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diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_4.html.orig b/2004-en/Chapter_4.html.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..23cf3d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_4.html.orig @@ -0,0 +1,2260 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title>Chapter 4</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +.style2 { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; + font-weight: bold; + color: #999999; +} +.style3 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; font-size: small; color: #0000FF; } +.style5 {color: #000000; font-weight: bold;} +.style6 {font-size: small} +.style7 { + font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style8 {font-weight: bold; font-size: small; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;} +.style9 {font-size: large} +.style11 {font-size: large; font-weight: bold; } +.style12 { + font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-size: small; +} +.style13 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif} +.style15 {font-weight: bold; font-size: small; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: #FF0000; } +.style16 {font-size: xx-small} +.style17 {font-size: x-small} +.style18 {color: #0000FF} +.style21 { + color: #FF0000; + font-weight: bold; +} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> +<h2 align="center" class="style2">Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</h2> +<table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="22%" rowspan="7"><div align="center"><span class="style2"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></span></div></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="24%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="31%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><span class="style8"><a href="http://www.ithkuil.net">Home</a></span></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style8">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style8">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><span class="style8"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></span></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style8">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style8">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style8">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style8">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style8">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style8">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style8">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style8">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style8">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style8">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style8">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<h2 align="center" class="style5">Chapter 4: Case Morphology</h2> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="25%"> </td> + <td width="31%"><a href="#Sec4o1">4.1 Semantic Role versus Positional Slot </a> </td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="35%"><a href="#Sec4o5">4.5 The Associative Cases </a> </td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec4o2">4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for Case </a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec4o6">4.6 The Temporal Cases </a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec4o3">4.3 The Transrelative Cases </a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec4o7">4.7 The Spatial Cases </a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec4o4">4.4 The Possessive Cases </a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the six categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ilaksh, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o2">Section +5.2</a>.</p> +<p align="justify">Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence <em>It was me she saw</em>, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence <em>Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann</em> (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).</p> +<p align="justify">The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions. </p> +<p align="justify">There are 96 cases in Ilaksh, 72 of which correspond to noun cases found in Ithkuil. The remaining 24 cases are new and serve very specialized functions associated with the verbal category called <strong>Level</strong>. These 24 specialized cases will be discussed separately in <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o8">Section 5.8</a> on Level. <br /> +</p> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> + <tr> + <td><p align="center"><strong>NOTE TO READERS FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL</strong></p> + <p align="justify">For those readers familiar with the case morphology of Ithkuil, the 81 noun cases of that language have been consolidated to 72 cases in Ilaksh. Nine Ithkuil cases have either been eliminated or consolidated with other cases in Ilaksh; specifically:</p> + <ul> + <li>The <font size="-1">INHERENT </font> case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the<font size="-1"> CORRELATIVE</font> case. </li> + <li>The <font size="-1">ADVERSATIVE</font> case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the <font size="-1">CONTRASTIVE</font> case. </li> + <li>The <font size="-1">SUPPOSITIVE</font> case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the <font size="-1">POSTULATIVE</font> case. </li> + <li>The <font size="-1">INTEGRAL</font> case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the <font size="-1">ORIGINATIVE</font> case. </li> + <li>The <font size="-1">POSITIONAL</font> case of Ithkuil has been eliminated and its function merged with the <font size="-1">CORRELATIVE</font> case. </li> + </ul> + <p align="justify">Additionally the <font size="-1">PROLATIVE</font>, <font size="-1">PERLATIVE</font>, <font size="-1">PERVASIVE</font>, and <font size="-1">PERIPHERAL</font> cases of Ithkuil have been eliminated; their functions are performed in Ilaksh via verbal formatives just like other spatial concepts (see <a href="Chapter_10.html#Sec10o4">Section 10.4</a>). </p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><a name="Sec4o1" id="Sec4o1"></a><font size="4"><strong>4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">(1a) <em>John opened the door with the key.</em><br /> + (1b) <em>The key opened the door.</em><br /> + (1c) <em>The wind opened the door.</em><br /> + (1d) <em>The door opened.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, <em>John</em>, <em>the key</em>, <em>the wind</em>, and <em>the door</em>. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <a name="Sec4o1o1" id="Sec4o1o1"></a>4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role</h3> +<p align="justify">The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ilaksh, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ilaksh noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ilaksh grammar.</p> +<p align="justify">The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ilaksh. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>AGENT</strong>: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>FORCE</strong>: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>INSTRUMENT</strong>: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>PATIENT</strong>: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <a name="Sec4o1o2" id="Sec4o1o2"></a> 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles</h3> +<p align="justify">Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ilaksh as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">(2a) <em>Mary hits the children.</em><br /> + (2b) <em>Mary entertains the children.</em><br /> + (2c) <em>Mary sees the children.</em><br /> + (2d) <em>Mary tells the children a story.</em><br /> + (2e) <em>Mary wants children.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object. </p> +<p align="justify">In Sentence (2b)<em> </em>however, <em>Mary entertains the + children</em>, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).</p> +<p align="justify">This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) <em>Mary sees the children</em>, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.</p> +<p align="justify">In Sentence (2d) <em>Mary tells the children a story</em>, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.</p> +<p align="justify">The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) <em>Mary wants children</em>, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE<a name="Sec4o2" id="Sec4o2"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Case is shown in different ways in Ilaksh depending on + whether the case is being shown in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in <a href="Chapter_8.html#Sec8o1">Section + 8.1</a>). For nouns, case is shown by vocalic mutation of + the stem-vowel <strong>V<span class="style6">r</span></strong>. + The permutations of the ninety-six series of vocalic mutation correspond + to the 96 cases. The particular mutational patterns are given in the sections + below as each case is described. </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>((V<span class="style17">L</span>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style17">i</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style17">c</span></strong> </div></td> + <td width="90" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style17">x</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style17">p</span>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style17">m</span>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style17">r</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style21">V<span class="style17">r</span></div></td> + <td width="77" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style17">a</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<span class="style17">x</span>C)</strong></div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<span class="style17">F</span></strong><strong> </strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style17">b</span>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="99" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> + Case markers for personal reference adjuncts + will be shown later in <a href="Chapter_8.html#Sec8o1">Section +8.1</a>.</p> +<p align="justify">We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” +and “objects” in Western languages.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES<a name="Sec4o3" id="Sec4o3"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in <a href="#Sec4o1">Sec. + 4.1</a> above. The eleven transrelative cases are the <font size="2">OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, </font>and<font size="2"> SITUATIVE</font>. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples +of these cases in use are provided in <a href="#Sec4o3o12">Section 4.3.12</a>.<br /> +<br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OBL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Oblique Case<a name="Sec4o3o1" id="Sec4o3o1"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">OBLIQUE</font> case is marked by Series + 1 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). As described above in Section 4.1.2, the <font size="2">OBLIQUE</font> identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as <em>Sam gave me <strong>a book</strong>, The + child likes <strong>cereal</strong></em>. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences <em><strong>That boy</strong> is blind</em> or <em><strong>The house</strong> was built of wood</em>. The <font size="2">OBLIQUE</font>, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary). </p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IND</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inducive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INDUCIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 2 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">INDUCIVE</font> identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as <em><strong>The boy</strong> jumped, <strong>He</strong> sang, <strong>The dog</strong> barked all night, </em>or<em> <strong>She</strong> danced to the music</em>, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="52%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ABS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Absolutive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 3 mutation of the stem vowel (<a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">see Section 2.5</a>). As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the <font size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</font> identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the <font size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</font> would be <em>The boy hit <strong>the girl</strong>, + She forced <strong>him</strong> to do it, <strong>The bird</strong> fell from + the sky, <strong>The prisoner</strong> died during the gun battle</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ERG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Ergative Case<a name="Sec4o3o4" id="Sec4o3o4"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ERGATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 4 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ERGATIVE</font> identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in <a href="#Sec4o1o1">Section 4.1.1</a>. + Note that sentences involving an <font size="2">ERGATIVE</font> agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the <font size="2">ERGATIVE</font> would be <em><strong>The bo</strong>y + hit the girl, <strong>She</strong> forced him to do it, <strong>That murderer</strong> kills for fun</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EFF</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Effectuative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 5 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</font> identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in <a href="Sec4o1o2">Section + 4.1.2</a> above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the <font size="2">ERGATIVE</font> case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas <font size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</font> nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ilaksh translation of the sentence <em>The clown emptied the blood from the + tub</em>, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the <font size="2">ERGATIVE</font> case, or as an ENABLER using the <font size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</font> case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ilaksh to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ilaksh verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’</p> +<p align="justify">Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the <a href="Chapter_7.html#ENBaffix"><span class="style7">ENB</span></a> affix + -<strong>V<font size="1">1</font><span class="style9"><font color="#FFFFFF">.</font>ls</span></strong> to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>AFF</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Affective Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">AFFECTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 6 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">AFFECTIVE</font> denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in <a href="#Sec4o1o2">Section + 4.1.2</a>, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc. </p> +<p align="justify">Example sentences requiring the use of the <font size="2">AFFECTIVE</font> case would be <em><strong>The baby</strong> is coughing, The lightning startled <strong>her</strong>, <strong>Mortimer</strong> loves his vittles, <strong>Uncle + Davey</strong> slept till noon, My back itches <strong>me</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify">Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the <font size="2">INDUCIVE</font> case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence <em><strong>The children </strong>smiled with glee</em> (marked using the <font size="2">AFFECTIVE</font>) + with <em><strong>The children</strong> smiled on cue</em> (marked using the <font size="2">INDUCIVE</font>).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DAT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Dative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DATIVE</font> case is marked by Series 7 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">DATIVE</font> has two functions in Ilaksh. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in <a href="#Sec4o1o2">Section + 4.1.2</a> above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ilaksh + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as <em>We're giving <strong>you</strong> a present, Jason lent a dollar <strong>to his sister</strong>, Please grant <strong>me</strong> a wish, <strong>The + student</strong> has three books, <strong>Those mountains</strong> have a mysterious + quality</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>INS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Instrumental Case<a name="Sec4o3o8" id="Sec4o3o8"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"> The <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> case is marked by Series + 8 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). As described previously in <a href="#Sec4o1o1">Section 4.1.1</a>, + the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be <em>She killed him <strong>with a knife</strong>, The man + tripped over <strong>my foot</strong>, <strong>The password</strong> got him + inside</em>. The <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare <em>I pressed the button <strong>with + my finger</strong></em> with <em><strong>My finger</strong> pressed the button</em>, + both of which would be identical in Ilaksh except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, <em>I</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">Note that the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> case below in <a href="#Sec4o5o20">Sec. + 4.5.20</a>) as in <em>She arrived with her father</em>. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence <em>He cooks with tomatoes</em> (see the <font size="2">COMPOSITIVE</font> case in <a href="#Sec4o5o3">Sec. 4.5.3</a>), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> would not be used, + whereas in <em>He fueled the fire with wood</em> it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requiring the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> case.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ACT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Activative Case<a name="Sec4o3o9" id="Sec4o3o9"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 9 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence <em>Frank must go to Chicago</em>, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence <em>Mother needs to rest</em>, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences <em>The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay</em>. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as <em>want, need, can, must</em>, etc. </p> +<p align="justify">Notice that the subject of these English sentences (<em>Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe</em>) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence <em>Sam wants Shirley + to love him</em>, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the <font size="2">AFFECTIVE</font> case. Consequently, + Ilaksh uses the <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., F<em>rank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe</em>) would be so marked. + In <a href="Chapter_6.html#Sec6o1">Section 6.1 </a> we will see how the <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.10</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DER</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Derivative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 10 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> serves two functions + in Ilaksh. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in <a href="#Sec4o1o1">Sec. 4.1.1</a>) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in <em><strong>The wind</strong> blew down the door, </em>or<em> <strong>Fame</strong> threatened his freedom</em>. + The use of the <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> instead of the <font size="2">ERGATIVE</font> or the <font size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</font> denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., <em>the danger <strong>of fame</strong>, <strong>love’s</strong> heartache, <strong>wind</strong> song</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">The second function of the <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in <em>T<strong>he coffee</strong> smells good, I saw <strong>her</strong> today, + She hates <strong>that boy</strong>, Victor coughed <strong>from the gas</strong>, + We laughed at <strong>his jokes</strong>, <strong>That song </strong>makes me + cry</em>. Ilaksh grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> case serves to indicate both functions. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><font size="4"><strong>4.3.11</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>SIT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Situative Case<a name="Sec4o3o11" id="Sec4o3o11"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">SITUATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 11 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">SITUATIVE</font> identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em><strong>Because of war</strong>, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.<br /> + <strong>Given the presence of clowns</strong>, we must accept the corruption + of our children.<br /> + <strong>Using my plan</strong>, we will defeat the enemy.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use<a name="Sec4o3o12" id="Sec4o3o12"></a></h3> +<blockquote> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Açn</font></strong><font size="+1"><strong>ăt ukšüŭl xmè-ëla utaluëéx.</strong></font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font><span class="style13"><a href="sound_files/4-3-12a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-12a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="audio" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font>-‘<span class="style13">give</span>’-<font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/U/CSL/UNI + FML</font>-‘<span class="style13">clown</span>’-<font size="-1"><strong><font color="#FF0000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IND</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font color="#FF0000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong> </strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + IFL</font></font>-‘<span class="style13">mother</span>’-<font size="-1"><strong><font color="#FF0000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DAT<br /> + </font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font></font>-‘<span class="style13">written document</span>’-<font size="-1"><strong><font color="#FF0000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OBL</font></strong>-<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ<font size="-2">2</font>/6</font></font><br /> + <em>The clown gave mother a note.</em><br /> + <br /> + <font size="+1"><strong>Pšùlk gmìel </strong>ŧŧ<strong>öàläč.</strong></font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font><span class="style13"><a href="sound_files/4-3-12b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-12b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="audio" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font>-‘<span class="style13">cough</span>’-<font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRX/M/CSL/DCT IFL</font>-‘<span class="style13">child</span>’-<font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FF0000">AFF</font></strong>-DEL/M/CSL/UNI IFL</font>-‘<span class="style13">odor</span>’-<font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FF0000">DER</font></strong>-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-QUA<font size="-2">1</font>/3</font><br /> + <em>The child is coughing due to the awful smell.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Duňštëmsirxūiç přĕurn uk<strong>š</strong>ŭilërz dà-it.</font></strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font><span class="style13"><a href="sound_files/4-3-12c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-12c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="audio" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘translative motion’-<font size="-1">PRX/U/ASO/COH</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">-AGN<font size="-2">2</font>/1</font></font><font size="-1">-BOD<font size="-2">1</font>/1-FRC<font size="-2">2</font>/9</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘anger-based use of force ’-<font size="-1"><strong><font color="#FF0000">ERG</font></strong>-DEL/M/AGG/VAR</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘clown’-<strong><font color="#FF0000" size="-1">ABS</font></strong>-<font size="-1">IMP<font size="-2">2</font>/1</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘a stone’<font size="-1">-<font color="#FF0000"><strong>INS</strong></font>-DEL/U/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>The angry mob stoned the helpless clown to death.</em><br /> +(Literally: <em>trajected-by.hand-with.maximum.force-to.maximum.effect semi.cohesive.group.-affected.by.anger-acting.as.agent clown-as.helpless.target with-stones)</em></p> + <p align="justify"><br /> + Stems/Roots for above examples:</p> + <p align="left"><strong>çnă</strong><strong>- </strong>‘give’ < <strong>nă</strong><strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">TRANSFER OF POSSESSION</span>’ <br /> + <strong>ukšŭ</strong>- ‘clown’ <<strong><strong>kšŭ</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">FOOL/BUFFOON</span>’ <br /> + <strong>àxme(la)-</strong> ‘mother’, <strong>gm<font size="+1"><strong>è</strong></font></strong>- ‘child’ < <strong>km<font size="+1"><strong>è-</strong></font> </strong>‘<span class="style6">FAMILY MEMBER’</span> <br /> + <strong>utá</strong>- ‘written document ’ <<strong><strong> tá</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD</span>’<br /> + <strong><strong>pšù</strong>- </strong>‘cough’ < <strong><strong>pšù</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM</span>’ <br /> + ŧŧ<strong>à</strong>- ‘odor’ < ŧ<strong>à</strong><strong>-</strong> ‘<span class="style6">SMELL/ODOR</span>’<br /> + <strong>dū-</strong> ‘translative motion ’ < <strong>dū</strong>- ‘<span class="style6">TRANSLATIVE MOTION</span>’ <br /> + <strong>dì</strong>- ‘a stone ’ < <strong>dì</strong><strong>-</strong> ‘<span class="style6">ROCK/MINERAL-BASED FIRMAMENT/GROUND </span>’<br /> + <strong>přĕ</strong>- ‘anger-based use of force’ < <strong>přĕ</strong><font size="+1"><strong>- </strong></font>‘<span class="style6">CONFLICT/ANGER-BASED USE OF FORCE </span>’<br /> + <br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<h3> 4.3.13 Specialized Suffixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases</h3> +<p>It should be noted that Ilaksh provides an array of suffixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ilaksh sentence. These suffixes + include the Consent <span class="style7">CNS</span> suffix, the Reason <span class="style7">RSN</span> suffix, the Expectation <span class="style7">XPT</span> suffix, the Deliberateness <span class="style7">DLB</span> suffix, the Enablement <span class="style7">ENB</span> suffix, the Agency/Intent <span class="style7">AGN</span> suffix, and the Impact <span class="style7">IMP</span> suffix. These affixes are detailed in <a href="Chapter_7.html#Sec7o4o12">Section + 7.4.12</a> and discussed further in <a href="Chapter_10.html#Sec10o1o2">Section + 10.1.2</a>.</p> +<p> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>4.4 THE POSESSIVE CASES<a name="Sec4o4" id="Sec4o4"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences: </p> +<blockquote> + <p> <em>the man’s hat</em> = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]<br /> + <em>the man’s house</em> = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]<br /> + <em>the man’s arm</em> = part of his body [inalienable component]<br /> + <em>the man’s brother</em> = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]<br /> + <em>the man’s happiness</em> = he feels happy [affective experience]<br /> + <em>the man’s rescue</em> = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]<br /> + <em>the man’s gift</em> = the gift is for him [benefaction]<br /> + <em>the man’s gift</em> = the gift is from him [source]<br /> + <em>the man’s world</em> = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]<br /> + <em>the man’s team</em> = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]<br /> + <em>the man’s story</em> = the story about him [topical reference]<br /> + <em>the man’s painting</em> = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]<br /> + <em>the man’s command</em> = his being a commander [role or function]</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ilaksh is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Possessive cases. </p> +<p align="justify">The Possessive cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the <font size="2">POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE</font>, <font size="2">INTERPRETATIVE, </font>and <font size="2">ORIGINATIVE</font>. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh + examples of the cases in use are given in <a href="#Sec4o4o8">Sec. 4.4.8</a>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><font size="4"><strong>4.4.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>POS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Possessive Case<a name="Sec4o4o1" id="Sec4o4o1"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">POSSESSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 12 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">POSSESSIVE</font> is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as <em><strong>his</strong> coat</em> (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), <em><strong>the + boy’s</strong> book</em> (e.g., the one in his hand), <em><strong>Father’s</strong> chair</em> (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant). </p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><font size="4"><strong>4.4.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Proprietive Case<a name="Sec4o4o2" id="Sec4o4o2"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROPRIETIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 13 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PROPRIETIVE</font> identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the <font size="2">POSSESSIVE</font> above, we can analyze the connotative difference: <em><strong>his</strong> coat</em> (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), <em><strong>the boy’s</strong> book</em> (e.g., + the one he bought), <em><strong>Father’s</strong> chair</em> (e.g., the + one assigned to him). </p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><font size="4"><strong>4.4.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>GEN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Genitive Case<a name="Sec4o4o3" id="Sec4o4o3"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">GENITIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 14 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">GENITIVE</font> is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., <em><strong>my</strong> hand, <strong>the building’s</strong> doors, <strong>the child’s</strong> father, the essence <strong>of that + woman</strong></em>. </p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><font size="4"><strong>4.4.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ATT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Attributive Case<a name="Sec4o4o4" id="Sec4o4o4"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ATTRIBUTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 15 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ATTRIBUTIVE</font> is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the <font size="2">AFFECTIVE</font> case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: <em><strong>his</strong> pain, <strong>Mother’s</strong> guilt, <strong>the + child’s</strong> cough, <strong>Dorothy’s</strong> mood, <strong>Davey’s</strong> happiness, <strong>the teacher’s</strong> stubbornness, <strong>my</strong> needs</em>. </p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><font size="4"><strong>4.4.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PDC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Productive Case<a name="Sec4o4o5" id="Sec4o4o5"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PRODUCTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 16 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PRODUCTIVE</font> identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g.,<em> <strong>the girl’s</strong> poem, <strong>the clowns’ </strong>plan, <strong>my</strong> statue</em> (i.e., the one I sculpted). </p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>4.4.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="5%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="66%"><font size="4"><strong>The Interpretative Case<a name="Sec4o4o6" id="Sec4o4o6"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTERPRETATIVE</font> case is marked by + Series 17 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">INTERPRETATIVE</font> identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases <em><strong>Monet’s</strong> Paris</em>, <em><strong>our</strong> world, life <strong>as seen by children</strong></em>. </p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="10%"><font size="4"><strong>4.4.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OGN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="2%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="77%"><font size="4"><strong>The Originative Case<a name="Sec4o4o5" id="Sec4o4o5"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ORIGINATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 18 vocalic mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ORIGINATIVE</font> identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another<font color="#000000">, or which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. </font>, e.g., <em><strong>the man’s</strong> story</em> (i.e., the one he told), <em><strong>our</strong> gift</em> (i.e., + the one we are giving), <em>water <strong>from the river</strong>, the fruit <strong>of the tree</strong></em>, <font color="#000000"><em>Fix the <strong>kitchen</strong> sink!</em> (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), <em><strong>Desert</strong> rocks are so + beautiful</em> (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), <em><strong>Northern</strong> women are +easy-going</em>.</font></p> +<p><font color="#000000"> <font size="2">The ORIGINATIVE</font> + should be distinguished from the <font size="2">ABLATIVE</font> in <a href="#Sec4o7o5">Section 4.7.5</a> below, in that + the <font size="2">ABLATIVE</font> position or path of motion away from, + whereas the <font size="2">ORIGINATIVE </font> merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar +noun. </font></p> +<h3><a name="Sec4o4o8" id="Sec4o4o8"></a><br /> + 4.4.8 Examples of Possessive Cases in Use +</h3> +<blockquote> + <p><span class="style13"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="audio" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a> </p> + <p><font size="+1">ŧ<strong>àmskäč akkà’ul</strong></font><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘gust of odor’-<font size="-1">OBL-PRX/M/SEG/UNI</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">QUA<font size="-2">1</font>/3</font></font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘woman’-<font color="#FF0000" size="-1"><strong>OGN</strong></font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘woman giving off a bad odor’</em> or + <em>‘bad odor coming from/off the woman’</em> + </p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">xxàl štuöl</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘thing seen’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OBL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘eagle’-<font color="#FF0000" size="-1"><strong>ATT</strong></font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘what the eagle sees</em><em>’</em> </p> +<p><strong><font size="+1">aptrēl ustūal</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘interior corner’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OBL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘room/chamber’-</font><font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>GEN</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘corner of a room</em><em>’</em> </p> +<p><strong><font size="+1">átalňa gmeäàl </font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘page of writing’-<font size="-1">OBL-DEL/M/SEG/COA</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘male child ’-<font color="#FF0000" size="-1"><strong>POS</strong></font>-</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘the boy's book</em><em>’</em> [i.e., the one he has in his immediate possession, not one he necessarily owns] <br /> + <br /> + <strong><font size="+1">uvażgă <strong> ukšë-üŭl</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘job/employment’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OBL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRX/M/CST/COA FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘clown’-</font><font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PRP</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘the clown's job</em><em>’</em></p> +<p align="left"><br /> +Stems/Roots for above examples:</p> +<p align="left">ŧ<strong><strong>à</strong></strong>- ‘gust of odor’ <strong>< </strong>ŧ<strong><strong>à-</strong> </strong>‘<span class="style6">SMELL/ODOR</span>’<strong> <br /> + kkà- </strong>‘woman’ < <strong>kà</strong><strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">PERSON</span>’<br /> + <strong>xxà-</strong> ‘something seen/a sight ’ < <strong>xà</strong><strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">VISION/SIGHT</span>’ <strong> </strong> <br /> + <strong>štu</strong>- ‘eagle’ <<strong><strong>š<strong>tu</strong></strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">EAGLE</span>’<br /> + <strong><strong>aptrē</strong>- </strong>‘interior corner ’ < <strong><strong><strong>prē</strong></strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">ANGULAR VERTEX/CORNER</span>’ <br /> + <strong>ustū-</strong> ‘room/chamber’ < <strong>stū</strong>- ‘<span class="style6">HOLDING AREA/ENCLOSURE</span>’<br /> + <strong>át</strong><strong>a(la)</strong>- ‘page of writing’ <<strong><strong> tá</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD</span>’<strong> <br /> + agm<font size="+1"><strong>è</strong></font></strong>- ‘male child’ < <strong>km<font size="+1"><strong>è-</strong></font> </strong>‘<span class="style6">FAMILY MEMBER’<br /> + </span><strong>uvă</strong>- ‘job/employment’ < <strong>vă</strong><strong>-</strong> ‘<span class="style6">EFFORT/LABOR</span>’ <strong> </strong> <br /> + <strong>ukšŭ</strong>- ‘clown’ <<strong><strong>kšŭ</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">FOOL/BUFFOON</span>’ </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +</blockquote> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>4.5 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES</strong></font><a name="Sec4o5" id="Sec4o5"></a></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The Associative cases refer to a large group of cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun or that it functions in an adverbial relationship to a verb. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in <em>cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man,</em> etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., <em>box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughte<font color="#000000">r</font></em><font color="#000000">, or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. </font>Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples + of the cases in use are given in <a href="#Sec4o5o34">Sec. 4.5.34 </a>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PAR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="8%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Partitive Case<a name="Sec4o5o1" id="Sec4o5o1"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PARTITIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 19 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). When used in conjunction with another noun, the <font size="2">PARTITIVE</font> indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., <em>a cup <strong>of coffee</strong>, a box(ful) <strong>of books</strong>, + a train(load) <strong>of refugees</strong></em>. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., <em>I ate <strong>some bread</strong>, Pour <strong>(some) water</strong> down my back</em>. </p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PARTITIVE</font> is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., <em>three <strong>boxes</strong>, + two <strong>clowns</strong>, twenty <strong>words</strong></em>. This usage + is analyzed in detail in <font color="#FF0000"><a href="Ch-12%20The%20Enumerative%20System.htm">Chapter + 12</a></font>, where we will see that, in Ilaksh, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.” </p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PARTITIVE</font> case is also used in constructing + words for Ilaksh numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in <font color="#FF0000"><a href="Ch-12%20The%20Enumerative%20System.htm">Chapter + 12</a> </font>on enumeration.</p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CRS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="8%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Contrastive Case<a name="Sec4o5o2" id="Sec4o5o2"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONTRASTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 20 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CONTRASTIVE</font> identifies a distinguishing + characteristic of another noun, i.e., that feature which distinguishes it from + other possible candidates within the given context. It would be used in translating + phrases such as <em>the <strong>green</strong> bottle</em> (e.g., as opposed + to the blue one); <em>the <strong>science</strong> text</em> (e.g., versus the + religious text); <em><strong>my</strong> statue</em> (i.e., a statue of me); <em>I want your recipe <strong>for stew</strong>, not <strong>soup</strong>; + Don’t worry, it’s a <strong>pet</strong> snake</em>.<font color="#000000"> It also serves to indicate a noun which + has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. + In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected + in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g.,<em> <strong>Instead + of rain</strong>, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, <strong>as opposed to +a maid</strong></em>.</font> That's sugar, <strong><em>not salt</em></strong>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CPS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Compositive Case<a name="Sec4o5o3" id="Sec4o5o3"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPOSITIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 21 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">COMPOSITIVE</font> identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be <em>That + statue was carved <strong>out of marble</strong>, She owns three <strong>gold(en) </strong>coins, We were caught in a web <strong>of lies</strong>, I use a <strong>wooden</strong> ladder, It was a house <strong>of cards</strong>, <strong>Three suits</strong> comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests <strong>styrofoam</strong> cups</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPOSITIVE</font> is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be <em>She likes to + cook <strong>with tomatoes</strong>, He reads b<strong>y candle(light)</strong>, + That child goes through <strong>four sets of clothes</strong> a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth <strong>with three chocolate bars</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRD</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="8%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Predicative Case<a name="Sec4o5o4" id="Sec4o5o4"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PREDICATIVE</font> case is marked by Series 22 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PREDICATIVE</font> identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are <em>a book <strong>dependent on a publisher</strong>, + a man <strong>relying on charity</strong>, laws <strong>based in reason</strong>, + Can success <strong>supported by murder</strong> be sustained?</em></p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PREDICATIVE</font> should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the <font size="2">DERIVATIVE</font> or <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font>, + in that the <font size="2">PREDICATIVE</font> does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate <em>anxiety based on terror</em>, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase <em>an attitude fueled by greed</em>, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>MED</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="8%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Mediative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MEDIATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 23 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">MEDIATIVE</font> indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as <em>a <strong>radio</strong> announcement, arrival <strong>by water</strong>, a <strong>letter</strong> bomb, <strong>air</strong> mail, achieving ecstasy <strong>through sex</strong>, I + showed her my love <strong>with chocolate</strong></em>. It should be distinguished + from the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence <em>Call him on the phone!</em>, + translating the phrase <em>on the phone</em> into the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the <font size="2">MEDIATIVE</font> case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’ </p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>APL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Applicative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">APPLICATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 24 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">APPLICATIVE</font> identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be <em>a cup for coffee</em> (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), <em>a box for tools</em> (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), <em>a room for changing.</em> Note that the use of the <font size="2">APPLICATIVE</font> can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in <em>a “weapon” + cat</em> = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or <em>a “projectile” + book</em> = ‘a book used as a projectile.’ </p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PUR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="8%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Purposive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PURPOSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 25 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PURPOSIVE</font> identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The <font size="2">PURPOSIVE</font> is subtly distinct from the <font size="2">APPLICATIVE</font> above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the <font size="2">PURPOSIVE</font> defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be <em>a <strong>coffee</strong> cup, a <strong>tool</strong>box, a <strong>litter</strong> box, a <strong>trash</strong>can. </em></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CSD</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="5%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="72%"><font size="4"><strong>The Considerative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONSIDERATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 26 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CONSIDERATIVE</font> identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be <em><strong>In my opinion</strong> he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town <strong>as per orders</strong> from the court; + You were arrested <strong>pursuant to law</strong>; <strong>According to our + teacher</strong>, humans are descended from apes</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ESS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="5%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="71%"><font size="4"><strong>The Essive Case<a name="Sec4o5o9" id="Sec4o5o9"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ESSIVE</font> case is marked by Series 27 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ESSIVE</font> identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences <em>They called him <strong>a clown</strong>, + The woman entered the club <strong>as an equal</strong> of any man, We consider + you our <strong>only hope</strong></em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.10</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASI</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="5%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="70%"><font size="4"><strong>The Assimilative Case<a name="Sec4o5o10" id="Sec4o5o10"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASSIMILATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 28 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ASSIMILATIVE</font> identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are <em>She sings <strong>like a bird</strong>, <strong>As children </strong>they + seemed to me</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="13%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.11</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FUN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="71%"><font size="4"><strong>The Functive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FUNCTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 29 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in <em>-ly</em> or the adverbial use of <em>with</em>, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: <em>She dances <strong>gracefully</strong> </em>(i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace),<em> The boys ate <strong>with gusto</strong>, That clown is speaking <strong>nonsense</strong>, Father speaks <strong>with such fortitude</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="13%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.12</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>TFM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="4%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="72%"><font size="4"><strong>The Transformative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">TRANSFORMATIVE</font> case is marked by + Series 30 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">TRANSFORMATIVE</font> identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be <em>The house burned <strong>to + ashes</strong>, The clown reached a state <strong>of tranquility</strong>, The + clowns will turn our children <strong>into slaves</strong>, Her father drank + himself <strong>to death</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.13</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>REF</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="4%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="73%"><font size="4"><strong>The Referential Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REFERENTIAL</font> case is marked by Series + 31 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">REFERENTIAL</font> identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be <em>a song <strong>of love</strong>; <strong>As for + those books</strong>, burn them!; Let’s talk <strong>about clowns</strong>; + His attitude <strong>toward women</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.14</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CLA</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="74%"><font size="4"><strong>The Classificative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</font> case is marked by + Series 32 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</font> identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are <em>Place them <strong>in groups of three</strong>, The workers arranged the + tables <strong>in rows</strong>, He lay down <strong>lengthwise</strong>, Can + you count <strong>by fives</strong>?, I will sort them <strong>by color</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</font> is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be <em><strong>Month by month</strong>, their departure + crept closer; <strong>Year after year</strong>, I see more and more clowns; <strong>Day in</strong>,<strong> day out</strong>, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, <strong>bag upon bag</strong>; <strong>Patient by patient</strong>, the nurse administered injections</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">Note that the <font size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</font> would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence <em>One bomb after another fell on the city</em>. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see <a href="Chapter_7.htmlSec7o4o4">Sec. + 7.4.4</a>).</p> +<p> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="10%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.15</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CNV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="4%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="77%"><font size="4"><strong>The Conductive Case<a name="Sec4o5o15" id="Sec4o5o15"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONDUCTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 33 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CONDUCTIVE</font> identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are <em>a <strong>circus</strong> clown, + a <strong>mountain</strong> man, a feeling <strong>of loneliness</strong>, the <strong>Mafia’s</strong> world, a realm <strong>of fear</strong>, my<strong> life</strong> achievement, <strong>childhood</strong> memories, Let’s + discuss the morality<strong> of war</strong></em>. </p> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<div align="justify"></div> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="10%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.16</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IDP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="4%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="77%"><font size="4"><strong>The Interdependent Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTERDEPENDENT</font> case is marked by + Series 34 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">INTERDEPENDENT</font> identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., <em>the<strong> students</strong>’ teacher, + an <strong>army</strong> general, the blood <strong>in my veins</strong>, the + driver <strong>of the truck</strong>, the nation’s leader, <strong>his</strong> team</em> (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the <font size="2">GENITIVE</font> case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate <em>the book’s pages</em>, + or <em>the leaves of a tree</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="62%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.17</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>BEN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="2%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="72%"><font size="4"><strong>The Benefactive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">BENEFACTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 35 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">BENEFACTIVE</font> identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the <font size="2">BENEFACTIVE</font> is similar to the <font size="2">DATIVE</font>, except that the <font size="2">BENEFACTIVE</font> implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are <em>a toy <strong>for the children</strong>, We threw <strong>him</strong> a party, Go to</em> <em>the <strong>teachers</strong>’ + lounge</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.18</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>TSP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="2%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="74%"><font size="4"><strong>The Transpositive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">TRANSPOSITIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 36 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">TRANSPOSITIVE</font> implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are <em>The boss made the speech <strong>for me</strong>, She went up into the attic <strong>for her brother</strong></em> (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.19</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CMM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="2%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="70%"><font size="4"><strong>The Commutative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMMUTATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 37 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">COMMUTATIVE</font> translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in <em>You + paid too much money <strong>for that dress</strong>, She kills <strong>for thrills</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="12%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.20</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>COM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="76%"><font size="4"><strong>The Comitative Case<a name="Sec4o5o20" id="Sec4o5o20"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 38 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in <em>The + child went <strong>with the clown </strong>to the party</em>. Like English ‘with,’ + the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence <em>My father was walking with + a loaf of bread</em>, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking. </p> +<p align="justify">It should be noted, however, that the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences <em>They danced + with each other</em> or <em>Mother wants to talk with you</em>. These would + be translated using the <font size="2">RECIPROCAL</font> valence of the verb, + explained in <a href="Chapter_6.html#Sec6o2">Section 6.2</a>. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated using the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font>, + the second would not: <em>This man fought with my father</em> (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus <em>This man fought with my father</em> (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).</p> +<p align="justify">Note also that the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as <em>I + cut the meat with a knife</em>. As previously discussed in <a href="#Sec4o3o8">Section + 4.3.8</a>, instrumentality is indicated by use of the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the <font size="2">COMPOSITIVE</font> case is used. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.21</strong></font></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CNJ</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="4%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="74%"><font size="4"><strong>The Conjunctive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 39 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</font> translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the <em>walking with + a loaf of bread</em> example from above, it would be incorrect to use the <font size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</font> case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence <em>I’m with the brigade</em>. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the <font size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</font> would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the <font size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</font> would be used are <em>They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.22</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>UTL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="4%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="72%"><font size="4"><strong>The Utilitative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UTILITATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 40 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">UTILITATIVE</font> identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in <em>A man <strong>with a gun</strong> ran into the room</em>. It should be distinguished from the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font> (see <a href="#Sec4o3o8">Sec. 4.3.8</a>) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the <font size="2">UTILITATIVE</font> identifies + a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence <em>The man <strong>with + an umbrella</strong> was pushing a stroller in the rain</em> (<font size="2">UTILITATIVE</font>) + with <em>The man pushed a stroller in the rain <strong>with an umbrella</strong></em> (<font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font>). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the <font size="2">UTILITATIVE</font> would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in <em>A <strong>gun-wielding</strong> man ran into the room</em> or <em>An <strong>umbrella-toting</strong> man pushed + a stroller in the rain</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">Besides the <font size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</font>, the <font size="2">UTILITATIVE</font> should likewise be distinguished from the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> case + above, in that the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> merely indicates accompaniment, + while the <font size="2">UTILITATIVE</font> indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence <em>Go sit next to the girl <strong>with the book</strong></em>, + if translated using the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font> would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the <font size="2">UTILITATIVE</font> it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.23</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ABE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Abessive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ABESSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 41 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ABESSIVE</font> is essentially the opposite + of the <font size="2">COMITATIVE</font>, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in <em>a day <strong>without rain</strong></em> or <em>a <strong>treeless</strong> plain</em>. As noted in the next section below on the <font size="2">CONVERSIVE</font> case, it is <strong>not</strong> used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in <em>I can’t go on without love</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.24</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CVS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Conversive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONVERSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 42 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CONVERSIVE</font> is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual <font size="2">ABESSIVE</font> usage in Sec. + 4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: <em><strong>Without peace</strong>, this society is doomed; <strong>If not for the rain</strong>, we would have had a good time</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.25</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>COR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="8%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Correlative Case<a name="Sec4o5o25" id="Sec4o5o25"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><font color="#000000">The <font size="2">CORRELATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 43 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CORRELATIVE</font> is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as <em><strong>career</strong> goals, the soup o<strong>f the day</strong>, the direction o<strong>f that road</strong>, + The elapsed time <strong>relative to the distance </strong>determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex <strong>and (</strong></em>or<em><strong> in) art</strong></em> (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Additional examples are <em>years <strong>of wonder</strong>, + the <strong>Clown</strong> Planet, <strong>life</strong> blood, city <strong>of + evil</strong></em>. Note that the <font size="2">CORRELATIVE</font> case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., <em><strong>spatial</strong> coordinates, the <strong>political</strong> economy, a <strong>dangerous</strong> situation</em> (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger).</font></p> +<p align="justify">When used in contexts involving directional motion or spatial positioning is, + the <font size="2">CORRELATIVE</font> signifies the directional orientation or position of one + noun relative to another, i.e., <font color="#000000">a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ilaksh, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, this use of the <font size="2">CORRELATIVE</font> case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are <em>I’m standing four feet north <strong>of + the desk</strong>, The one hanging above <strong>the boxes</strong> looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle <strong>relative to the tree</strong></em></font>, <em>He turned his back <strong>on me</strong>, + The upstairs bedroom faces <strong>the yard</strong>, It’s alongside <strong>the + desk</strong></em> (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.26</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DEP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Dependent Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEPENDENT</font> case is marked by Series + 44 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">DEPENDENT</font> translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be <em><strong>Depending + on the rain</strong>, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, <strong>depending + on her attitude</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEPENDENT</font> should be distinguished + from the <font size="2">PREDICATIVE</font> case in <a href="#Sec4o5o4">Sec. + 4.5.4</a>, in that the former denotes contingency, while the <font size="2">PREDICATIVE</font> denotes reliance. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.27</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PVS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Provisional Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROVISIONAL</font> case is marked by Series + 45 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., <em><strong>Provided [there’s] food</strong>, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight <strong>only in case of war</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.28</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PTL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Postulative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">POSTULATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 46 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The operates somewhat similarly to the <font size="2">PROVISIONAL</font> above, except that the <font size="2">POSTULATIVE</font> implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in <em>I don’t know if it’s warm + enough</em>, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: <em><strong>If [there’s] snow</strong>, I’m not + going out; <strong>In case of fire</strong>, flee; <strong>If friend</strong>, + welcome them, <strong>if foe</strong>, kill ’em</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"><font color="#000000"> The example below is offered to further distinguish the use of the <font size="2">POSTULATIVE</font> case + from the <font size="2">PROVISIONAL</font> case above:</font></p> +<p align="justify"><font color="#000000" size="2">PROVISIONAL</font><font color="#000000">: <em>We’re packing + umbrellas, <strong>but only in case of bad weather</strong></em> (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).<br /> + <font size="2">POSTULATIVE</font>: <em>We’re packing umbrellas <strong>in + case of bad weather</strong></em> (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation +for the possibility of bad weather).</font><br /> +</p> +<p align="justify"><font color="#000000"><br /> +</font></p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="12%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.29</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DFR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="76%"><font size="4"><strong>The Deferential Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEFERENTIAL</font> case is marked by Series + 47 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">DEFERENTIAL</font> translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be <em>He remained silent <strong>for her sake</strong>, They went on with the + ceremony <strong>out of respect for the families</strong>, They dressed in robes <strong>because of tradition</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.30</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CON</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Concessive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONCESSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 48 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CONCESSIVE</font> case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: <em><strong>In spite of + his stupidity</strong>, he passed the test; <strong>The law notwithstanding</strong>, + I will stand my ground; <strong>No matter how ignorant</strong> (they may be), + they are welcome, <strong>Although foreigners</strong>, we will let them attend + the meeting.</em></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.31</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EXC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Exceptive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXCEPTIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 49 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">EXCEPTIVE</font> indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: <em>She loves everybody <strong>except + clowns</strong>; I like all animals, <strong>excluding dogs</strong>; He eats + almost anything <strong>but (not) spinach</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="52%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.32</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>AVR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Aversive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">AVERSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 50 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">AVERSIVE</font> identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o2">Sec. + 5.2</a>) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are <em>She finished her plate <strong>for fear of my wrath</strong>, I traveled + by night <strong>to avoid the sun</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.5.33</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CMP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Comparative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPARATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 51 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">COMPARATIVE</font> identifies a noun being + compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o2">Sec. 5.2</a>) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + Examples are <em>She chose the red one <strong>as opposed to the blue one</strong>, + Sam drives a van <strong>as compared to Joe</strong>, who prefers a truck</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify"><a name="Sec4o5o34" id="Sec4o5o34"></a>4.5.34 Examples of Associative Cases in Use </h3> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><span class="style13"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="audio" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a> </p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>ukya’al vloliêxek</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘coffee bean drink’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FF0000">PAR</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘contain via gravity/basin’-</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ<font size="-2">2</font>/3-SSD<font size="-2">1</font>/2</font><br /> + <em>‘cup of coffee</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>ukya’ül vloliêxek</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘coffee bean drink’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FF0000">APL</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘contain via gravity/basin’-</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ<font size="-2">2</font>/3-SSD<font size="-2">1</font>/2</font><br /> + <em>‘cup being used for coffee</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>ukyä’ël vloliêxek</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘coffee bean drink’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FF0000">PUR</font></strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘contain via gravity/basin’-</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ<font size="-2">2</font>/3-SSD<font size="-2">1</font>/2</font><br /> + <em>‘coffee cup</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>knul uçmè’ol</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘snake’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000">OBL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘pet/domestic animal’-</font><font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CRS</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘pet snake</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>ūstala pta’ël</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘wall of room’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000">OBL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘wood’-</font><font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CPS</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘wooden wall</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>Axmüùl uđo’äàh dupfā.</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘virus’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000">IND</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘drink of water’-</font><font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>MED</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/M/CSL/AGG </font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘(self-)directed motion’-</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRX/N/VAR/UNI</font><br /> + <em>‘The virus spreads via the drinking water.</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>uru’äliòn</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘prepared/cooked food’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000"><strong><font color="#FF0000">CSD</font></strong>-</font></font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC<font size="-2">2</font>/2</font><br /> + <em>‘according to the cook</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>lásk sëé’ikf </strong></font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style6">IFL</span>-‘voice’-</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRX/M/CSL/UNI</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> IFL-</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘piece of music’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000"><strong><font color="#FF0000">ASI</font></strong>-</font></font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRX</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">/N/CSL/UNI</font><br /> + <em>‘a voice like music</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>Yadálarai gmi<font size="+1"><strong>è</strong></font>l ăkšë’ul.</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DIR-IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘nickname/label’</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000">-</font></font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA1<font size="-2">1</font>/5</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000">FNC/FAC</font> IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘male child’-</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFF </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘nerd’-</font><font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ESS</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘Don't call the boy a nerd.</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>átalňa sfueis</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘page of writing’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000">OBL</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/M/COA/SEG</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘porcupine’-</font><font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>REF</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font color="#000000">-</font></font><font color="#000000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL/N/CSL/UNI</font><br /> + <em>‘a book about porcupines</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1"><strong>kpiĕul</strong></font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘extent of spatial length’-</font><font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CLA</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>‘lengthwise</em><em>’</em></p> + <p align="left"><br /> + Stems/Roots for above examples:</p> + <p align="left"><strong>ukya</strong>- ‘coffee bean drink ’ <strong>< kya<strong>-</strong> </strong>‘<span class="style6">COFFEE PLANT</span>’<strong> <br /> + vlô- </strong>‘contain via gravity/basin’ < <strong>vlô</strong><strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">HOLD/CONTAIN/CONTENTS</span>’<br /> + <strong>knu-</strong> ‘snake’ <strong>< knu<strong>-</strong> </strong>‘<span class="style6">SNAKE</span>’ <strong> </strong> <br /> + <strong><strong>ùçm</strong></strong><strong>e</strong>- ‘pet land/air animal’ <<strong><strong>mè<strong></strong></strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">CLASSES OF ANIMAL</span>’<br /> + <strong>ūsta(la)-</strong> ‘wall of room’ < <strong>stū</strong>- ‘<span class="style6">HOLDING AREA/ENCLOSURE</span>’<strong> <strong> </strong><br /> + pta</strong>- ‘wood(en)’ < <strong>pa</strong><strong>-</strong> ‘<span class="style6">BRANCHED OR LEAVED PLANT</span>’<br /> + <strong>axmù- </strong>‘virus’ < <strong>kmù- </strong>‘<span class="style6">LOWER-ORDER LIFE-FORM</span>’ <br /> + <strong><strong>uđò</strong></strong>- ‘water as nourishment/drink (of) water ’ <<strong><strong> <strong>đò</strong></strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">WATER AS SUBSTANCE</span>’<br /> + <strong>adū-</strong> ‘self-directed motion ’ < <strong>dū</strong>- ‘<span class="style6">TRANSLATIVE MOTION </span>’ <br /> + <strong>urà-</strong> ‘prepared/cooked food’ < <strong><font size="+1"><strong>rà-</strong></font> </strong>‘<span class="style6">NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION ’<br /> + </span><strong>lá</strong>- ‘voice’ <<strong><strong> lá</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">VOCAL/VERBAL SOUND </span>’ <br /> + <strong>sé- </strong>‘piece of music’ < <strong><strong>sé</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">MUSIC</span>’<br /> + <span class="style18"></span><strong>áda(la)</strong><span class="style18"></span>- ‘nickname’ < <strong>dá</strong><strong>-</strong> ‘<span class="style6">NAME/TITLE/APPELLATION</span>’<strong> <br /> + agm<font size="+1"><strong>è</strong></font><span class="style18"><font size="+1"><strong></strong></font></span></strong>- ‘male child’ < <strong>km<font size="+1"><strong>è-</strong></font> </strong>‘<span class="style6">FAMILY MEMBER’</span><br /> + <strong><strong>ă</strong>kšu(la)</strong>- ‘nerd’ <<strong><strong>kšŭ</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">FOOL/BUFFOON</span>’ <strong> </strong> <br /> + <span class="style18"></span><strong>áta(la)</strong><span class="style18"></span>- ‘page of writing’ <<strong><strong> tá</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">WRITE/INSCRIBE/RECORD</span>’<br /> + <strong>sfu</strong>- ‘porcupine’ < <strong>sfu</strong><strong>-</strong> ‘<span class="style6">PORCUPINE</span>’ <br /> + <strong>kpĕ</strong>- ‘extent/amount of spatial length ’ < <strong>kĕ</strong><font size="+1"><strong>- </strong></font>‘<span class="style6">LONG/LENGTH</span>’<br /> + </p> + <p></p> + <p align="justify"> </p> +</blockquote> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>4.6 THE TEMPORAL CASES</strong></font><a name="Sec4o6" id="Sec4o6"></a></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ilaksh analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the <font size="2">SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE</font>, <font size="2">CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, </font>and <font size="2">LIMITATIVE</font>. Following are explanations + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples of these cases + in use are provided in <a href="#Sec4o6o16">Sec. 4.6.16</a>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>SML</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Simultaneitive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">SIMULTANEITIVE</font> case is marked by + Series 52 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">SIMULTANEITIVE</font> identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be <em>I was in class <strong>at the same time as his accident</strong>, + I worked a side-job <strong>concurrent to the strike</strong>, She laughed <strong>simultaneously + with my coughing fit</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Assessive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASSESSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 53 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ASSESSIVE</font> specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be <em>My lawyer + charges <strong>by the minute</strong>, He publishes several books <strong>each + year</strong>, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles <strong>per hour</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CNR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Concursive Case<a name="Sec4o6o3" id="Sec4o6o3"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 54 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be <em>He prays <strong>during + lunch</strong>, She studied hard <strong>last night</strong>, I won’t + visit until <strong>then</strong></em> (i.e., during that period in time). </p> +<blockquote> + <p><img src="images/4-9-1.gif" width="257" height="53" /></p> + <p> </p> +</blockquote> +<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ACS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Accessive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ACCESSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 55 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The is similar to the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font>, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be <em>Dinner will be served <strong>at sunset</strong>; <strong>When</strong> </em>(i.e., at the moment that)<em> you hear his voice, + call in the clowns; <strong>Upon impact</strong>, both cars were accelerating</em>.</p> +<blockquote> + <p><img src="images/4-9-2.gif" width="257" height="60" /></p> +</blockquote> +<p></p> +<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DFF</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Diffusive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DIFFUSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 56 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">DIFFUSIVE</font> is yet another temporal + locative similar to the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font>, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be <em>Most cars had tail fins <strong>in those days</strong>; I was abroad <strong>during + that era</strong>; <strong>At the time of his death</strong>, the number of + clowns was increasing; <strong>Over the past several seasons</strong>, your + talent has matured</em>.</p> +<blockquote> + <p><img src="images/4-9-3.gif" width="257" height="53" /></p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PER</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Periodic Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PERIODIC</font> case is marked by Series + 57 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PERIODIC</font> identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> above, + in that the periodic specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place, whereas the concursive signifies + a contextually single holistic event. Examples would be <em>He wrote the novel <strong>in six months</strong>, These clowns can corrupt your child <strong>within + a few days</strong>, The woman has been ill a lot <strong>this year</strong>, <strong>For the last several concerts</strong>, my voice has been deteriorating</em>.</p> +<blockquote> + <p><img src="images/4-9-4.gif" width="257" height="59" /></p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRO</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Prolapsive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROLAPSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 58 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PROLAPSIVE</font> signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the <font size="2">PERIODIC</font> above, in that + the <font size="2">PROLAPSIVE</font> specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the <font size="2">PERIODIC</font> merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be <em>He prayed <strong>through lunch</strong>, <strong>While he was dying</strong>, the number of clowns increased, It rained <strong>all night</strong>, It took <strong>three days</strong> for the fever + to break, She sang <strong>for an hour</strong></em>.</p> +<blockquote> + <p><img src="images/4-9-5.gif" width="257" height="54" /></p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PCV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Precursive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PRECURSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 59 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PRECURSIVE</font> identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be <em>This + situation occurred <strong>before the war</strong>, It rained <strong>prior + to his appearance</strong>, There will be a presentation <strong>preceding the + banquet</strong></em>.</p> +<p> </p> +<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PCR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Postcursive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">POSTCURSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 60 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">POSTCURSIVE</font> identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be <em>This + situation occurred <strong>after the war</strong>, It rained <strong>subsequent + to his appearance</strong>, There will be a presentation <strong>following the + banquet</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.10</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ELP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Elapsive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ELAPSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 61 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ELAPSIVE</font> identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be <em><strong>Four years ago</strong> I was a student; <strong>Going + back three generations</strong>, women could not even vote</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.11</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ALP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Allapsive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ALLAPSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 62 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ALLAPSIVE</font> identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be <em><strong>Four years + from now</strong>, I will be a student; <strong>Looking ahead three generations</strong>, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home <strong>in three days</strong>; Little + did he know that <strong>two months later</strong> he’d be a rich man</em>.</p> +<p> </p> +<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.12</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>INP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Interpolative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTERPOLATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 63 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">INTERPOLATIVE</font> is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are <em>We heard several <strong>five-second</strong> snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals <strong>of several + seconds</strong>; She gets recurring migraines, <strong>each lasting hours</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.13</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EPS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Episodic Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EPISODIC</font> case is marked by Series + 64 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">EPISODIC</font> identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are <em>The man talks with his mother <strong>every three days</strong>; <strong>Each year</strong>, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works <strong>nights</strong>; <strong>By day</strong>, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us <strong>on Sundays</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.14</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Prolimitive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROLIMITIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 65 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PROLIMITIVE</font> defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be <em><strong>By the time of your graduation</strong>, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board <strong>by midnight</strong>; <strong>By the time + of the raid</strong>, there was nothing left to steal</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.6.15</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>LIM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Limitative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">LIMITATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 66 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">LIMITATIVE</font> signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are <em>He arrived <strong>in time for dinner</strong>, + Be inside the Big Tent <strong>in time for the clowns</strong></em>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 4.6.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use<a name="Sec4o6o16" id="Sec4o6o16"></a></h3> +<blockquote> + <p><span class="style13"><a href="sound_files/4-6-16.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-6-16.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="audio" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a> </p> + <p><span class="style9"><strong>šóyel kī’al</strong></span><br /> + <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">three</span>’-<span class="style15">ALP</span><span class="style13">-<span class="style6">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span></span> <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">day (24-hr. period)</span>’-<span class="style12">PAR</span><span class="style13">-<span class="style6">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span></span><br /> + <em>three days from now</em></p> + <p><span class="style9"><strong>tayùpla roi</strong></span><br /> + <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">life</span>’-<span class="style15">PRL</span>-<span class="style12">TRM/M/CSL/UNI</span><span class="style13"> ma-<span class="style6">ATT</span></span><br /> + <em>by the time of his death</em></p> + <p><span class="style9"><strong>ukiyogīnnuik</strong></span><br /> + <span class="style12">FML</span>-‘<span class="style13">day (24-hr. period)</span>’-<span class="style15">EPS</span><span class="style13">-<span class="style6">DEL/M/COA/DCT-SEQ<span class="style17">1</span>/1-SBS<span class="style17">2</span>/9</span></span><br /> + <em>on Sundays</em></p> + <p><span class="style9"><strong>Šówol kī<span class="style16"> </span>’al žìrskukt tia.</strong></span><br /> + <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">three</span>’-<span class="style15">PRO</span>-<span class="style12">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span> <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">day (24-hr. period)</span>’-<span class="style12">PAR</span>-<span class="style12">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span> <span class="style12">IFL</span>-<span class="style12">OPR</span>-‘<span class="style13">article of clothing</span>’-<span class="style12">PRX/M/CSL/AGG</span><span class="style13">-<span class="style6">DEF<span class="style17">1</span></span>/9 1m-<span class="style6">IND</span></span><br /> + <em>I’ve been (deliberately) wearing these clothes for three days.</em></p> + <p><span class="style9"><strong>krûwösk žoi</strong></span><br /> + <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">grief</span>’-<span class="style15">PCR</span>-<span class="style12">PRX/M/CSL/UNI</span> <span class="style13"><span class="style6">1m+2u+ua-A</span></span><span class="style12">TT</span><br /> + <em>after our period of grief</em></p> + <p><br /> + Stems/Roots for above examples:</p> + <p align="left"><strong>šó</strong>- ‘three’ <strong>< šó</strong>-‘<span class="style6">THREE</span>’<strong> <br /> + kī- </strong>‘day (= 24-hour period)’ < <strong>kī</strong><strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">DAY (24-HOUR PERIOD)</span>’<br /> + <strong>tà-</strong> ‘life/living being’ <strong>< tà<strong>-</strong> </strong>‘<span class="style6">LIFE/ALIVE/LIVING BEING </span>’ <strong> </strong> <br /> + <strong>žì</strong>- ‘article of clothing ’ <<strong>žì</strong><strong><strong><strong></strong></strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">CLOTHE/CLOTHING/FASHION</span>’<br /> + <strong>krû-</strong> ‘grief/sadness from (a) loss’ < <strong>krû</strong>- ‘<span class="style6">GRIEF/SADNESS FROM (A) LOSS</span>’<strong> <strong> </strong></strong></p> +</blockquote> +<p><br /> + <font color="#FFFFFF">_____</font></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>4.7 THE SPATIAL CASES</strong></font> <a name="Sec4o7" id="Sec4o7"></div></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ilaksh. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ilaksh via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are six cases corresponding to certain types of spatial relationships. + These are the <font size="2">LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + </font>and <font size="2">NAVIGATIVE</font>. </p> +<p align="justify">Also: see <a href="#Sec4o5o25">Section 4.5.25</a> above regarding the use of the <span class="style6">CORRELATIVE</span> case in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation. </p> +<p align="justify">Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ilaksh examples of these cases in use are provided + in <a href="#Sec4o7o7">Sec. 4.7.7</a>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.7.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>LOC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Locative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">LOCATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 67 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">LOCATIVE</font> signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., <em>in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house</em>.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.7.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ORI</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Orientative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ORIENTATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 68 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">ORIENTATIVE</font> identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., <em>He jumped in <strong>feet-first</strong>, The car rolled <strong>backward</strong></em>. + The <font size="2">ORIENTATIVE</font> allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., <em>He walked “butt-ward” + down the street</em> (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.7.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PSV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Procursive Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROCURSIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 69 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">PROCURSIVE</font> identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in the <font size="2">ALLATIVE</font> case (see below). Examples of use would be <em>They + collided <strong>sideways</strong>, She turned <strong>her back</strong> on + him, The chair “<strong>faced</strong>” the doorway</em> (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.7.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ALL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Allative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ALLATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 70 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the <font size="2">ALLATIVE</font> signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the <font size="2">ALLATIVE</font> in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be <em>I wandered <strong>eastward</strong>, The little girl ran <strong>toward me</strong>, Throw + the rock <strong>at that clown</strong>!, We headed <strong>for home</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"><a name="Sec4o7o5" id="Sec4o7o5"></a></p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.7.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ABL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Ablative Case</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ABLATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 71 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the <font size="2">ABLATIVE</font> signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be <em>He came <strong>out of the east</strong>, + She walked here <strong>from (the direction of) the river</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify">When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the <font size="2">ABLATIVE</font> signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., <em>He faced <strong>away from me</strong></em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><font size="4"><strong>4.7.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>NAV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="3%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Navigative Case<a name="Sec4o7o6" id="Sec4o7o6"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NAVIGATIVE</font> case is marked by Series + 72 mutation of the stem vowel (see <a href="Chapter_2.html#Sec2o5">Section 2.5</a>). The <font size="2">NAVIGATIVE</font> identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in <a href="Chapter_10.html#Sec10o4o3">Section + 10.4.3 </a> that Ilaksh modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be<em> I looked <strong>down + the street</strong>, We aligned it perpendicular <strong>to the path of the + sun</strong>, He crossed the room <strong>diagonally</strong></em> (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)</p> +<h3><br /> + 4.7.7 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use<a name="Sec4o7o7" id="Sec4o7o7"></a></h3> +<blockquote> + <p><span class="style13"><a href="sound_files/4-7-7.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-7-7.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="audio" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a> </p> + <p><span class="style11">zmäāwal</span><br /> + <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">valley</span>’-<span class="style15">LOC</span>-<span class="style12">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><br /> + <em>in the valley</em> </p> + <p><span class="style9"><strong>Żgàwül đđulīmsërt rua.</strong></span><br /> + <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">head</span>’-<span class="style15">ORI</span><span class="style13">-<span class="style6">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span></span> <span class="style12">IFL</span><span class="style13">-<span class="style6">OPR</span></span>-‘<span class="style13">downward movement</span>’-<span class="style12">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><span class="style13">-<span class="style6">AGN<span class="style17">1</span>/1</span>-<span class="style6">PHY<span class="style17">2</span>/1</span> ma-<span class="style6">AFF</span></span><br /> + <em>He fell headfirst to his death.</em></p> + <p><span class="style11">Xàl tia zbřeyüūl.</span><br /> + <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">see</span>’-<span class="style12">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span> <span class="style13"> <span class="style6">1m</span></span><span class="style6">-</span><span class="style12">IND</span> <span class="style12">IFL</span>-‘<span class="style13">pathway</span>’-<span class="style15">NAV</span><br /> + <em>I’m looking down the path.</em></p> + <p><br /> + Stems/Roots for above examples:</p> + <p><strong>zmā</strong>- ‘valley’ < <strong>smā</strong>-‘<span class="style6">ELEVATION OF TERRAIN/RELATIVE ALTITUDE OF GEOGRAPHIC FEATURE OR AREA </span>’<br /> + <strong>żgà- </strong>‘head (as physical body part)’ < <strong>żà- </strong>‘<span class="style6">HEAD</span>’ <br /> + <strong><strong>đ<strong>đ</strong></strong>ū-</strong> ‘downward movement/motion’ < <strong><strong><strong>đ</strong></strong>ū</strong>- ‘<span class="style6">VERTICAL (UPWARD/DOWNWARD) MOVEMENT/MOTION</span>’ <br /> + <strong>urà-</strong> ‘prepared/cooked food’ < <strong><font size="+1"><strong>rà-</strong></font> </strong>‘<span class="style6">NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION ’<br /> + </span><strong>xà</strong>- ‘see’ <<strong><strong> xà</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">VISION/SIGHT</span>’ <br /> + <strong>zbřē- </strong>‘pathway’ < <strong><strong>vrē</strong>- </strong>‘<span class="style6">COURSE/WAY</span>’<br /> + <span class="style18"></span></p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote> + <p align="right"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="Chapter_5.html"><br /> + Proceed to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >></a></strong></p> + <table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="24%" rowspan="7"><div align="left"><span class="style2"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></span></div></td> + <td width="26%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="28%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="22%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><span class="style8"><a href="http://www.ithkuil.net">Home</a></span></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style8">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style8">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><span class="style8"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></span></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style8">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style8">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style8">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style8">6 More Verb Morphology.</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style8">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style8">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style8">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style8">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style8">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style8">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style8">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + 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