</EM>. Like English ‘with,’ 
   the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> does not imply that the conjoined noun 
   is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb 
   as the head noun. For example, in the sentence <EM>My father was walking with 
@@ -1441,8 +1441,8 @@
   him during the war) versus <EM>This man fought with my father</EM> (e.g., they 
   had a fight with each other).</P>
 <P align="justify">Note also that the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> is not 
-  used to indicate instrumentality (English �with� meaning �by 
-  means of�). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as <EM>I 
+  used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by 
+  means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as <EM>I 
   cut the meat with a knife</EM>. As previously discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o8">Section 
   4.3.8</A>, instrumentality is indicated by use of the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> 
   case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed 
@@ -1462,17 +1462,17 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> translates English 
-  �with� in its meaning of �in conjunction with,� i.e., 
+  ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., 
   to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary 
   activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> 
   above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the <EM>walking with 
   a loaf of bread</EM> example from above, it would be incorrect to use the <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> 
   case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate 
-  the usage, consider the sentence <EM>I�m with the brigade</EM>. Translating 
-  �brigade� using the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> would mean 
-  that �I�ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,� 
-  while using the <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> would mean �I�m 
-  a member of the brigade.� Additional examples where the <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> 
+  the usage, consider the sentence <EM>I’m with the brigade</EM>. Translating 
+  ‘brigade’ using the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> would mean 
+  that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ 
+  while using the <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> would mean ‘I’m 
+  a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> 
   would be used are <EM>They skate with the best team, That teacher works well 
   with children</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -1489,7 +1489,7 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun in 
-  the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English �with� 
+  the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ 
   where it refers to actual use in progress as in <EM>A man <STRONG>with a gun</STRONG> 
   ran into the room</EM>. It should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> 
   (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o8">Sec. 4.3.8</A>) in that the latter indicates the implement 
@@ -1532,9 +1532,9 @@
   implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the 
   recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or 
   consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English 
-  �for� in the sense of �for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.� 
+  ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ 
   Examples of usage are <EM>a toy <STRONG>for the children</STRONG>, We threw 
-  <STRONG>him</STRONG> a party, Go to</EM> <EM>the <STRONG>teachers</STRONG>� 
+  <STRONG>him</STRONG> a party, Go to</EM> <EM>the <STRONG>teachers</STRONG>’ 
   lounge</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -1550,11 +1550,11 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">TRANSPOSITIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">TRANSPOSITIVE</FONT> implies substitution 
-  of one noun for another. It translates English �for� in the sense 
-  of �on behalf of,� �in place of,� or �instead 
-  of� (i.e., �as a substitution for�). Examples of usage are 
+  of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense 
+  of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead 
+  of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are 
   <EM>The boss made the speech <STRONG>for me</STRONG>, She went up into the attic 
-  <STRONG>for her brother</STRONG></EM> (i.e., so he wouldn�t have to).</P>
+  <STRONG>for her brother</STRONG></EM> (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -1569,7 +1569,7 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMMUTATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">COMMUTATIVE</FONT> translates English 
-  �for� in the sense of �in exchange for� as in <EM>You 
+  ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in <EM>You 
   paid too much money <STRONG>for that dress</STRONG>, She kills <STRONG>for thrills</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <H3 align="justify"><BR>
   4.6.15 Examples of Adverbial Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o6o15"></A><BR>
@@ -1587,7 +1587,7 @@
 <P align="justify">The Subrelative cases comprise eleven cases which place a noun 
   in a subordinate context to the main sentence, much like subordinate conjunctions 
   in Western languages. In fact, these cases are used far more frequently with 
-  verbal clauses than with nouns, creating what are known as �case-frames� 
+  verbal clauses than with nouns, creating what are known as “case-frames” 
   (to be discussed in <A href="Ch-5%20Verbs%20Contd.htm#Sec5o7">Sec. 5.7</A>), 
   the Ithkuil functional equivalent to Western subordinate clauses. The eleven 
   Subrelative cases are the <FONT size="2">ABESSIVE, CONVERSIVE, CONCESSIVE, EXCEPTIVE, 
@@ -1609,13 +1609,13 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ABESSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ABESSIVE</FONT> is essentially the opposite 
-  of the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT>, translating the English �without� 
-  or �-less� in the sense of �unaccompanied by� or �not 
-  having� as in <EM>a day <STRONG>without rain</STRONG></EM> or <EM>a <STRONG>treeless</STRONG> 
+  of the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT>, translating the English ‘without’ 
+  or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not 
+  having’ as in <EM>a day <STRONG>without rain</STRONG></EM> or <EM>a <STRONG>treeless</STRONG> 
   plain</EM>. As noted in the next section below on the <FONT size="2">CONVERSIVE</FONT> 
-  case, it is <STRONG>not</STRONG> used to translate �without� when 
-  it means �unless one has,� referring to a hypothetical exception 
-  to a potential outcome as in <EM>I can�t go on without love</EM>.</P>
+  case, it is <STRONG>not</STRONG> used to translate ‘without’ when 
+  it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception 
+  to a potential outcome as in <EM>I can’t go on without love</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -1634,12 +1634,12 @@
   to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered 
   a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where 
   it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the 
-  conjunction �unless� in verbal contexts, and by the preposition 
-  �without� for nouns (note that �without� in this sense 
+  conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition 
+  ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense 
   does not correspond to its usual <FONT size="2">ABESSIVE</FONT> usage in Sec. 
   4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by 
-  such expressions as �but for,� �if not for,� �if 
-  it wasn�t for,� or �if it wasn�t on account of.� 
+  such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if 
+  it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ 
   Example of usage: <EM><STRONG>Without peace</STRONG>, this society is doomed; 
   <STRONG>If not for the rain</STRONG>, we would have had a good time</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -1658,9 +1658,9 @@
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONCESSIVE</FONT> case identifies a noun, 
   situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result 
   which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, 
-  conjunctions, or phrases such as �despite,� �in spite of,� 
-  �notwithstanding,� �although,� �regardless of,� 
-  �no matter what,� etc. Examples of usage: <EM><STRONG>In spite of 
+  conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ 
+  ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ 
+  ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: <EM><STRONG>In spite of 
   his stupidity</STRONG>, he passed the test; <STRONG>The law notwithstanding</STRONG>, 
   I will stand my ground; <STRONG>No matter how ignorant</STRONG> (they may be), 
   they are welcome, <STRONG>Although foreigners</STRONG>, we will let them attend 
@@ -1680,8 +1680,8 @@
   D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">EXCEPTIVE</FONT> indicates a noun, situation, 
   or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main 
-  clause, translatable by English �except (for),� �but (not),� 
-  or �excluding.� Examples of usage: <EM>She loves everybody <STRONG>except 
+  clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ 
+  or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: <EM>She loves everybody <STRONG>except 
   clowns</STRONG>; I like all animals, <STRONG>excluding dogs</STRONG>; He eats 
   almost anything <STRONG>but (not) spinach</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -1701,7 +1701,7 @@
   has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. 
   In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected 
   in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English 
-  phrases �instead of� or �as opposed to,� e.g.,<EM> <STRONG>Instead 
+  phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ e.g.,<EM> <STRONG>Instead 
   of rain</STRONG>, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, <STRONG>as opposed to 
   a maid</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -1720,9 +1720,9 @@
   radical consonant. The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which 
   the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required 
   condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the 
-  main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as �provided 
-  (that),� �on condition of,� �only in case of,� 
-  or �but only if,� e.g., <EM><STRONG>Provided [there�s] food</STRONG>, 
+  main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided 
+  (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ 
+  or ‘but only if,’ e.g., <EM><STRONG>Provided [there’s] food</STRONG>, 
   I will attend the meeting; We will fight <STRONG>only in case of war</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -1743,14 +1743,14 @@
   and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, 
   situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, 
   but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated 
-  by the main clause. This is translatable by English �if,� or �in 
-  case of.� Note that it does not translate English �if� where 
-  it means �whether� as in <EM>I don�t know if it�s warm 
+  by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in 
+  case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where 
+  it means ‘whether’ as in <EM>I don’t know if it’s warm 
   enough</EM>, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality 
   (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). 
-  Examples of usage: <EM><STRONG>If [there�s] snow</STRONG>, I�m not 
+  Examples of usage: <EM><STRONG>If [there’s] snow</STRONG>, I’m not 
   going out; <STRONG>In case of fire</STRONG>, flee; <STRONG>If friend</STRONG>, 
-  welcome them, if foe, kill �em</EM>.</P>
+  welcome them, if foe, kill ’em</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -1777,16 +1777,16 @@
   There is no equivalent English construction which expresses this distinction. 
   The following sentences represent approximate English translations of what would 
   be identical Ithkuil sentences except for the three different case declensions 
-  of the word for �weather�:</P>
-<P align="justify"><FONT size="2">PROVISIONAL</FONT>: <EM>We�re packing 
+  of the word for ‘weather’:</P>
+<P align="justify"><FONT size="2">PROVISIONAL</FONT>: <EM>We’re packing 
   umbrellas, <STRONG>but only in case of bad weather</STRONG></EM> (i.e., umbrellas 
   will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).<BR>
-  <FONT size="2">POSTULATIVE</FONT>: <EM>We�re packing umbrellas <STRONG>in 
+  <FONT size="2">POSTULATIVE</FONT>: <EM>We’re packing umbrellas <STRONG>in 
   case of bad weather</STRONG></EM> (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation 
   for the possibility of bad weather).<BR>
-  <FONT size="2">SUPPOSITIVE</FONT>: <EM>We�re packing umbrellas <STRONG>supposing 
-  [there�s] bad weather</STRONG></EM> (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed 
-  even though we don�t know how the weather will be).</P>
+  <FONT size="2">SUPPOSITIVE</FONT>: <EM>We’re packing umbrellas <STRONG>supposing 
+  [there’s] bad weather</STRONG></EM> (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed 
+  even though we don’t know how the weather will be).</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -1801,9 +1801,9 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DEPENDENT</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">DEPENDENT</FONT> translates the English 
-  phrase �depending on� signifying a noun as the contingency on which 
+  phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which 
   the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be <EM><STRONG>Depending 
-  on the rain</STRONG>, we�ll go for a picnic; She may show up, <STRONG>depending 
+  on the rain</STRONG>, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, <STRONG>depending 
   on her attitude</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DEPENDENT</FONT> should be distinguished 
   from the <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> case in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5o11">Sec. 
@@ -1823,10 +1823,10 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMPARATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">COMPARATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun being 
-  compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as �as 
-  compared to,� �as opposed to.� With verbal case-frames (see 
+  compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as 
+  compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see 
   <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7">Sec. 5.7</A>) it would translate as 
-  �whereas� or �while� (in its synonymous usage to �whereas�). 
+  ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). 
   Examples are <EM>She chose the red one <STRONG>as opposed to the blue one</STRONG>, 
   Sam drives a van <STRONG>as compared to Joe</STRONG>, who prefers a truck</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -1844,9 +1844,9 @@
   J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">AVERSIVE</FONT> identifies a noun as a 
   source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions 
-  such as �for fear of,� �in order to avoid,� or �in 
-  avoidance of.� With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7">Sec. 
-  5.7</A>) , it would translate English �lest.� Examples of usage 
+  such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in 
+  avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7">Sec. 
+  5.7</A>) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage 
   are <EM>She finished her plate <STRONG>for fear of my wrath</STRONG>, I traveled 
   by night <STRONG>to avoid the sun</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -1869,8 +1869,8 @@
   While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque 
   and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional 
   relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished 
-  in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as �to be 
-  inside of� instead of a preposition �inside of�). Nevertheless, 
+  in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be 
+  inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, 
   there are twelve cases corresponding to certain types of common spatial relationships. 
   These are the <FONT size="2">LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, 
   PROLATIVE, PERLATIVE, PERVASIVE , PERIPHERAL, INTEGRAL, POSITIONAL</FONT>, and 
@@ -1892,8 +1892,8 @@
   A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">LOCATIVE</FONT> signifies general static 
   position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable 
-  by many English prepositions such as �at,� �in,� �on,� 
-  or �by,� depending on the context, e.g., <EM>in that building, by 
+  by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ 
+  or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., <EM>in that building, by 
   the wall, on the street, at my house</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -1909,13 +1909,13 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ORIENTATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ORIENTATIVE</FONT> identifies the noun 
-  (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward �end� 
+  (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” 
   of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable 
-  into English using elements such as �-ward(s)� or �-first� 
+  into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ 
   in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., 
   <EM>He jumped in <STRONG>feet-first</STRONG>, The car rolled <STRONG>backward</STRONG></EM>. 
   The <FONT size="2">ORIENTATIVE</FONT> allows for the extension of this concept 
-  to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., <EM>He walked �butt-ward� 
+  to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., <EM>He walked “butt-ward” 
   down the street</EM> (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading 
   the way).</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -1938,8 +1938,8 @@
   in either the <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> or <FONT size="2">POSITIONAL</FONT> 
   case (see Sections 4.8.4 and 4.8.11 below). Examples of use would be <EM>They 
   collided <STRONG>sideways</STRONG>, She turned <STRONG>her back</STRONG> on 
-  him, The chair �<STRONG>faced</STRONG>� the doorway</EM> (i.e., 
-  The chair stood with it�s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).</P>
+  him, The chair “<STRONG>faced</STRONG>” the doorway</EM> (i.e., 
+  The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -1955,7 +1955,7 @@
   D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. When used in the context of explicit or implied directional 
   motion, the <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> signifies the direction of motion, 
-  translatable by �to� or �toward(s)� or the suffix �-ward(s)� 
+  translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ 
   in English. Note that the <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> in no way implies that 
   the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion 
   or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be <EM>I wandered 
@@ -1964,7 +1964,7 @@
 <P align="justify">When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, 
   the <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> signifies a directional orientation of a 
   noun relative to another, e.g., <EM>He turned his back <STRONG>on me</STRONG>, 
-  The upstairs bedroom faces <STRONG>the yard</STRONG>, It�s alongside <STRONG>the 
+  The upstairs bedroom faces <STRONG>the yard</STRONG>, It’s alongside <STRONG>the 
   desk</STRONG></EM> (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk)</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
@@ -2005,7 +2005,7 @@
   medium or a two-dimensional quasi-planar surface, the position or movement being 
   between one point and another, without implying origination at one point or 
   destination at another, e.g., <EM>He passed <STRONG>through a tunnel</STRONG>, 
-  She�s standing <STRONG>along the highway</STRONG>, I�ll walk <STRONG>across 
+  She’s standing <STRONG>along the highway</STRONG>, I’ll walk <STRONG>across 
   the patio</STRONG>, He pushed his way <STRONG>through the crowd</STRONG>, The 
   vessel traversed <STRONG>the (surface of the) ocean</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -2101,12 +2101,12 @@
   to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial 
   orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater 
   sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships 
-  are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., �to be situated on the 
-  right,� �to move beneath,� etc. Consequently, the <FONT size="2">POSITIONAL</FONT> 
-  case can be thought of as expressing the phrase �relative to.� Examples 
-  of how it would be used are <EM>I�m standing four feet north <STRONG>of 
+  are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the 
+  right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, the <FONT size="2">POSITIONAL</FONT> 
+  case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples 
+  of how it would be used are <EM>I’m standing four feet north <STRONG>of 
   the desk</STRONG>, The one hanging above <STRONG>the boxes</STRONG> looks fresh, 
-  It lies at a 30� angle <STRONG>relative to the tree</STRONG></EM>.</P>
+  It lies at a 30° angle <STRONG>relative to the tree</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
 <DIV align="justify">
   <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
@@ -2146,10 +2146,10 @@
 <P align="justify">The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In 
   many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly 
   in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases 
-  as �in 3 hours,� �for 5 years,� �day by day,� 
-  and �per month,� as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear 
-  using concepts such as �before,� �after,� �during,� 
-  �until,� and �ago.� The fifteen temporal cases are the 
+  as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ 
+  and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear 
+  using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ 
+  ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the 
   <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, 
   POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, SIMULTANEITIVE, 
   ASSESSIVE</FONT>, and <FONT size="2">LIMITATIVE</FONT>. Following are explanations 
@@ -2168,11 +2168,11 @@
 </DIV>
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
-  radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> serves as a �temporal 
-  locative� signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during 
+  radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> serves as a “temporal 
+  locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during 
   or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered 
   a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be <EM>He prays <STRONG>during 
-  lunch</STRONG>, She studied hard <STRONG>last night</STRONG>, I won�t 
+  lunch</STRONG>, She studied hard <STRONG>last night</STRONG>, I won’t 
   visit until <STRONG>then</STRONG></EM> (i.e., during that period in time). </P>
 <BLOCKQUOTE> 
   <P><IMG src="assets/4-9-1.gif" width="257" height="53"></P>
@@ -2212,7 +2212,7 @@
   locative similar to the <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT>, except that the time 
   period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on 
   the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase 
-  �during the time surrounding�.� Examples of usage would be 
+  ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be 
   <EM>Most cars had tail fins <STRONG>in those days</STRONG>; I was abroad <STRONG>during 
   that era</STRONG>; <STRONG>At the time of his death</STRONG>, the number of 
   clowns was increasing; <STRONG>Over the past several seasons</STRONG>, your 
@@ -2312,7 +2312,7 @@
   H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ELAPSIVE</FONT> identifies the amount 
   of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, 
-  condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ��ago.� 
+  condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ 
   Examples would be <EM><STRONG>Four years ago</STRONG> I was a student; <STRONG>Going 
   back three generations</STRONG>, women could not even vote</EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -2331,7 +2331,7 @@
   a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be <EM><STRONG>Four years 
   from now</STRONG>, I will be a student; <STRONG>Looking ahead three generations</STRONG>, 
   clowns will rule the world; I will be home <STRONG>in three days</STRONG>; Little 
-  did he know that <STRONG>two months later</STRONG> he�d be a rich man</EM>.</P>
+  did he know that <STRONG>two months later</STRONG> he’d be a rich man</EM>.</P>
 <P>&nbsp;</P>
 <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
   <TBODY><TR> 
@@ -2418,7 +2418,7 @@
   E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ASSESSIVE</FONT> specifies the unit of 
   time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to 
-  English �by� or �per.� Examples would be <EM>My lawyer 
+  English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be <EM>My lawyer 
   charges <STRONG>by the minute</STRONG>, He publishes several books <STRONG>each 
   year</STRONG>, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles <STRONG>per hour</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <P align="justify">&nbsp;</P>
@@ -2435,8 +2435,8 @@
 <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">LIMITATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series 
   F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> 
   radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">LIMITATIVE</FONT> signifies a event culminating 
-  an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression �in time 
-  for.� Examples of usage are <EM>He arrived <STRONG>in time for dinner</STRONG>, 
+  an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time 
+  for.’ Examples of usage are <EM>He arrived <STRONG>in time for dinner</STRONG>, 
   Be inside the Big Tent <STRONG>in time for the clowns</STRONG></EM>.</P>
 <H3 align="justify"><BR>
   4.9.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o9o16"></A></H3>
@@ -2505,7 +2505,7 @@
   </TR>
 </TBODY></TABLE>
 <BR>
-<FONT size="-1">�2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion 
+<FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion 
 of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author 
 and this website. </FONT> 
 <P>&nbsp;</P>