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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<html>
<head>
<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 3: Basic Morphology</title>
<META name="resource-type" content="document">
<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function.">
<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages">
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<body>
<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil:
A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br>
<img src="Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br>
<br>
</div>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1">
<tr>
<td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td>
<td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a
Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9
Syntax</a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10
Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1
Phonology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6
More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11
The Script </a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2
Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a
Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12
The Number System</a></font></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3
Basic Morphology</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The
Lexicon</a></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4
Case Morphology </a></font> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8
Adjuncts</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2 align="center"> </h2>
<h2 align="center">Chapter 3: Basic Morphology</h2>
<div align="center">
<table width="43%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1">
<tr>
<td width="183"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o1">3.1 Configuration</a></font></td>
<td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o5">3.5 Focus</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o2">3.2 Affiliation</a></font></td>
<td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o6">3.6 Context</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o3">3.3 Perspective</a></font></td>
<td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o7">3.7 Designation</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o4">3.4 Extension</a></font></td>
<td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o8">3.8 Essence</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify"><br>
As previously discussed in <a href= "ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o6o1" >
Section 2.6.1</a>, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages
is rather blurred in Ithkuil. All lexical stems in Ithkuil function equally
as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories.
This is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being
cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations
of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components
are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are
merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or
verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s
sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as
verbs when discussing their morphology.</p>
<p align="justify">All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs,
inflect for nine <strong>Configurations</strong>, four <strong>Affiliations</strong>,
four <strong>Perspectives</strong>, six <strong>Extensions</strong>, two <strong>Focus</strong>
distinctions, four <strong>Contexts</strong>, two <strong>Designations</strong>,
and two <strong>Essences</strong>, and can take any of more than 1300 optional
affixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which
follow. </p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><a name="Sec3o1"></a><strong><font size="4">3.1 CONFIGURATION</font></strong></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">To understand the Ithkuil concept of enumeration and quantification
of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze
three separate but related grammatical categories termed <strong>Configuration</strong>,
<strong>Affiliation</strong>, and <strong>Perspective</strong>. These concepts
are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which
are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical
level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as
in Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed
by Affiliation in <a href="#Sec3o2">Section 3.2</a> and Perspective in <a href="#Sec3o3">Section
3.3</a>.</p>
<p align="justify">Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity
or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections,
sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal
composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential
structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain
English sets of words.</p>
<p align="justify">Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a
single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of
trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a
plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees.
However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings
than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as
in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different
kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray
such as a ‘jungle.’</p>
<p align="justify">As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’
While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single)
person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons
(i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as
‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc. </p>
<p align="justify">Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further
configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships
between <em>car</em> versus <em>convoy</em>, <em>hanger</em> versus <em>rack</em>,
<em>chess piece</em> versus <em>chess set</em>, <em>sentry</em> versus <em>blockade</em>,
<em>piece of paper</em> versus <em>sheaf</em>, <em>girder</em> versus <em>(structural)
framework</em>, and <em>coin</em> versus <em>roll of coins</em> all exemplify
these principles.</p>
<p align="justify">Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary
sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two
identical referents as in <em>a pair of eyes</em>, however they are more often
opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in <em>limbs</em>,
<em>ears</em>, <em>hands</em>, <em>wings</em>, etc.</p>
<p align="justify">In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above
examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be
accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’
into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis
of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made
by means of Affiliation (see <a href="#Sec3o2">Section 3.2</a> below) and by
the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’
or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’
via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’
‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation
and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in
detail in <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" onClick="javascript:changenav7();" >Chapter
7: Using Affixes</a>.)</p>
<p align="justify">The nine configurations are the <strong><font size="2">UNIPLEX</font></strong>,
<strong><font size="2">DUPLEX</font></strong>, <strong><font size="2">DISCRETE</font></strong>,
<strong><font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font></strong>, <strong><font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font></strong>,
<strong><font size="2">COMPONENTIAL</font></strong>, <strong><font size="2">COHERENT,
COMPOSITE</font></strong>, and <strong><font size="2">MULTIFORM</font></strong>.
The function and morphology of these categories are explained below.</p>
<br>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>UNI</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Uniplex</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> configuration is marked by
Grade 1 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and indicates
a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual
unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., <em>a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a
grape, a hammer blow, a hole</em>. With verbs the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font>
signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., <em>to be a tree, to
become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with
a hammer, to dig a hole</em>.</p><br>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DPX</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Duplex</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> configuration is marked by
Grade 2 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and indicates
a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s
eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two
identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., <em>a matched pair of
vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents</em>. Thus, the
Ithkuil word for <em>spouse</em> inflected for the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font>
configuration would translate as <em>a man and wife</em> or <em>a married couple</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">One context in which the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> appears
for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves”
exemplified by English words such as <em>bounce</em>, <em>flash</em>, <em>arc</em>,
<em>wag</em>, <em>swing</em>, <em>switch</em>, <em>breathe/respiration</em>,
indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth,
in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> in these
contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved.
For example the word for <em>hammer blow</em> inflected for the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font>
would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected
for the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> signifies a single down-then-up cycle of
the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action
being divided by the impact.</p>
<br>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DCT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Discrete </strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> configuration is marked
by Grade 3 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and indicates
a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each
having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature
can be either spatial, as in <em>a flock of gulls</em> (flying together), or
temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in <em>(a flock of)
gulls flying one after another</em>. Further examples of English nouns or noun
phrases which would be translated using the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> are
<em>a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a
bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes</em>. Thus, the Ithkuil
word for <em>(identical) set</em> would simply be the word for <em>thing</em>
or <em>object</em> inflected for the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> configuration.
Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally
(i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix,
-V<font size="1">1</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>šk</strong></font>,
specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o13" onClick="javascript:changenav7();">Sec.
7.7.13</a>.</p>
<p align="justify">For verbs, the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> signifies a single
set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic
event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this
set can be either <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font>, e.g., <em>to take steps, to
flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area</em>, or <font size="2">DUPLEX</font>
in nature, e.g., <em>to hammer, to spin, to breathe</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">It should be noted that the Containment <font size="2"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#CNMaffix">CNM</a></font><a href="Ch-7%20Using%20Affixes%20Contd.htm">
affix</a>, -V<font size="1">o</font><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">mt</font></strong>,
can be used with the <font size="2">DISCRETE, </font> as well as most of the
following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder,
or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar,
bottle, pile, load, etc.)<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>AGG</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Aggregative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">AGGREGATE</font> configuration is marked
by Grade 4 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and functions
like the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> above in referring to an associated
group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set
are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would
be translated using the <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> are <em>a forest</em>
(of different kinds of trees), <em>a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile
of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series
of musical notes</em>. With verbs, the <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> implies
a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states
considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating
the sentence <em>This morning I dug holes in my garden</em> (i.e., of different
sizes).</p><br>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.5</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>SEG</strong></font></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Segmentative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> configuration is marked
by Grade 5 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and indicates
a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are
physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one
another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close
contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples
would be <em>a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of
pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls</em> (e.g.,
coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration
and the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> above, we saw that the word <em>grape</em>
in the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> would be translated as <em>a serving of
grapes</em>, while in the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> it would mean <em>a
bunch of grapes</em> (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine).
</p>
<p align="justify">With verbs, the use of the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font>
versus the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> implies that the repetitive/iterative
nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature
of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the
fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from
single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish <em>The light is blinking
</em>from<em> The light is flashing</em>, where <em>blink</em> implies the way
in which the source naturally emits light, while <em>flash</em> implies that
the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.6</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>CPN</strong></font></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Componential</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPONENTIAL</font> configuration is marked
by Grade 6 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and operates
identically to the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> above, except that the
individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or
identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated
using the <font size="2">COMPONENTIAL</font> are <em>a freight train, a cascade
of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders,
a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes</em>. With verbs, the <font size="2">COMPONENTIAL</font>
signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events,
or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish
<em>The light twinkled </em>from <em>The light was blinking</em>. </p>
<br>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.7</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>COH</strong></font></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Coherent</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COHERENT</font> configuration is marked
by Grade 7 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and functions
similarly to the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> above, except that the individual
members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another
to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects
constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which
would be translated using the <font size="2">COHERENT</font> are <em>a bookcase,
a phalanx, a xylophone</em>. </p>
<p align="justify">In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating
the <font size="2">COHERENT</font> is difficult. If one can imagine the verb
<em>to glow</em> to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create
a continuous emanation, then <em>glow</em> versus <em>flash</em> might suffice.
Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between <em>to buzz</em>
from <em>to make a set of repeating noises</em>.</p>
<br>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.8</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>CST</strong></font></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Composite</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify"> The <font size="2">COMPOSITE</font> configuration is marked
by Grade 8 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and operates
the same as the <font size="2">COHERENT</font> above except that the individual
members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to
one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the <font size="2">COMPOSITE</font>
are <em>a building</em> (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows,
etc.), <em>a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket</em>. Thus
the Ithkuil words for <em>recipe, skeleton, </em>and<em> melody</em> would simply
be the words for <em>ingredient</em>, <em>bone</em>, and <em>musical note</em>
inflected for the <font size="2">COMPOSITE</font> configuration. For verbs,
the <font size="2">COMPOSITE</font> versus <font size="2">COHERENT</font> distinction
would distinguish <em>to rumble</em> from <em>to buzz</em>, or <em>to glitter</em>
from <em>to glow</em>. </p>
<br>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.9</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>MLT</strong></font></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Multiform</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> configuration is marked
by Grade 9 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and is
the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent.
The <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> serves to identify the noun as an individual
member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates
in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all
share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there
may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining
attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may
vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical
resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may
display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype
of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient
overlap” between members of differing sets.</p>
<p align="justify">It is difficult to accurately translate into English without
resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses
using the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font>. For example, the Ithkuil word for
‘tree’ inflected for the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> configuration
would mean something like <em>a group of what appear to be trees</em>, or better
yet, <em>a group of tree-like objects</em> (i.e., some being trees, and others
seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity
of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member
of the set can be expressed using the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font>. For examples,
the Ithkuil word for <em>library</em> would simply be a word meaning something
like <em>work</em> (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font>,
signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including
books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings,
magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font>
would be <em>a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.</em></p>
<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> implies that
the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees
of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as <em>fluctuate,
sputter </em>or<em> flicker</em> capture this sense. </p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><a name="Sec3o2"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.2 AFFILIATION</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">While the category of Configuration from the preceding section
distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms
of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the
category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships
in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically
in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship
between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs
in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into
English.</p>
<p align="justify">Returning to our earlier example of the word <em>tree</em>,
we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes <em>a grove</em> in
the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> configuration. The word <em>grove</em> implies
that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in
regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may
be planted by design, in which case they become <em>an orchard</em>. We saw
how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed <em>a
forest</em>. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying
patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming
<em>a jungle</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">As another example, we saw how the word <em>person</em> becomes
<em>group</em>, or <em>gathering</em>, both of which are neutral as to subjective
purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates
words such as <em>team</em>, while the absence of purpose results in <em>crowd</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">There are four affiliations: <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font>,
<font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font>, <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font>, and <font size="2">COALESCENT</font>.
Affiliation is marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix which varies depending
on the extension of the formative, as well as being dependent on the format
for verbs (see Sections 3.4 and 5.3 for an explanation of these respective categories).
For nouns, these prefixes are shown in <a href="#Sec3o4">Table 11 in Section
3.4</a> on Extension. For verbs, these prefixes are shown in Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1" onClick="javascript:changenav5();">Section
5.4.1</a>. The details of each affiliation are explained below.</p>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr valign="top">
<td width="16%" height="20"> <strong><font size="4">3.2.1 </font></strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <strong><font size="4">CSL</font></strong></td>
<td width="7%"></td>
<td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Consolidative</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font> affiliation indicates
that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring
set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable,
irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font>
affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively
defined by human design. Examples are <em>tree branches, a grove, a mound of
rocks, some people, the clouds</em>. </p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font> is also the affiliation
normally applied to nouns in the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> configuration
when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font>
specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept
of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: <em>a man,
a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf</em>. With verbs, the <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font>
would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral
as to purpose or design.</p>
<p align="justify">For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table
11 in <a href="#Sec3o4">Section 3.4</a> below for nouns and Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1" onClick="javascript:changenav5();">Section
5.4.1</a> for verbs.</p>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.2.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASO</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Associative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> affiliation indicates
that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective
function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the
Ithkuil word for soldier in the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> configuration
and comparing its English translations when inflected for the <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font>
affiliation (= <em>a group of soldiers</em>) versus the <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font>
(= <em>a troop, a platoon)</em>. It is this <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font>
versus <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> distinction, then, that would distinguish
otherwise equivalent <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> inflections of the Ithkuil
word for tree by translating them respectively as <em>a grove</em> versus <em>an
orchard</em>. </p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> affiliation can also
be used with nouns in the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> configuration to signify
a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc.
For example, the word <em>person</em> inflected for the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font>
and <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> would translate as <em>a single-minded
person</em>. Even nouns such as <em>rock</em>, <em>tree</em> or <em>work of
art</em> could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as <em>a well-formed
rock, a tree with integrity</em>, <em>a “balanced” work of art</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> signifies
that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font>
versus <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> distinction could be used, for example,
with the verb <em>turn</em> in <em>I turned toward the window</em> to indicate
whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.</p>
<p align="justify">For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see <a href="#Sec3o4">Table
11 in Section 3.4</a> below for nouns and Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Section
5.4.1</a> for verbs.</p>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.2.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>VAR</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="66%"><font size="4"><strong>The Variative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font> affiliation indicates that
the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function,
state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees
(i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at
complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font>
would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set
members (see the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> affiliation below). It would
thus be used to signify <em>a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering,
a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of
books, a collection in disarray</em>. It operates with nouns in the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font>
to render meanings such as <em>a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock,
a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font> indicates an
act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that
those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably
be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in <em>She bought the house
for various reasons </em>or<em> My being at the party served several purposes</em>.
With non-<font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> configurations, the use of the <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font>
affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using
the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> configuration such as <em>The light is
blinking</em> in conjunction with the <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font> would
mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding
or following blinks.</p>
<p align="justify">For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see <a href="#Sec3o4">Table
11 in Section 3.4</a> below for nouns and Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Section
5.4.1</a><font color="#FF0000"> </font>for verbs.</p>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.2.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>COA</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Coalescent</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> affiliation indicates
that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship
with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc.
This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of
other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For
example, the Ithkuil word translating English <em>toolset</em> would be the
word for <em>tool</em> in the <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> configuration
(due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font>
affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function
in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example
would be the Ithkuil word for <em>finger</em> inflected for the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font>
configuration and the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> affiliation, translatable
as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font>
to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further
example would be using the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> with the word for
<em>(piece of) food</em> to signify <em>a well-balanced meal.</em></p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> naturally appears most
often in conjunction with the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> configuration since
binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical
binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image
distinction, e.g., <em>one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings</em>.
Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g.,
<em>one’s eyes</em>) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font>
affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., <em>one’s left and
right eye functioning together</em>).</p>
<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> signifies
that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which
make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure
onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in
complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for
example, to distinguish the sentences <em>He traveled in the Yukon</em> from
<em>He ventured in the Yukon</em>, or <em>I came up with a plan</em> versus
<em>I fashioned a plan</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see <a href="#Sec3o4">Table
11 in Section 3.4</a> below for nouns and Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Section
5.4.1</a> for verbs.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top">
<p><a name="Sec3o3"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.3. PERSPECTIVE</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div align="justify"><br>
Perspective is the closest Ithkuil morphological category to the Number and
Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future).
However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not
specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within
a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the
manner in which it is <em>spatio-temporally instantiated</em>. Specifically,
Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded”
contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation),
2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible),
3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as
a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations
for nouns and verbs. </div>
<p align="justify"><strong>Perspective with Nouns</strong>. What Perspective means
for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial
context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple
manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction.
Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and
Affiliation (see<font color="#FF0000"> </font><a href="#Sec3o1">Secs. 3.1</a><font color="#FF0000">
</font>and<font color="#FF0000"> </font><a href="#Sec3o2">3.2</a> above) already
contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe
multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular”
and “plural” have been avoided. </p>
<p align="justify"><strong>Perspective with Verbs</strong>. For verbs, the aspect
of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative
context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,”
i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole
within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense”
categories of Western languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly progressive
time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified,
if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o4">Sec.
6.4</a>).</p>
<p align="justify">There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: <font size="2">MONADIC</font>,
<font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>, <font size="2">NOMIC</font>, and <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font>.
They are shown morpho-phonologically by shifts in a formative’s syllabic
stress patterns. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is detailed
below.</p><br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.3.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>M</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Monadic</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MONADIC</font> signifies a bounded embodiment
of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant
a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted
in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually
viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived
to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary.
This is important, since configurations other than the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font>
technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking
place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container,
corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or
psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically
the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the
“context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”).
This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for
nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns as <em>spatially
reified</em> concepts while considering verbs to be their <em>temporally “activized”</em>
counterparts (<a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o6o1">see Section 2.6.1</a>).</p>
<p align="justify">Thus, using the word <em>tree</em> for example, while there
might be many trees present in terms of number, the <font size="2">MONADIC</font>
implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category
is manifested. Using the <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> configuration as
an example, the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> would mean there is only one <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font>
set of trees, i.e., one <em>forest</em>. </p>
<p align="justify">At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective
that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count”
(or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between
those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., <em>one apple, four boys, several
nations</em>), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., <em>water,
sand, plastic, air, laughter</em>). All nouns are countable in Ithkuil in that
all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations
of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than
literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable
context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a
puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”</p>
<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> superficially
corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories
except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed
by the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> means that the act, state, or event is
temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context.
It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">takes
place entirely in the present context</font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">started
in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context</font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">starts
within the present context and continues on into an accessible future </font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">started
in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present
context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within
the context of the utterance</font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">starts
within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future,
but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed
or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance</font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">started
in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but
only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed
or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance
</font> </div>
</li>
</ul>
<p align="justify">By “accessible past” or “accessible future”
is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present
at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically
contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as
one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected
predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would
mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which
he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.</p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MONADIC</font> is marked by penultimate
stress on the noun or verb (i.e. stress on the second-to-last syllable).</p><br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.3.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>U</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Unbounded</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font> signifies “unbounded
embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun
or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary,
i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns,
the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member
nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic
(i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient
translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps
of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would
be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and
another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’
</p>
<p align="justify">For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the
psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible
from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> occurs
entirely in the inaccessible past </font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">will
occur entirely in the inaccessible future </font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">may
be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past,
and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without
taking into account that past portion </font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">may
be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible
future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood
without taking into account the future portion</font></div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">started
in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, and
the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without
taking into account these inaccessible portions</font></div>
</li>
</ul>
<p align="justify">If necessary to specify whether the <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>
is referencing the past versus the future, additional aspectual markers can
be employed (see <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o4">Sec. 6.4</a>
on Aspect). Note that, even more so than with the <font size="2">MONADIC</font>,
translation of the <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font> into Western languages is
subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information
which is not conveyed by the Ithkuil original.</p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font> is shown by ultimate syllabic
stress (i.e., on the final syllable).</p><br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.3.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>N</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Nomic<a name="Sec3o3o3"></a></strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NOMIC</font> refers to a generic collective
entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative
set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context).
Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular,
this category is mutually exclusive from the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> or
<font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>. For nouns, the <font size="2">NOMIC</font>
corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to
collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences <em><strong>The dog</strong>
is a noble beast, <strong>Clowns</strong> are what children love most, There
is nothing like <strong>a tree</strong></em>. </p>
<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">NOMIC</font> designates an action,
event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently
true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific
instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances
or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of
expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense.
Examples of usage would be <em>The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele
is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NOMIC</font> is shown by antepenultimate
stress (i.e., on the third-from-last syllable).</p>
<p align="justify"></p><br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.3.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>A</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Abstract<a name="Sec3o3o4"></a></strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes
such as -hood or -ness, the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> transforms a configurative
category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless
context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via
suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into
abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g.,
<em>grove</em> <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
<em>the idea of being a grove</em> or <em>“grovehood”</em>; <em>book</em>
<em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> everything
about books, having to do with books, involvement with books</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> is used in verbal
constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship
of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable,
similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes
for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences:
<em><strong>Singing</strong> is not his strong suit; It makes no sense <strong>to
worry</strong> about it; I can't stand her <strong>pouting</strong></em>. As
a result, the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> acts as a "timeless"
verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in
conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives.
The <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> is often used in conjunction with certain
modalities and moods of the verb (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o5">Sec.
5.5 on Modality</a> and <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o5">Sec.
6.5 on Mood</a>) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which
the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.</p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> is marked in either of two
ways: (1) by preantepenultimate stress, i.e., on the fourth-to-last syllable,
or (2) by a combination of ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic
vowel -<strong>ï</strong>- or -<strong>a</strong>- in any morpho-phonologically
permissible position of the word (as previously described in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o7o3o3">Sec.
2.7.3.3</a>). This extra vowel can be placed at any position within the word
except within the stem, as long as the vowel does not lead to confusion or ambiguity
in interpreting the phonological boundaries of any other suffixes to the stem.
(Note that in word-final position, only anatyctic -<strong>a</strong>, not -<strong>ï</strong>,
is permitted.)</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top">
<p><a name="Sec3o4"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.4 EXTENSION</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Extension is another Ithkuil morphological category for which
there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives
and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms
of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font>,
<font size="2">PROXIMAL</font>, <font size="2">INCEPTIVE</font>, <font size="2">TERMINATIVE</font>,
<font size="2">DEPLETIVE</font>, and <font size="2">GRADUATIVE</font>, shown
by a vocalic prefix to the formative in conjunction with Affiliation for nouns
(see <a href="#Sec3o2">Sec. 3.2</a> above) and Affiliation plus Format for verbs
(see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Section 5.4</a> on Format).
The table below shows these prefixes for nouns. The prefixes for verbs are shown
in Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Section 5.4</a>.
How Extension operates is explained in detail following the table.</p>
<p align="justify"><br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 11: Word-Initial Affiliation/Extension
Prefixes for Nominal Formatives</strong></font></p>
<table width="77%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="3"><div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFFILIATION</font></div>
<div align="center"></div></td>
<td colspan="6"><div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"></div>
<div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EXTENSION</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="12%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL</font></div></td>
<td width="10%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRX</font></div></td>
<td width="11%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ICP</font></div></td>
<td width="12%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TRM</font></div></td>
<td width="12%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DPL</font></div></td>
<td width="13%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GRD</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DELIMITIVE</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PROXIMAL</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INCEPTIVE</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="1">TERMINATIVE</font></font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="1">DEPLETIVE</font></font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="1">GRADUATIVE</font></font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong>CSL</strong></div></td>
<td width="21%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CONSOLIDATIVE</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>(a-)*</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>â-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ai-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>au-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ä-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ö-</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong>ASO</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASSOCIATIVE</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>u-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>û-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ui-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>iu-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ü-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ë-</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong>VAR</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VARIATIVE</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>e-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ê-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ei-</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>eu- </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ëi- </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ëu-</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong>COA</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COALESCENT</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>i- </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>î- </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>o- </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ô- </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ae- </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>ea-</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<strong>*</strong> <font size="2">This <strong>a-</strong> prefix is optional
if the nominal versus verbal status of the formative can be determined from other
morphological elements or if the meaning of the phrase or sentence is clear regardless
of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.</font><br>
<p>
</p>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DEL</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Delimitive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font> extension indicates that
a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with
clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion,
edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be
considered the neutral or default view, e.g., <em>a tree, a grove, a set of
books, an army</em>. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence
<em>He climbed the ladder</em> would be translated with the word <em>ladder</em>
in the <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font> to show it is being considered as a
whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is
being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., <em>She diets
every winter</em> (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).</p>
<table width="87%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td><div align="justify">The <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font> can be thought
of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points,
beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to
the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in
the <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font> to the context at-hand (i.e., the
spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td>
<td><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-1.gif" width="344" height="203"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3 align="justify"> </h3>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRX</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Proximal</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROXIMAL</font> extension indicates that
a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the
portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand.
It would be used to translate the words <em>tree</em>, <em>journey</em>, and
<em>ladder</em> in the sentences <em>That tree is hard there</em> (e.g., in
the spot where I hit against it), <em>She lost weight during her journey</em>,
or <em>He climbed on the ladder</em> (i.e., it is not relevant to the context
to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences,
the <font size="2">PROXIMAL</font> does not refer to a specific or delineated
piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that
delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the
tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this
extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which
is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the
act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., <em>She’s on a diet
every winter</em> (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not
the total time spent dieting from start to finish). </p>
<p align="justify"></p>
<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="55%"><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates
the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the <font size="2">PROXIMAL</font>
to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td>
<td width="45%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-2.gif" width="356" height="251"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3 align="justify"> </h3>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ICP</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inceptive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INCEPTIVE</font> extension focuses on the
closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion
of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would
be used in translating the nouns <em>tunnel</em>, <em>song</em>, <em>desert</em>,
<em>daybreak</em> and <em>plan</em> in the following sentences: <em>We looked
into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song </em>(i.e., from the
first few notes)<em>, They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait
for daybreak, I’m working out a plan</em> (i.e., that I just thought of).
In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’
or ‘to start (to)…’ as in <em>He began reading, It’s
starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter</em>.</p>
<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal
relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the <font size="2">INCEPTIVE</font>
to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td>
<td><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-3.gif" width="361" height="227"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3 align="justify"> </h3>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>TRM</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Terminative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">TERMINATIVE</font> extension focuses on
the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without
focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would
be used in translating the words <em>water</em>, <em>story</em>, and <em>arrival</em>
in the sentences <em>There’s no water</em> (i.e., we ran out), <em>I like
the end of that story</em>, and <em>We await your arrival</em>. With verbs,
it is illustrated by the sentences <em>It finished molting</em> or <em>She’s
come off her diet</em>.</p>
<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal
relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the <font size="2">TERMINATIVE</font>
to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td>
<td><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-4.gif" width="378" height="246"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3 align="justify"> </h3>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.5</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DPL</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Depletive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEPLETIVE</font> extension focuses on the
terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus
is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the
at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually).
Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading.
It would be used in translating the words <em>water</em>, <em>strength</em>,
and <em>twilight</em> in the sentences <em>He drank the last of the water, I
have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight</em>. With verbs,
it is exemplified by the phrases <em>to wind down, to fade out, to disappear
gradually</em> and similar notions, e.g., <em>She’s eating less and less
these days</em>.</p>
<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="38%"><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal
relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the <font size="2">DEPLETIVE</font>
to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td>
<td width="62%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-5.gif" width="373" height="237"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3 align="justify"> </h3>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.6</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>GRD</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Graduative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">GRADUATIVE</font> extension is the inverse
of the <font size="2">DEPLETIVE</font>, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in”
or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words <em>darkness</em>,
<em>wonder</em>, and <em>music</em> in the following sentences: <em>Darkness
came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first</em>.
With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as <em>to fade in, to
start gradually, to build up</em>, and similar notions, e.g., <em>She’s
been eating more and more lately</em>.</p>
<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="50%"><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal
relationship of a noun in the <font size="2">GRADUATIVE</font> to the
context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td>
<td width="50%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-6.gif" width="371" height="215"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"></p>
<p align="justify"></p>
<h3 align="justify">3.4.7 Examples of Configuration, Affiliation, and Extension</h3>
<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="26%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7a.gif" width="73" height="69"></td>
<td width="23%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7b.gif" width="78" height="66"></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="15%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7c.gif" width="73" height="65"></td>
<td width="27%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7d.gif" width="76" height="67"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><em>‘piece of clothing’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td>
<td><em>‘set/suit of clothes’</em></td>
<td> </td>
<td><em>‘hand’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td>
<td><em>‘pair of hands’</em></td>
</tr>
</table>
<em><br>
<br>
</em>
<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" height="79"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7e.gif" width="70" height="70"></td>
<td width="34%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7f.gif" width="79" height="75"></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="15%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7g.gif" width="71" height="72"></td>
<td width="27%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7h.gif" width="116" height="74"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><em>‘oak tree’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td>
<td><em>‘trailing edge of an oak forest’</em></td>
<td> </td>
<td><em>‘upland’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td>
<td><em>‘foothills’</em></td>
</tr>
</table>
<em><br>
<br>
</em>
<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="28%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7i.gif" width="73" height="68"></td>
<td><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7j.gif" width="78" height="65"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><em>‘something yellow’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td>
<td><em>‘a mess of varying yellow things as far as the eye can see’</em></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br>
<br>
<table width="92%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" height="73"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7k.gif" width="71" height="73"></td>
<td width="17%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7l.gif" width="72" height="70"></td>
<td width="66%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7m.gif" width="315" height="69">
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-1.mp3"><img src="Images/Clowns/Clown4.GIF" width="89" height="67" border="0"></a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><em>‘clown’</em></td>
<td><em>‘running <br>
stride’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td>
<td><em>‘Something makes the group of running clowns begin stumbling’
</em><strong>or</strong><em><br>
‘The group of clowns are made to begin stumbling as they run.’</em></td>
</tr>
</table>
<font color="#FFFFFF"> _______________________________</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-1.mp3">Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-1.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br>
<br>
<em></em><br>
<br>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><a name="Sec3o5"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.5 FOCUS</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Focus, is a two-way, positive versus negative distinction labeled
<strong>+FC</strong> <font size="2">FOCUSED</font> and <strong>-FC</strong>
<font size="2">UNFOCUSED</font> which is applicable to all formatives, whether
functioning as nouns or verbs. The concept of semantic focus refers to what
information in an utterance is to be considered new information as opposed to
background context. The specifics are explained below and are best understood
through various English illustrations.</p>
<p align="justify">In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances
such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence
of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material
as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the
discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute
new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence
<em>My dog jumps through hoops</em> could function as an answer to several different
questions such as 1) <em>What tricks can your dog do?</em>, or 2) <em>Does your
dog do anything with hoops? </em>or 3) <em>Do you know of anyone’s pet
that jumps through hoops?</em> or even 4) <em>What’s up with you?</em>
In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’
would have semantic focus while the dog is background material. In answering
the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have
focus while both the dog and the hoops would be background material. In answering
the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus
while jumping through hoops would be backgrounded. Lastly, in answering the
fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all
elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse.
In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch
contours) to provide emphasis.</p>
<p align="justify">Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have
semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which
case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously
begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In
English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey
semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.”
Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially
inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in
responding, e.g., <em>Oh, you have a dog?</em> or <em>Oh, does he do any other
tricks? </em>or <em>Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops?</em> or an equally
neutral response such as <em>Oh, you don’t say?</em></p>
<p align="justify">Ithkuil uses the Focus category to accomplish the same options
that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. Any formative or formatives
within an Ithkuil sentence can be marked as <font size="2">FOCUSED</font> to
convey semantic focus. The <font size="2">UNFOCUSED</font> option operates as
the opposing neutral default condition. Focus can be used to subtly distinguish
what in Ithkuil would otherwise be identical sentence. For example, compare
the following two English sentences:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><em>After I shopped, I went home. <br>
I shopped before I went home</em>.</p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">Both sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, then
going home. The difference between them is one of focus. In the first sentence,
<em>I went home</em> has semantic focus, as that is the new information being
conveyed, while in the second sentence it is <em>I shopped</em> that has focus.
In Ithkuil, both sentences would be translated as <em>(First) I shopped then
went home</em>, the only distinction being the <strong>+FC</strong> <font size="2">FOCUSED</font>
distinction applied to the verb phrase <em>went home</em> in the first sentence,
and to the verb <em>shopped</em> in the second sentence.</p>
<p align="justify">As a further examination of Focus, compare these two very similar
English sentences:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><em>Mother entered the room and turned on the lights.<br>
Mother entered the room and she turned on the lights.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">In the first sentence, the absence of the reduplicative pronoun
‘she’ before ‘turned’ implies that the entire sentence
is to considered as one reported event with no particular element having the
focus. In the second sentence, however, the reduplicative ‘she’
implies the sentence is to viewed as two separate events, the first reported
as background, the second having the focus. (For example, one might utter the
second sentence as a complaint about the lights being turned on.) The Ithkuil
equivalents to these sentences would contain no such pronoun distinction. Instead,
the nuances of the second sentence would be conveyed by marking the equivalent
of the verb form as <font size="2">FOCUSED</font>.</p>
<p align="justify">Finally, Focus functions to disambiguate sentences such as
<em>Chicago defeated Oakland, too</em>, which means either (1) ‘Chicago
was one of the teams that defeated Oakland,’ or (2) ‘Oakland was
one of the teams that Chicago defeated.’ Ithkuil would mark one team name
or the other as <font size="2">FOCUSED </font>to show which of these two meanings
is implied.</p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UNFOCUSED</font> attribute is morpho-phonologically
unmarked in Ithkuil, i.e., it is indicated by the absence of any overt change
in the phonological structure of a formative, or by any affix or adjunct. The
<font size="2">FOCUSED</font> attribute is shown in one of three ways for formatives:</p>
<ul>
<li>by insertion of a -<strong>w</strong>- infix within a formative immediately
following the <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radical consonant(s),
or</li>
<li>by addition of the suffix -<strong>V<font size="1">1</font>’</strong>
in several of its degrees (see <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o13">Sec.
7.7.13</a>)</li>
<li><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o2">Sec. 5.2</a> and <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o4o5">Sec.
6.4.5</a> will show additional ways to manifest positive focus within certain
types of adjuncts.<br>
</li>
</ul>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top">
<p><a name="Sec3o6"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.6 CONTEXT</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent
in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects
of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There
is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four
contexts: the <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font>, the <font size="2">FUNCTIONAL</font>,
the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font>, and the <font size="2">AMALGAMATE</font>,
marked by each of the four tones on the formative. They are explained and illustrated
below.</p>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.6.1 </font></strong></td>
<td width="10%" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="4">EXS</font></strong></td>
<td width="7%"><font size="4"> </font></td>
<td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Existential</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div align="justify"><br>
The <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font> context is marked by falling tone on the
formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically
objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations,
beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font>
is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font>
serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective
entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun
or verb. </div>
<p align="justify">For example, consider the sentence <em>A cat ran past the doorway</em>.
If the Ithkuil words corresponding to <em>cat</em>, <em>run</em>, and <em>doorway</em>
are in the <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font>, then the sentence merely describes
an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature
of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that
two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other;
those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely
conveys the nature of the spatial relationship. </p>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.6.2</font></strong></td>
<td width="10%" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="4">FNC</font></strong></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Functional</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div align="justify"><br>
The <font size="2">FUNCTIONAL</font> context is marked by high tone on the formative.
It focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas,
attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit,
etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that
the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose.
</div>
<p align="justify">For example, in our previous sentence <em>A cat ran past the
doorway</em>, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into
the <font size="2">FUNCTIONAL</font>, the ‘cat’ no longer simply
identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog)
significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could
get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with
mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’
now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering.
Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the <font size="2">FUNCTIONAL</font>
now implies the furtive nature of the cat.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.6.3</font></strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="4">RPS</font></strong></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Representational<a name="Sec3o6o3"></a></font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div align="justify"><br>
The <font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font> context is marked by rising tone.
It focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates
that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other
concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical
connotations of the English sentence <em>That pinstripe-suited dog is checking
out a kitty</em>, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words
for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font>
context. The <font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font> is one of several ways that
Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from
a grammatical standpoint). </div>
<p align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">* Metonymy
is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or
phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The
orders came from <em>the White House</em>,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell
the cook <em>the ham-and-cheese</em> wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person
as in ‘<em>You-know-who</em> just showed up.’<br>
</font><br>
</p>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.6.4</font></strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="4">AMG</font></strong></td>
<td width="7%"> </td>
<td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Amalgamate<a name="Sec3o6o4"></a></font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"> The <font size="2">AMALGAMATE</font> context is marked by
broken tone. It is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western
linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like,
componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective
totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the
interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary
appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun
and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential)
within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting
the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances,
psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with
the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself,
intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels.
Thus the <font size="2">AMALGAMATE</font> version of our sentence <em>The cat
ran past the doorway</em> would take on quite melodramatic implications, with
the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for,
the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of
change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while
the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of
movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<br>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top">
<p><a name="Sec3o7"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.7 DESIGNATION</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"><strong>Designation</strong> is a somewhat subjective category,
with no equivalent in Western languages. Previously mentioned briefly in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Sec.
2.3</a>, it refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual
status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two designations
are the <font size="2">INFORMAL</font> and the <font size="2">FORMAL</font>,
explained below.<br>
</p>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.7.1 </font></strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="4">-FR</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="5%"> </td>
<td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Informal</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INFORMAL</font> designation is marked by
Form I of vocalic mutation (see <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Section
2.2.3</a>). It indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in
a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration
of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or
permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant.<br>
</p>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong><font size="4">3.7.2</font></strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="4">+FR</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"> </td>
<td width="68%"> <strong><font size="4">The Formal</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FORMAL</font> designation is marked by Form
II of vocalic mutation (see<font color="#FF0000"> <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Section
2.2.3</a></font>). The <font size="2">FORMAL</font> imparts a sense of permanency
and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional
manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if
the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’
‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the <font size="2">INFORMAL</font>
would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and
‘archetype’ in the <font size="2">FORMAL</font>.</p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FORMAL</font> achieves several subtle purposes
from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate
the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., <em>to hurt, to float,
breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough</em>), many stems would have different
translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>qum</strong></font> with the
affiliated meanings <em>person <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
group <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> gathering
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> crowd <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
throng</em>, etc. in the <font size="2">INFORMAL</font> designation would change
to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the <font size="2">FORMAL</font>
designation: <em>official <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
team <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> association/congregation
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> assembly <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
masses</em>, etc.</p>
<p align="justify">Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to <font size="2">INFORMAL</font><em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
<font size="2">FORMAL</font> designation are listed below:</p>
<table width="80%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="6%"> </td>
<td width="58%">to grow something <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
to cultivate</td>
<td width="36%">wander <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
travel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>obtain/get <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
procure/requisition</td>
<td>lake <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
reservoir</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>(natural) holder <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
container</td>
<td>see <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
observe</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>to create <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
construct/build</td>
<td>heap <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
pile</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>animal <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
domesticated animal</td>
<td>a thought <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
an idea</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>natural environment <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>“man-made”
environment</td>
<td>awareness <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
consciousness</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>[natural] exchange <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
trade/commerce</td>
<td>house <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
home</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>assortment of animals <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
zoo collection </td>
<td>grouping <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
set</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>to group/gather <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
collect</td>
<td>wall <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
barrier</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>get some exercise <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
to work out</td>
<td>placidity <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
peace</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>problem situation <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
crisis</td>
<td>to populate <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>
to settle</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"> As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation
of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on
its associated semantic context.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p><br>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><a name="Sec3o8"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.8 ESSENCE</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which
has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to
various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English
sentences:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"> 1a) <em>The boy ran off to sea.</em><br>
1b) <em>The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.</em></p>
<p align="justify">2a) <em>The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.</em><br>
2b) <em>The dog you saw doesn’t exist.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences
in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences
(1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized
contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would
make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the
plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store
owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.</p>
<p align="justify">Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world
meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog,
but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being
used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative
mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where
events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative
versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is
essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western
languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated
by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called
“modal” verbs of English, e.g., <em>must, can, should</em>, etc.
as seen in the following:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify">3) <em>You must come home at once.</em><br>
4) <em>That girl can sing better than anybody.</em><br>
5) <em>We should attack at dawn.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">Each of the above three sentences describe potential events,
not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example,
in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home
is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever
again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether
any attack will actually occur.<br>
</p>
<br>
<table width="51%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="14%"><strong><font size="4">3.8.1</font></strong></td>
<td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="4">NRM</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"> </td>
<td width="70%"> <strong><font size="4">The Normal<a name="Sec3o8o1"></a></font></strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RPV</strong></font></div></td>
<td> </td>
<td><strong><font size="4">The Representative</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The Ithkuil category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world
actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The
two essences are termed <font size="2">NORMAL</font> and <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font>,
the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the
latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly,
Ithkuil allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world
versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from
an explanatory context.</p>
<p align="justify">Essence is morpho-phonologically marked by primary versus secondary
mode of vocalic mutation, as previously described in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Sec.
2.2.3</a> and fully illustrated in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o5">Sec.
2.5</a>. The <font size="2">NORMAL</font> is marked by the primary mode while
the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font> is marked by secondary mode. </p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
3.8.2 Examples of Essence in Use</h3>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-8-2a.gif" width="450" height="119"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-2.mp3">Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-2.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font></p>
<p align="justify"><br>
<img src="Images/Ch%203/3-8-2b.gif" width="609" height="210"></p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<p align="right"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm" onClick="javascript:changenav4();">Proceed
to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >></a></strong></font></p>
<p align="justify"></p>
<p align="justify"></p>
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<tr>
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<td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a
Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9
Syntax</a></font></font></div></td>
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<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10
Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td>
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<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1
Phonology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6
More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11
The Script </a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2
Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a
Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12
The Number System</a></font></font></font></td>
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<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3
Basic Morphology</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The
Lexicon</a></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4
Case Morphology </a></font> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8
Adjuncts</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
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