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diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..239b2b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html @@ -0,0 +1,684 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<!-- saved from url=(0041)ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm --> +<HTML><HEAD><META http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<TITLE>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 9: Syntax</TITLE> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> + +<SCRIPT language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//--> +</SCRIPT> +</HEAD><BODY> +<DIV align="center"><FONT color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</STRONG></FONT><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Title-Script5.gif"><BR> + <BR> +</DIV> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<H2 align="center"> </H2> +<H2 align="center">Chapter 9: Syntax</H2> +<DIV align="center"> + <TABLE width="37%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="280"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm#Sec9o1">9.1 Word Order</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm#Sec9o2">9.2 Semantic Focus and Pragmatic Relations</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm#Sec9o3">9.3 Morpho-Semantic Considerations</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="17"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm#Sec9o4">9.4 The “Carrier” + Root</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify"><BR> + Syntax refers to the rules for sequencing the order of words + within a phrase or sentence, including rules permitting more than one possible + sequential ordering of words. To understand the following discussion of Ithkuil + syntax it is necessary to have a cursory understanding of the notions of <EM>semantic + role</EM>, <EM>pragmatic role</EM>, and <EM>grammatical</EM> (or <EM>syntactical</EM>) + <EM>relations</EM>:</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <UL> + <LI><STRONG>Semantic role</STRONG>: This refers to the underlying semantic + function of a particular word, irrespective of overt morphological category. + We have already seen how Ithkuil marks its noun cases to reflect semantic + roles, not grammatical relations. Such roles include Agent, Patient, Experiencer, + Recipient, Instrument, etc., as previously explained in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1">Section + 4.1</A> et seq.<BR> + </LI> + <LI><STRONG>Pragmatic role</STRONG>: This refers to the function of a word + or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms + of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” + information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background + information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new + information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations + are generally delineated: <STRONG>topic</STRONG>, <STRONG>comment</STRONG>, + and <STRONG>focus</STRONG>. The <EM>topic</EM> of a sentence is the word + or phrase about which the speaker has been asked or is expected by the addressee + to talk about. The <EM>comment</EM> is the information (usually a predicate) + given by the speaker about the particular topic. The term <EM>focus</EM> + refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., + not previously known), and has been discussed in detail in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Sec. + 3.5</A>. To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence <EM>I can see + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill?</EM> (i.e., <EM>What happened + to make Bill angry, too?</EM>). In the hypothetical answer <EM>Bill (or + He) is angry because he lost his keys</EM>, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.<BR> + </LI> + <LI><STRONG>Grammatical </STRONG>(or<STRONG> syntactical</STRONG>)<STRONG> + relations</STRONG>: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective + of semantic or pragmatic roles, e.g., the subject of the sentence in English + normally precedes the main verb and the direct object normally follows the + main verb.</LI> + </UL> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">In general, the syntax of a language either (1) establishes + the permissible grammatical relations of the language, (2) reflects and/or reinforces + semantic roles, (3) reflects and/or reinforces pragmatic roles, or (4) any combination + of these. As one might surmise from the above, English syntax is weighted heavily + toward establishing grammatical relations at the near-total expense of identifying + semantic roles. As for pragmatic roles, English rarely reflects these in its + syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing <EM>wh</EM>- question + words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent + a direct object, e.g., <EM>What have you done?</EM> or <EM>Who[m] are they talking + about?</EM>), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice. </P> +<P align="justify">We have already seen the extreme to which Ithkuil marks semantic + roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations + in and of themselves are relatively arbitrary within language, Ithkuil uses + pure word order constraints only to an extent necessary to ensure avoidance + of ambiguity in determining which nouns belong as participants to a verb, which + nouns lie in apposition to their head, and which words of a compound sentence + lie within a case-frame as opposed to outside the case-frame. As for pragmatic + roles, we have already seen that semantic focus and optional topicalization + are accomplished morphologically in Ithkuil (see <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Sec. + 3.5</A> and the TPF affix in <A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o13">Sec. + 7.7.13</A>). As a result, Ithkuil has relatively free word order which, subject + to a few constraints, is manipulated for euphonic and phonaesthetic reasons. + Those constraints on word order which do exist are explained below.</P> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>9.1 WORD ORDER<A name="Sec9o1"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The highly inflected nature of Ithkuil morphology allows the + order of words within a sentence to be quite flexible. Nevertheless, two neutral + or “default” patterns exist, one for main clauses, the other for + case frames. </P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 9.1.1 Word Order Within Main Clauses</H3> +<P align="justify">The default word-order for a main clause is as follows: </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <BLOCKQUOTE> </BLOCKQUOTE> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><STRONG>Nt1/R (Nt2) (Na) (Ns) (A) (Cv) (Co) Vb</STRONG>, + where:</P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>Nt1/R</STRONG> = first transrelative participant or + a personal reference adjunct<BR> + <STRONG>Nt2</STRONG> = second transrelative participant<BR> + <STRONG>Na</STRONG> = attributive/associative/adverbial nouns<BR> + <STRONG>Ns</STRONG> = spatio-temporal nouns<BR> + <STRONG>A</STRONG> = aspectual adjunct<BR> + <STRONG>Cv</STRONG> = conflation or valence adjunct<BR> + <STRONG>Co</STRONG> = other adjuncts (e.g., affixual adjunct or combination + adjunct)<BR> + <STRONG>Vb</STRONG> = verb</P> +<P align="justify">Thus we see that a main clause normally starts with the highest-order + transrelative noun (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o2">Sec. 4.2</A>) + or any personal reference adjunct, followed by any nouns in lower-order transrelative + cases, followed by nouns in non-transrelative cases. The last part of the clause + consists of the verb in final position preceded by any aspectual adjunct, conflation + (or valence) adjunct, and combination or affixual adjunct, in that order. As + for “higher-” versus “lower-” order transrelative nouns, + this refers to the hierarchy or sequence of transrelative cases in which certain + cases take precedence over others. This hierarchy is as follows:</P> +<P align="justify"><FONT size="2">ERGATIVE <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + EFFECTUATIVE <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + INDUCIVE <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> ABSOLUTIVE + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> DERIVATIVE + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <BR> + SITUATIVE <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + AFFECTIVE <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + DATIVE <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> INSTRUMENTAL + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> OBLIQUE</FONT></P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<H3 align="justify">9.1.2 Word-order within Case-Frames</H3> +<P align="justify">Within a case-frame (see <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7">Section + 5.7</A>), a different default order is used in order to identify the clause + as a case frame:</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>Vc (A) (Cv) (Co) (Na) (Ns) (Nt2) Nt1/R</STRONG>, where:</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>Vc</STRONG> = verb inflected for case-frame<BR> + <STRONG>A</STRONG> = aspectual adjunct <BR> + <STRONG>Cv</STRONG> = conflation or valence adjunct<BR> + <STRONG>Co</STRONG> = other adjuncts (e.g., affixual adjunct or combination + adjunct)<BR> + <STRONG>Na</STRONG> = attributive/associative/adverbial nouns<BR> + <STRONG>Ns</STRONG> = spatio-temporal nouns<BR> + <STRONG>Nt2</STRONG> = second transrelative participant <BR> + <STRONG>Nt1/R</STRONG> = first transrelative participant or a personal reference + adjunct</P> +<P align="justify">This is nearly the reverse order of the main clause, with the + case-marked verb appearing initially within the case-frame followed by its attendant + adjuncts, then any secondary nouns, followed by any transrelative nouns with + the highest-order transrelative noun or any personal reference adjunct in final + position within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame + will usually take one of the <STRONG>–V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>’</STRONG> + suffixes (see <A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o13">Sec. 7.7.13</A>) + signifying the end of the case-frame unless this is clear without the suffix + (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position). </P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<H3 align="justify">9.1.3 Flexibility and Constraints in Word Order</H3> +<P align="justify">Despite there being a normal word-order for main clauses and + case-frames, these are by no means grammatically required. In general, the order + of most words can be changed for purposes of euphony. Nevertheless, Ithkuil + word order is not completely free. The following word-order constraints exist + in order to avoid potential ambiguity or semantic incoherence.</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <UL> + <LI>Nouns in Attributive, Associative and Adverbial cases (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3">Secs. + 4.3</A>, <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o4">4.4</A> and <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5">4.5</A>) + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between + the two nouns is readily ascertainable without the two being in apposition.<BR> + </LI> + <LI>Sentences containing case-frames are most likely to follow the default, + normal word-order, in order to avoid ambiguity as to which formatives and + adjuncts belong to the main clause and which to the case-frame. Case-frames + especially often reflect a verb-initial pattern, in order to easily signify + the beginning of the case-frame.<BR> + </LI> + <LI>A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, + i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate + or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, + e.g., <EM>[Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of + which I, [a mere student,] am fond,]] Joe is actually a very humble person</EM>.<BR> + </LI> + </UL> +</DIV> +<H3 align="justify"> 9.1.4 Phonotactically-Induced Syntactic Modifications </H3> +<P align="justify">As mentioned above, word-order can shift in an Ithkuil sentence + to accommodate phonotactic or phonaesthetic ends, i.e., for purposes of euphony. + This is because suffixes on a formative, as well as morphemes associated with + categories of Bias and Mood, can be transformed into autonomous adjuncts (see + <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o3">Secs. 8.3</A>, <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o4">8.4</A> + and <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o6o2">8.6.2</A>). As + was described in <A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o5">Sec. 1.4.5</A>, words + of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, therefore any formative + with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having several of its morphemes + redistributed to adjuncts. As an example, the word <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">umreiquçî<IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18" align="absmiddle">îmšën</FONT></STRONG> + ‘series of bombs’ can separate out two of its four suffixes into + a separate word <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>çu’’î<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18" align="absmiddle"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> + to give the form <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>çu’’î<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18" align="absmiddle"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>umreiqîmšën</STRONG></FONT> + whose morphological structure is <IMG src="assets/9-1-4.gif" width="331" height="21" align="absmiddle">.</P> +<P align="justify">When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is + important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they + apply. Generally, this means that they will be adjacent to the formative, or + occur on either side of other adjuncts associated with the formative.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 9.1.5 Iconicity </H3> +<P align="justify">English and other languages generally display phrase-structure + patterns and word-order patterns which reinforce, or even reflect, a cognitive + understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves + reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon + is known as <STRONG>iconicity</STRONG>. In English and other Western languages, + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What + is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + with the following pair of sentences.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">1) <EM>Jane got married and had a baby.</EM><BR> + 2) <EM>Jane had a baby and got married.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two + sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.</P> +<P align="justify">Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of + word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference + in meaning between the following two sentences:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">3) <EM>Sam painted the fence white.</EM><BR> + 4) <EM>Sam painted the white fence.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">In the first sentence, we do not know what color the fence + was prior to being painted, or even if it was a new fence that had never been + painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence + had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not + necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.</P> +<P align="justify">Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing + the following two sentences.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">5) <EM>Loretta gave Sue a wedding gift.</EM><BR> + 6) <EM>Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that + the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. + The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary + or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended + recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + a wedding gift <EM>to Sue</EM>, but that does not mean she would <EM>give Sue</EM> + a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.</P> +<P align="justify">Ithkuil does not display iconicity. While the order of words + in an Ithkuil phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative + sequence of events, this is not by syntactic design. Because of the myriad means + available in Ithkuil to morphologically distinguish sequence, cause-and-effect, + resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, + no iconicity patterns are required.</P> +<P align="justify">For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + a sequencing function. In <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm#Sec7o7o3">Sections + 7.7.3</A> and <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm#Sec7o7o4">7.7.4</A>, we saw + that Ithkuil has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each + with nine different degrees) which convey various coordinative and sequencing + patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ithkuil has no morpheme directly equivalent + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., ‘I clenched my fists and scowled’), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., ‘The + clown likes children and loves to eat’), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., ‘We went dancing and so did + they’), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., ‘I + went to the window and looked out’).</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>9.2 SEMANTIC FOCUS AND PRAGMATIC RELATIONS<A name="Sec9o2"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">We first discussed semantic focus in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Section + 3.5</A>, describing it as a means to distinguish new from background information + in a sentence. In languages like English, such distinctions are generally accomplished + syntactically by means of word order, as illustrated by the distinction between + <EM>The clown selected a redheaded girl from the audience</EM> versus <EM>It + was a redheaded girl the clown selected from the audience</EM>. Because semantic + focus (along with optional topicalization) is shown morphologically (with affixes) + in Ithkuil, word order changes are not necessary to distinguish new from background + information in a sentence. Comparison between the word-order based system of + English and the morphology based system of Ithkuil is analyzed in Sec. 9.2.1 + below. Additionally, while Ithkuil’s system for indicating topics and + semantic focus does not require changes in word order <EM>per se</EM>, it does + allow for significant word deletion, creating abbreviated sentences which, in + effect, modify the default word order of a sentence. Such word deletion is analyzed + in <A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm#Sec9o2o2">Sec. 9.2.2</A>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 9.2.1 Using Focus and Sequencing Affixes in Lieu of Word-Order Changes</H3> +<P align="justify">Focus, in conjunction with the sequencing affixes described + in <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm#Sec7o7o3">Sec. 7.7.3</A>, can be used + to subtle effect in Ithkuil, providing semantic nuance. For example, compare + the following English sentences:</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <UL> + <LI><EM>After I shopped, I went home.</EM></LI> + <LI><EM> I went home after I shopped.</EM></LI> + <LI><EM> I shopped before I went home.</EM></LI> + <LI><EM>Before I went home, I shopped.</EM></LI> + </UL> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">All four sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, + then going home. The difference between them is one of focus and viewpoint. + In the first two sentences, going home has semantic focus, as that is the new + information being conveyed, while in the latter two sentences it is shopping + that has focus. The first and third sentence have a “prospective” + viewpoint in that the sentence conveys the events in the same sequence in which + they occurred, looking upon the events from the viewpoint of the one that occurred + first. However, the second and fourth sentences have a “retrospective” + viewpoint, conveying the two events in a reverse order from how they occurred, + looking back on the events from the viewpoint of the event which occurred last.</P> +<P align="justify">In Ithkuil, the distinction in focus and viewpoint in these + four sentences would be accomplished morphologically, not syntactically. Positive + Focus would be used to identify those parts of the sentence which present new + information, while the two viewpoints would be accomplished using the aforementioned + sequencing suffixes.<STRONG><FONT color="#FF0000"></FONT></STRONG><BR> +</P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<H3 align="justify">9.2.2 Abbreviated Sentences Using Focus and Topicalization<A name="Sec9o2o2"></A></H3> +<P align="justify">Focus and topicalization allow Ithkuil, as with other languages, + to provide abbreviated sentences in direct answer to commands, the equivalent + of questions (see <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o1o6">Sec. 5.1.6</A>), + or to comment on a topic already under discussion. Because the topic is already + known within the contextual discourse, only the portion of the new sentence + carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the <A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o13">topicalization + suffix</A> in conjunction with the <FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#5o1o6">INTERROGATIVE</A></FONT> + illocution affix, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’</P> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="99%" height="23" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="19"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>9.3 MORPHO-SEMANTIC CONSIDERATIONS<A name="Sec9o3"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">It should be noted that when structuring an Ithkuil sentence, + particularly when translating from other languages such as English, care must + be given to avoid capturing irrelevant semantic information reflected by the + morphology of the source language and trying to find an equivalent or parallel + way to reflect those irrelevancies in the Ithkuil sentence. This can have a + profound effect on the morpho-syntactical structure of the resulting Ithkuil + sentence.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<H3 align="justify">9.3.1 Arbitrary Delineations of Perspective or Point of View</H3> +<P align="justify">One area where word-choice in English and other Western languages + arbitrarily affects sentence structure is in the unintentional schematicization + of a particular perspective or point of view. For example, consider the following + pair of sentences in English.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">1) <EM>The path climbs steeply out of the canyon.</EM><BR> + 2) <EM>That path descends steeply into the canyon.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Both of these sentences are describing the same property of + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied + point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) + the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, + semantically, the point of view is of no relevance to the steepness of the path + <EM>per se</EM>. So if the cognitive intent of the utterance is simply to describe + the vertical gradient of the path within the canyon, there would be only one + Ithkuil translation for both of these sentences, eschewing the point of view + entirely and restating the sentence to read: </P> +<DIV align="justify"> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/9-3a.gif" width="443" height="108"> + <BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-9-1.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-9-1.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<H3 align="justify">9.3.2 Masking of Semantic or Participatory Roles</H3> +<P align="justify">Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ithkuil sentence + structure with other languages, to note that Ithkuil grammar allows for a more + overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ithkuil. For example, + compare the following pairs of sentences.</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="4%"> </TD> + <TD width="50%">3a) <EM>He supplied a report to the analyst.</EM></TD> + <TD width="46%">4a) <EM>She applied a solvent to the stain.</EM></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD> </TD> + <TD>3b) <EM>He supplied the analyst a report.</EM></TD> + <TD>4b) <EM>*She applied the stain a solvent.</EM></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are + identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated + by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + a report. In Ithkuil, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings + of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) + and (4b) do not occur.</P> +<P align="justify">Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s + relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, + <EM>He’s a tall president</EM> means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t <EM>He’s a likely president</EM> + mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ithkuil translations are + quite different from one another morpho-syntactically: <BR> +</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P><IMG src="assets/9-3b.gif" width="520" height="112"><BR> + [literally: <EM>There is much height to him who formally presides</EM>.]<FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-9-2.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF"> + _______</FONT>Listen!</A> <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-9-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT></P> + <P></P> + <P><IMG src="assets/9-3c.gif" width="322" height="102"><BR> + [literally: <EM>He is one who probably will begin to formally preside</EM>.] + </P> + <P> </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<H3>9.3.3 Negation</H3> +<P align="justify">Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation + from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English + sentence <EM>Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking</EM>. Note this + sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components + of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes + from <A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o9">Sec. 7.7.9</A> (<IMG src="assets/9-3d.gif" width="154" height="25" align="absmiddle">) + in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what + morphological components of a sentence are being affirmed or negated and to + what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ithkuil can distinguish between + the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><EM>I don’t want to begin singing.</EM></P> + <P align="justify"><EM>I’m beginning to not want to sing.</EM></P> + <P align="justify"><EM>I want to not begin singing.</EM></P> + <P align="justify"><EM>I’m beginning to want to not sing.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Thus when translating negative sentences into Ithkuil, care + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with + <EM>Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking</EM>. Additionally, Ithkuil + makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference + between <STRONG>absolute negation</STRONG> and <STRONG>relative negation</STRONG>. + Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, + state, or event is due to contextual inapplicability, while relative negation + indicates that the non-existence or non-occurrence is circumstantial. This distinction + is illustrated in the two sentences below:</P> +<P><BR> + <IMG src="assets/9-3e.gif" width="340" height="27"><BR> + <EM>The girl doesn’t sing</EM> [because she can’t, i.e., she is + mute].</P> +<P><BR> + .<IMG src="assets/9-3f.gif" width="338" height="26"><BR> + <EM>The girl doesn’t sing </EM>[even though she can, i.e., she chooses + not to].</P> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>9.4 THE “CARRIER” + ROOT</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec9o4"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">Since the Ithkuil declensional and conjugational system is + based on predictable multi-level patterns of consonant and vowel mutation, proper + nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ithkuil words from other + languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. + Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ithkuil + formative by means of the “carrier” root <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k-r</STRONG></FONT>. + In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts + as well, as described below.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 9.4.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated</H3> +<P align="justify">The six primary stems of the carrier root (<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kar, + kur, kir</FONT></STRONG> and their Form II counterparts <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kâr, + kûr, kîr</STRONG></FONT>) are respectively associated with animate + beings (the two complementary derivatives being humans versus non-humans or + figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary + derivatives being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such + as thoughts, emotions, sensations, etc.); and finally intangible abstract referents + (the two complementary derivatives being place names and abstractions). The + carrier stem is placed immediately before the proper noun or foreign word or + phrase, then declined or conjugated normally for any desired morphological categories, + even verbal categories. The proper noun or foreign word or phrase itself is + left unchanged. <BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + +</DIV> +<H3 align="justify">9.4.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category</H3> +<P align="justify">Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize + a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, + in English we can say ‘a <EM>big</EM> house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in Ithkuil, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves + to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by + a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. + (It should be noted that the use of optional combination and euphonic adjuncts + do not accomplish such emphasis. Their use versus non-use imparts no difference + in emphasis for the particular morphological categories contained in the adjunct.) +</P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<H3 align="justify">9.4.3 Titles of Address</H3> +<P align="justify">It should be noted that the use of the carrier root in front + of the names of persons serves to function as a title of address corresponding + to English <EM>Mister</EM>, Ms. or <EM>Miss</EM>. There is no distinction of + gender or marital status conveyed by the term. </P> +<P align="right"> </P> +<P align="right"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed + to Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics >></FONT></STRONG></A> </P> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<BR> +<FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author +and this website. </FONT> + + +</BODY></HTML>
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