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<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology</title>
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<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function.">
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<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil:
A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br>
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<td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a
Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9
Syntax</a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10
Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1
Phonology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6
More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11
The Script </a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2
Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a
Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12
The Number System</a></font></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3
Basic Morphology</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The
Lexicon</a></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4
Case Morphology </a></font> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8
Adjuncts</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2 align="center"> </h2>
<h2 align="center">Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology </h2>
<div align="center">
<table width="53%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1">
<tr>
<td width="223"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o1">2.1 Grammatical Typology</a></font></td>
<td width="178"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o5">2.5 Vocalic Mutation</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o2">2.2 Root and Stem Formation</a></font></td>
<td width="178"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o6">2.6 Parts of Speech</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o3">2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems</a></font></td>
<td width="178"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o7">2.7 Affixes</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o4">2.4 Consonantal Mutation</a></font></td>
<td width="178"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o8">2.8 Note On Terminology</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes
(meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to
generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g.,
singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.</p>
</div>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="19" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><font size="4"><strong>2.1
GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY<a name="Sec2o1"></a></strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The general method in which a language structures its morpho-phonology
determines what is known as its grammatical type. There are generally four distinct
grammatical types: <em>analytic, agglutinative, synthetic, </em>and<em> polysynthetic</em>.</p>
<p align="justify"><em>Analytic</em> languages (also called isolating languages)
rely on separate individual function words such as prepositions, determiners
and auxiliaries to morphologically manipulate root nouns and verbs. Example
languages are Chinese and Vietnamese.</p>
<p align="justify"><em>Agglutinative</em> languages rely upon affixes (e.g., prefixes,
suffixes) added one-by-one onto roots to morphologically manipulate words. Example
languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.</p>
<p align="justify"><em>Synthetic</em> languages (also called fusional, flexional,
or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation
and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau”
affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.</p>
<p align="justify"><em>Polysynthetic</em> (sometimes called incorporating) languages
generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative
elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting
a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit
(Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several
Paleo-Siberian languages.</p>
<p align="justify">Many languages rely upon a mixture of the above in their morpho-phonology.
For example, the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, etc.) are primarily
analytic, secondarily synthetic, and occasionally agglutinative. On the other
hand, English is primarily analytic, secondarily agglutinative, and occasionally
synthetic.</p>
<p align="justify">Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily synthetic and secondarily
agglutinative. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections
and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into
words, is primarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself and secondarily
via affixation. Specifically, Ithkuil morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal
and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different
kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.</p>
<p align="justify">For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the
Ithkuil word <img src="Images/Ch%202/2-1a.gif" width="122" height="18" align="absbottom">(<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-1.mp3">Listen:</a>
</font><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-1.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a>).
The stem of this word, <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ciùk</strong></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"></font>,
meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed
into the nearly unrecognizable form <img src="Images/Ch%202/2-1c.gif" width="73" height="18" align="absbottom">,
all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem,
are then added the prefix <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>eu</strong></font>-,
an infix -<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>w</strong></font>-,
and the affix -[V<font size="1">1</font>]<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font>’</strong>,
where [V<font size="1">1</font>] represents a vowel increment to be determined
by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into
a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct
word-components). These eleven morphemes and the mutation and affixation process
by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:</p>
<p><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-1e.gif" width="85" height="31" align="top"> <img src="Images/Ch%202/2-1a.gif" width="122" height="18" align="top">
=</p>
<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td><div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Morphological
Category<br>
<br>
</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Specific
morpheme</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Shown
by:</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td width="15%" height="53"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM:</font></td>
<td width="33%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ciùk</strong></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle">
<img src="Images/Ch%202/2-1f.gif" width="31" height="23" align="top"> <
root: </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>c </strong></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>
k</strong></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17"></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
“sheep”<br>
= “derived product of ewe” </font></td>
<td width="52%"><font size="2"> </font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Perspective:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABSTRACT</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(preantepenultimate
stress)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affiliation:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COALESCENT</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(prefix <strong>eu</strong>-
in conjunction with TERMINATIVE extension)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Extension:
</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TERMINATIVE</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(prefix <strong>eu</strong>-
in conjunction with COALESCENT affiliation)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Configuration:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COHERENT</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Grade 7 mutation of
C<font size="1">1</font> radical)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Focus:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POSITIVE FOCUS</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(-<strong>w</strong>-
infix immediately following C<font size="1">1</font> radical)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="24"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Designation:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FORMAL</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Form II of root-vowel
mutation)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="26"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Essence:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REPRESENTATIVE</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Secondary Mode of
root-vowel mutation)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="26"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Case:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REFERENTIAL</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Series E root-vowel
mutation + Grade 4 mutation of C<font size="1">2</font> radical)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td height="27"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Context:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AMALGAMATE</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(high tone)</font></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix:</font></td>
<td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<font size="1">1</font>t</font><font size="2">’</font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-
(8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool")</font></td>
<td><font size="2"> </font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<pre><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="2"><strong>APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION:</strong></font> <em>“concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”</em>
</font></pre>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><font size="4"><strong>2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION</strong></font><a name="Sec2o2"></a></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns
or verbs are based on a monosyllabic or disyllabic <strong>stem</strong>, which
in turn derives from an semantically abstract <strong>root</strong>. This process
is explained in the sections below.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
2.2.1 The Root <a name="Sec2o2o1"></a></h3>
<p align="justify">The <strong>root</strong> in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis
from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination
of two consonantal forms, <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> and <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>,
each of which we will call a <em>radical</em>. Together they create an <em>interfix</em>,
that is, an affix consisting of two parts, between which some other morpho-phonological
element is <em>infixed</em> (i.e., inserted). We will see that it is vowels
that will be infixed between the two radicals, . These radicals can consist
of a single consonant or a biconsonantal conjunct (i.e., made up of two consonants).
There are 60 possible forms for <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> and
60 possible forms for <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>, giving a total
of 3600 possible roots. Examples of these <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>
+ <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> radical interfixes are shown below.</p>
<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="26">
<div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p
+ x </font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tr
+ c’</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ks
+ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/q-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absbottom"></font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xl
+<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom"></font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example,
the radical interfix <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>r</strong></font>
is a root whose semantic referent is <font size="2">NAME/DESIGNATION</font>.
To generate functional word-stems (or simply <strong>stems</strong>) from the
roots, vowels are infixed into the <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>+<strong>C<font size="1">2</font>
</strong> radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>a</strong></font>
would be infixed into the radical interfix <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>r</strong></font>
to give the stem <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tar</strong></font>,
an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are
infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite
complex. It is described in the next several sections.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
2.2.2 The Stem </h3>
<p align="justify">The Ithkuil semantic root described in the previous section,
in turn diversifies into stems which are the actual bases of words in Ithkuil.
Furthermore, the stems of each root in turn divide into different Forms, Modes
and Patterns, all of which change the actual vowels infixed into the root. These
different vowel patternings for each stem are used to help differentiate the
complex array of morphological categories available to any stem. The specifics
of how Form, Mode, and Pattern operate for each stem are discussed below.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
<a name="Sec2o2o3"></a>2.2.3 Pattern, Form, and Mode</h3>
<p align="justify">There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the
level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning.
Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate <strong>Patterns</strong>,
which in turn come in two <strong>Forms</strong>. Furthermore, this array of
Pattern and Form is duplicated within a two-fold framework called <strong>Mode</strong>.
Thus, each stem has twelve different vowel patternings associated with it, as
shown in Table 5 below.</p>
<p><strong><br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 5: Vocalic Infixes for Stems
by Mode, Pattern and Form</font></strong></p>
<table width="49%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </td>
<td colspan="3" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <div align="center"><strong><font color="#0000FF" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Primary
Mode</font></strong></div></td>
<td colspan="3" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <div align="center"><strong><font color="#FF0000" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Secondary
Mode</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern
1</font></div></td>
<td width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern
2</font></div></td>
<td width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern
3</font></div></td>
<td width="13%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern
1</font></div></td>
<td width="12%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern
2</font></div></td>
<td width="20%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern
3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" rowspan="3"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form
I</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem
1</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">a</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">e</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ä</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">aî</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">eì</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">aì</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem
2</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">u</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">o</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ö</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">uî</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">oi</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">uì</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem
3</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">i</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ë</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ü</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">eî</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">oì</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ëì</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form
II</font></strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem
1</font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">â</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ê</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ae</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">aû</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">aè</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">aù</font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem
2 </font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">û</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ô</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ø</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">oû</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">où</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ëù</font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem
3 </font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">î</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ÿ</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">iu</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">eû</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">eù</font></font></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">iù</font></font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"> The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and
Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting
of a <strong>holistic</strong> stem and two <strong>complementary</strong> sub-stems.
An example would be the holistic stem <em>spouse</em>, with its two complementary
sub-stems <em>husband</em> and <em>wife</em>. This distinction of holistic versus
complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological
level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences
in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil
can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while
having such a small number of semantic word roots.</p>
<p align="justify">The two forms are labelled Form I and Form II. In <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o7">Section
3.7</a> we will see how Form is used to indicate a morphological category called
<strong>Designation</strong>. Designation is an important concept, in that,
like Pattern above, it operates to make morphological distinctions within a
stem that, in languages like English, often entail lexical differences, e.g.,
the difference between English <em>tool</em> versus <em>utensil</em>. </p>
<p align="justify">Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary.
Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence,
detailed in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Section
3.8</a>. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within
hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise
be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’
in the sentence <em>The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes</em> (e.g., in the newspaper
account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><a name="Sec2o3"></a><font size="4"><strong>2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION
OF STEMS</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into
the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological
category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it
will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three
for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This
will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems
associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
2.3.1 Holistic Stems</h3>
<p align="justify">The three stems for Form I, Pattern 1, have the designated
vowels <strong>a</strong>, <strong>u</strong>, and <strong>i</strong>. Thus,
the previously mentioned root <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>r</strong></font>
generates the following stems:</p>
<blockquote>
<p> 1. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tar</strong></font>
<em>‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’</em><br>
2. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tur</font></strong> <em>‘designation
or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’</em><br>
3. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tir</strong></font> <em>‘a
(temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary
or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying
root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem
1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation
of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible
manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem
3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of
Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship
between the individual stems for the root <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>r</strong></font>
above with that of the Form I root <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x</strong></font>+<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>n</strong></font>
(<font size="2">‘VISION/SIGHT’</font>) below.</p>
<blockquote>
<p> 1. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xan</strong></font>
<em>‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’</em><br>
2. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xun</strong></font> <em>‘an
eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’</em><br>
3. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xin</font></strong> <em>‘an
image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal
meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal
morphology. It should also be noted that the meanings given for the verb forms
above are approximate and incomplete, as we will see later that the exact meaning
of a verb form in Ithkuil is determined by the important morphological categories
of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Section
5.4</a>).</p>
<p align="justify">Looking at the Form II counterparts of the above two roots
below shows a difference in meaning from the Form I stems as determined by the
morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a
temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative
interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the
vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are <strong>â</strong>,
<strong>û</strong>, and <strong>î</strong>, as shown above in <a href="#Sec2o2o3">Table
5</a>.</p>
<blockquote>
<p> 1. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">târ</font></strong>
‘title; to (be) title(d)’<br>
2. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tûr</font></strong>
‘formal designation, label; to label’<br>
3. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tîr</font></strong>
‘formal role; to function in a formal role’ </p>
<p>1. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xân</font></strong>
‘visual observation; to visually observe’<br>
2. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xûn</font></strong>
‘optical device; to use an optical device’<br>
3. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xîn</strong></font>
‘a rendered image; to render an image’</p>
</blockquote>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
2.3.2 Complementary Stems</h3>
<p align="justify">Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into
two <strong>complementary</strong> stems which represent mutually exclusive
component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common
English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather
than being holistic word-stems. </p>
<p align="justify">By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation
of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another,
but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered
to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil,
for example, words such as <em>male</em>, <em>night</em>, <em>speech</em>, <em>sit</em>,
and <em>happen</em> are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts
of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another
part, the two together making up the whole. </p>
<p align="justify">Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word <em>male</em>
has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary
partner, <em>female</em>, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic,
holistic concept, translatable into English as <em>living being</em>. Similarly,
the word <em>night(time)</em> derives along with its complement <em>day(time)</em>
from the underlying concept translatable as <em>day</em> (i.e., a 24-hour period),
while the concept of <em>speak(ing)</em> divides into complementary concepts
of <em>talking</em> (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus
<em>saying/telling</em> (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound).
</p>
<p align="justify">Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity,
an example being the relationship between <em>sit</em> and <em>seat</em>; one
has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e.,
one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in
turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word <em>happen</em>
or <em>occur</em>, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without
the attendant implication of <em>consequence</em> or <em>result</em>, the two
being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as
<em>event</em> or <em>situation</em>.</p>
<p align="justify"> <strong>2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary
Stems</strong>. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem
by mutation of the holistic stem vowel from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g.,
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong>tal <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
tel</strong></font>, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation
from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tal
<strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></strong>
täl</font></strong>. Several examples of complementary stem derivation
are given below:</p>
<p align="justify"> Form I examples:</p>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="42%"><table width="94%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="39%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></td>
<td width="61%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>qum</strong></font>:
human being, person</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>qom</strong></font>:
male person </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Comp. Stem </font></td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qöm</font></strong>:
female person</td>
</tr>
</table></td>
<td width="2%"> </td>
<td width="56%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></td>
<td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klad</font></strong>:
flow of water </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kled</font></strong>:
the water component of a flow of water </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>kläd</strong></font>:
the channel or course of a flow of water</td>
</tr>
</table></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="50%"><table width="95%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="31%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></td>
<td width="69%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>til</strong></font>:
an act of written composition; to compose something in writing</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tël</strong></font>:
the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Comp. Stem </font></td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tül</strong></font></strong>:
the written content or message of a composition; to create written
content</td>
</tr>
</table></td>
<td width="3%"> </td>
<td width="47%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></td>
<td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xan</font></strong>:
sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing
seen)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xen</font></strong>:
an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see
with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xän</strong></font>:
a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image</td>
</tr>
</table></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><br>
Form II examples:</p>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="42%"><table width="94%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="38%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></td>
<td width="62%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qûm</font></strong>:
an official </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qôm</font></strong>:
male official </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Comp. Stem </font></td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qøm</font></strong>:
female official </td>
</tr>
</table></td>
<td width="2%"> </td>
<td width="56%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></td>
<td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klâd</font></strong>:
a river </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klêd</font></strong>:
the water in a river </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>klaed</strong></font>:
a riverbed</td>
</tr>
</table></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="47%"><table width="98%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="31%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></td>
<td width="69%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tîl</font></strong>:
an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tÿl</font></strong>:
physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write
a work</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Comp. Stem </font></td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tiul</strong></font></strong>:
the content(s) of a formal written work; to create the content of
a writing</td>
</tr>
</table></td>
<td width="4%"> </td>
<td width="49%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></td>
<td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kâl</font></strong>:
an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production +
the communicative element)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>kêl</strong></font>:
an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e.,
vocally emit words)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Comp. Stem</font></td>
<td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>kael</strong></font>:
spoken message; to say/tell (i.e., communicate via spoken words)</td>
</tr>
</table></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"><br>
<strong>2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation</strong>. As illustrated
above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often
neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’
breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative
aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down
into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case
that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is
counterintuitive to Western semantic notions. </p>
<p align="justify">For example, let us analyze the root <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>n</strong></font>
‘<font size="2">NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER</font>’. While most languages
would consider the concept <em>parent</em> as fundamentally opposite from the
concept <em>child</em> and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes
that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child,
just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an
archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is
referred to by the holistic stem <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</font></strong>.
One way to interpret the meaning, then, of <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</font></strong>
is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’
which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical.
But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’
but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship,
i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn
subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female.
Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem
2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual
meanings of the stems for <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>n</strong></font>
in Form I.</p>
<table width="75%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Stem</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st
Complementary Stem</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd
Complementary Stem</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="7%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 1</td>
<td width="25%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</font></strong>:
nuclear family member </td>
<td width="34%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hen</font></strong>:
parent</td>
<td width="34%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h<strong>ä</strong>n</font></strong>:
child</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 2</td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hun</font></strong>:
male nuclear family member </td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hon</font></strong>:
father </td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hön</font></strong>:
son</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 3</td>
<td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>hin</strong></font>:
female nuclear family member </td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hën</font></strong>:
mother </td>
<td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hün</font></strong>:
daughter</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within
single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:</p>
<table width="72%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="33%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic
Concept</font></div></td>
<td colspan="2"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Complementary
Concepts </font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>eating</strong></td>
<td width="32%">food</td>
<td width="35%">ingestion</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>think, act of thinking</strong></td>
<td>a thought (thing considered)</td>
<td>process of consideration</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>liquid</strong></td>
<td>fluid (= ontological nature)</td>
<td>wet[ness] (=defining attribute) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>measuring </strong></td>
<td>a measurement</td>
<td>process of measuring</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>transference of possession</strong></td>
<td>giving</td>
<td>taking</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>traversal between points</strong></td>
<td>coming, arrival </td>
<td> going, departure</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>commercial transaction </strong></td>
<td>buying</td>
<td>selling</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3><br>
<br>
2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems</h3>
<p align="justify">As each of the 3600 roots has six holistic stems (three in
each Form) and twelve complementary stems (six in each Form), there are a total
of 64,800 possible stems. We have begun to see how the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology
and morpho-semantics allow this limited number to permutate into a myriad of
imaginative and dynamic forms for application to any semantic context.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><font size="4"><strong>2.4 CONSONANTAL MUTATION</strong></font><a name="Sec2o4"></a></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Both of the consonantal radicals from <a href="#Sec2o3">Section
2.3.1</a> above, <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> and <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>,
are capable of undergoing mutation, that is, shifting to a different consonantal
form. The specific rules governing such mutation, however, are quite distinct
for <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radicals as compared to <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>
radicals.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
2.4.1 C1 Mutation </h3>
<p align="justify">As stated earlier, there are 60 forms for radical <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>.
Each can mutate into eight other forms, giving a total of nine possible manifestations
of each <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radical. These are labelled
Grade 1, Grade 2, etc., up to Grade 9. The nine grades of all 60 <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>
radicals are shown in Table No. 6 below. As examples, we can examine the nine
grades of the <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radicals <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<strong>k</strong></font> and <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">pl</font></strong>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
g <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> k’
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absmiddle"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
kf <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> km
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> kn <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
çk/<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> çk’/<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k’</font></strong></p>
<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> pl <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
bl <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> pr
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> br <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
p<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> b<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> p<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16">
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> b<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16">
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> bw/by</font></strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p><br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table No. 6: C<font size="1">1</font>
Mutation Patterns by Grade </strong></font></p>
<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="49%"><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-4-2a.gif" width="340" height="552"></td>
<td width="51%"><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-4-2b.gif" width="369" height="551"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-4-2c.gif" width="340" height="221"></td>
<td><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-4-2d.gif" width="367" height="223"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> </p>
<h3> 2.4.2 <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> Mutation </h3>
<p align="justify">As with <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>, there are
60 forms of the second radical, <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>. These
in turn can mutate into eight other forms, for a total of nine possible forms
for each <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> radical. These are shown
in Table No. 7 below. As an example, note the mutations of the <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>
radical <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>t</strong></font>:
</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
tt <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> rt
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> st <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
lt <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">t
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> št
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> nt <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
sst</font></strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">By combining the above mutational patterns for <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>
and <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>, along with the various vocalic
mutational patterns we will explore in the next section, we can see that any
given stem can easily mutate into myriad forms which, on the surface, bear scant
visual (or phonetic) resemblance to the original stem. <br>
</p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table No. 7: C<font size="1">2</font>
Mutation Patterns by Grade </strong></font></p>
<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="49%"><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-4-2e.gif" width="339" height="550"></td>
<td width="51%"><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-4-2f.gif" width="370" height="548"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-4-2g.gif" width="339" height="221"></td>
<td><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-4-2h.gif" width="371" height="221"></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><font size="4"><a name="Sec2o5"></a><strong>2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">In <a href="#Sec2o2o3">Section 2.2.3</a> above we saw how the
morpho-phonological distinctions of Mode, Form and Pattern are accomplished
by stem-specific vocalic infixes as illustrated in <a href="#Sec2o2o3">Table
5</a>. Like the consonantal <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> and <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>
radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight
variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series
C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I,
in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman
numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes
depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel
mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating
a different combination of Mode and Pattern.</p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Tables 8(a)-(f): Vocalic
Mutation by Stem, Mode, Pattern, Form and Series</strong></font><br>
<br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(a): Primary Mode, Pattern
1 </font></p>
<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="36" colspan="2"> </td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br>
A</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
B</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
C</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
D</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
E</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
F</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
G</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
H</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
J</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
I</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a<br>
u<br>
i</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai<br>
ui<br>
ei</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’(ï)<br>
u’(ï)<br>
i’(ï)</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wï<br>
u’wï<br>
i’wï</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wa<br>
u’wa<br>
i’wa </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’we<br>
u’we<br>
i’we</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wi<br>
u’wi<br>
i’wi </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wë<br>
u’wë<br>
i’wë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wo<br>
u’wo<br>
i’wo</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
II</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â<br>
û<br>
î</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">au<br>
ou<br>
eu </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’(ï)<br>
û’(ï)<br>
î ’(ï) </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’yï<br>
u’yï<br>
i’yï</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’ya<br>
u’ya<br>
i’ya</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’ye<br>
u’ye<br>
i’ye </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’yu<br>
u’yu<br>
i’yu </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’yë<br>
u’yë<br>
i’yë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’yo<br>
u’yo<br>
i’yo</font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(b): Primary Mode, Pattern
2</font></p>
<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="36" colspan="2"> </td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br>
A</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
B</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
C</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
D</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
E</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
F</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
G</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
H</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
J</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
I</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e<br>
o<br>
ë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ia<br>
io<br>
ie</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’(ï)<br>
o’(ï)<br>
ë’(ï)</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wï<br>
o’wï<br>
ë’wï</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wa<br>
o’wa<br>
ë’wa</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’we<br>
o’we<br>
ë’we </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wi<br>
o’wi<br>
ë’wi </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wë<br>
o’wë<br>
ë’wë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wo<br>
o’wo<br>
ë’wo</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
II</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ê<br>
ô<br>
ÿ </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ua<br>
uo<br>
ue</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ê’(ï)<br>
ô’(ï)<br>
ÿ’(ï)</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’yï<br>
o’yï<br>
ë’yï</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’ya<br>
o’ya<br>
ë’ya</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’ye<br>
o’ye<br>
ë’ye</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’yu<br>
o’yu<br>
ë’yu</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’yë<br>
o’yë<br>
ë’yë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’yo<br>
o’yo<br>
ë’yo</font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> <br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(c): Primary Mode, Pattern
3</font></p>
<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="36" colspan="2"> </td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br>
A</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
B</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
C</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
D</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
E</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
F</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
G</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
H</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
J</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
I</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä<br>
ö<br>
ü</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ea<br>
ië<br>
ëi </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’(ï)<br>
ö’(ï)<br>
ü’(ï)</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wï<br>
ö’wï<br>
ü’wï</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wa<br>
ö’wa<br>
ü’wa</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’we<br>
ö’we<br>
ü’we </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wi<br>
ö’wi<br>
ü’wi </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wë<br>
ö’wë<br>
ü’wë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wo<br>
ö’wo<br>
ü’wo</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
II</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ae <br>
ø<br>
iu</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">oa<br>
ëu<br>
uë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ae’(ï)<br>
ø’(ï)<br>
iu’(ï)</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’yï<br>
ö’yï<br>
ü’yï </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’ya<br>
ö’ya<br>
ü’ya</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’ye<br>
ö’ye<br>
ü’ye </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’yu<br>
ö’yu<br>
ü’yu </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’yë<br>
ö’yë<br>
ü’yë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’yo<br>
ö’yo<br>
ü’yo</font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> <br>
<br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(d): Secondary Mode, Pattern
1</font></p>
<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="36" colspan="2"> </td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br>
A</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
B</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
C</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
D</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
E</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
F</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
G</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
H</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
J</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
I</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">aî <br>
uî<br>
eî</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’i <br>
u’i<br>
e’i </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">âì<br>
ûì<br>
êì </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wï<br>
ui’wï<br>
ei’wï</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wa<br>
ui’wa<br>
ei’wa</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’we<br>
ui’we<br>
ei’we</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wi<br>
ui’wi<br>
ei’wi</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wë<br>
ui’wë<br>
ei’wë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wo<br>
ui’wo<br>
ei’wo</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
II</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">aû<br>
oû<br>
eû</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’u<br>
o’u<br>
e’u</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">âù<br>
oî<br>
êù</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’yï<br>
ou’yï<br>
eu’yï</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’ya<br>
ou’ya<br>
eu’ya</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’ye<br>
ou’ye<br>
eu’ye</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’yu<br>
ou’yu<br>
eu’yu</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’yë<br>
ou’yë<br>
eu’yë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’yo<br>
ou’yo<br>
eu’yo</font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> <br>
<br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(e): Secondary Mode, Pattern
2</font></p>
<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="36" colspan="2"> </td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br>
A</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
B</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
C</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
D</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
E</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
F</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
G</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
H</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
J</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
I</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">eì<br>
oi<br>
oì</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">i’a<br>
i’e<br>
i’o</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">îa<br>
îo<br>
îe</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wï<br>
ê’wï<br>
ô’wï</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wa<br>
ê’wa<br>
ô’wa</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’we<br>
ê’we<br>
ô’we</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wi<br>
ê’wi<br>
ô’wi</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wë<br>
ê’wë<br>
ô’wë </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wo<br>
ê’wo<br>
ô’wo</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
II</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">aè<br>
où<br>
eù </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">u’a<br>
u’e<br>
u’o</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">ûa<br>
ûo<br>
ûe</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’yï<br>
ê’yï<br>
ô’yï </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’ya<br>
ê’ya<br>
ô’ya </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’ye<br>
ê’ye<br>
ô’ye</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’yu<br>
ê’yu<br>
ô’yu </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’yë<br>
ê’yë<br>
ô’yë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’yo<br>
ê’yo<br>
ô’yo</font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> <br>
<br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(f): Secondary Mode, Pattern
3</font></p>
<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="36" colspan="2"> </td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br>
A</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
B</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
C</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
D</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
E</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
F</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
G</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
H</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
J</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
I</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">aì<br>
uì<br>
ëì</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’a<br>
i’ë<br>
ë’i </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">iê<br>
îù<br>
üa </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wï<br>
ø’wï<br>
î’wï </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wa<br>
ø’wa<br>
î’wa </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’we<br>
ø’we<br>
î’we </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wi<br>
ø’wi<br>
î’wi </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wë<br>
ø’wë<br>
î’wë </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wo<br>
ø’wo<br>
î’wo</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br>
II</font></strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br>
stem 2<br>
stem 3</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">aù<br>
ëù<br>
iù</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">o’a<br>
ë’u<br>
u’ë</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">aê<br>
üe<br>
iû </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’yï<br>
ø’yï<br>
î’yï </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’ya<br>
ø’ya<br>
î’ya </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’ye<br>
ø’ye<br>
î’ye</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’yu<br>
ø’yu<br>
î’yu</font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’yë<br>
ø’yë<br>
î’yë </font></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’yo<br>
ø’yo<br>
î’yo</font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><font size="4"><strong>2.6
PARTS OF SPEECH<a name="Sec2o6"></a></strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: <em>formatives</em> and
<em>adjuncts</em>. While Ithkuil does employ words which function as nouns and
verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical
stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular
morpho-semantic context), hence the term <em>formative</em>. This process of
noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1
below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners,
conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous
lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes
for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct
morphological paradigm.</p>
<p align="justify">Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there
are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the
same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives
are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational
category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically
exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course,
be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning
that are contextually unnecessary).</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
<a name="Sec2o6o1"></a> 2.6.1 Formatives </h3>
<p align="justify">The stem formed as per the discussion in <a href="#Sec2o3">Section
2.3</a> above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the <em>formative</em>.
All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and
the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or
a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical
relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives
that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative
<strong>klâd</strong> illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both
‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither
meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the
other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise
only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such
nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation
or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form
is arbitrary. For example, the following Ithkuil phrases can be translated using
either verbal predicates or purely nominal phrases:<br>
</p>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%202/2-6-1a.gif" width="190" height="25"><font color="#FFFFFF">
______</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-2.mp3">Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-2.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br>
<em>‘by the time of his death’</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong>
<em>‘by the time he dies’</em></p>
<p align="justify"><br>
<img src="Images/Ch%202/2-6-1b.gif" width="194" height="24"><br>
<em>‘the awful-smelling woman’</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong>
<em>‘the woman smells awful’</em></p>
<p align="justify"><br>
<img src="Images/Ch%202/2-6-1d.gif" width="208" height="23"><font color="#FFFFFF">
______</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3">Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br>
<em>‘what the eagle sees’</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong>
<em>‘the eagle’s seeing something’</em></p>
<p align="justify"><br>
The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of
a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns
and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary
manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum
whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing
these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum
of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving
rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to
either <em>spatially “reify”</em> this formative into an object
or entity (i.e., a noun) or to<em> temporally “activize”</em> it
into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can
be diagrammed as follows:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"> <br>
<img src="Images/Ch%202/2-6-1.gif" width="493" height="116"> </p>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
<h3>2.6.2 Adjuncts <a name="Sec2o6o2"></a></h3>
<p align="justify">Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with
adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the
formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will,
would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”).
</p>
<p align="justify">Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic
affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts,
most of which are described in detail in <a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter
8: Adjuncts</a>. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<div align="justify"><strong>Personal Reference Adjuncts</strong>: The nearest
equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form
the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular
noun in some case relationship. <br>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><strong>Valence Adjuncts and Conflation Adjuncts</strong>:
These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information
on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format,
Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter
5: Verb Morphology</a>.<br>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><strong>Aspectual Adjuncts</strong>: These are used in
conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information on the morphological
categories of Aspect, Mood, Validation, Phase, Sanction, and Bias. Each
of these categories is discussed in <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter
6: Additional Verb Morphology</a>.<br>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><strong>Affixual Adjuncts</strong>: These function as
whole-word substitutes for the consonantal affixes usually added to formatives.
Their use is governed primarily by phonaesthetic principles (see<font color="#FF0000">
</font><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o5">Section 1.4.5</a>). <br>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify"><strong>Combination Adjuncts</strong>: A blanket category
covering several types of complex adjuncts which combine several distinct
morphological categories into a single adjunct. Used primarily for euphonic
and phonaesthetic purposes. </div>
</li>
</ul>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<p><font size="4"><strong>2.7 AFFIXES</strong></font><a name="Sec2o7"></a></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div align="justify"><br>
Ithkuil, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and
infixes) in its morphology. The rules governing the formation of these affixes
are rather complex. The fundamentals are discussed below, while the actual affixes
themselves are explored later in <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter
7: Using Affixes</a>. </div>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
2.7.1 Consonant-based Affixes<a name="Sec2o7o1"></a></h3>
<p align="justify">Ithkuil makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic
affixes (i.e., containing no consonants) and affixes which are based on a consonant
(which may or may not contain vowels). In this section we will explore consonant-based
affixes.</p>
<p align="justify">Every consonant-based affix used with a formative is composed
of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic
form associated with it. The suffix form of a consonant-based affix is of the
form <strong>V+C</strong> (i.e., vowel + consonant), with an optional alternate
form of <strong>C+V</strong> when in word-final position and in certain other
circumstances. This word-final alternate form is explained in more detail in
<a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter 7</a>. As for
the optional prefix form of consonantal affixes, this will also be discussed
in Chapter 7; the discussion below applies only to the suffix form of affixes.</p>
<p align="justify">While the consonantal portion of the affix is always invariable,
the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as
<strong>degree</strong> and <strong>affix-type</strong>. The nine different
degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for affix-type,
every consonantal-based V+C (or C+V) affix falls into one of three types, which
determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant
C. The three affix-types are labelled <strong>V<font size="1">1</font></strong>,
<strong>V<font size="1">2</font></strong>, and <strong>V<font size="1">3</font></strong>,
in reference to the vowel portion of the affix.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting<a name="Sec2o7o2"></a></h3>
<p align="justify">In addition to the three affix-types, the vowel(s) associated
with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of
which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three affix-types.
Table 9 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each affix-type. </p>
<p align="justify">Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant
and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without
causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken
for a mutation of the final consonantal radical <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>),
Ithkuil permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of
the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for
each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than
precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.</p>
<p align="justify"></p>
<p align="justify"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 9:
Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type </font></strong></p>
<table width="80%" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="12%" rowspan="2"> </td>
<td colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix
Type 1: -V<font size="1">1</font>C</font></strong></div></td>
<td colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix
Type 2: -V<font size="1">2</font>C</font></strong></div></td>
<td colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix
Type 3: -V<font size="1">3</font>C</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="18%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard
form </font></strong></div></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional
reversed form</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="21%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard
form </font></strong></div></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional
reversed form</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="13%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard
form </font></strong></div></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional
reversed form</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
1</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-iC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cai</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-îC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cëi</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-ieC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Caï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
2</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-eC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cei</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-êC / -eiC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ceu </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-iëC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ceï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
3</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-äC / -aeC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cia</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-âC /-aiC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Câ</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-iuC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ciï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
4</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-öC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cua</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-øC / -euC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ciu</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-ioC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Coï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
5</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-(a)C</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ca</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-uiC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cui</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-iäC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cuï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
6</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-üC / -ëuC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cü</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-ÿC / -auC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cau</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-uäC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cäi</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
7</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-ïC / -ëiC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cï</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-ëC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cëu</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-uoC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cöi</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
8</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-oC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Coi</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-ôC / -oiC / -ouC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cou</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-uëC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cäu</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
9</font></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-uC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cu</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-ûC</strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cû</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>-ueC </strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cöu</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see
in Table 10 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms)
would actually appear in conjunction with the stem <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>rit</strong></font>:</p>
<p align="justify"><br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong>TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATION
OF VOWEL POSITION IN SUFFIXES</strong></font></p>
<table width="80%" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="3">
<tr>
<td width="11%"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix:
-V<font size="1">1</font>k</font></strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix
Type 2: -V<font size="1">2</font>k</font></strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix
Type 3: -V<font size="1">3</font>k</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
1</font></td>
<td width="27%"><div align="left"><strong> ritik / ritkai</strong></div></td>
<td width="34%"><div align="left"><strong>ritîk / ritkëi</strong></div></td>
<td width="28%"><div align="left"><strong>ritiek / ritkaï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
2</font></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritek / ritkei </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritêk / riteik / ritkeu</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritiëk / ritkeï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
3</font></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritäk / ritaek / ritkia</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ</strong></div></td>
<td> <div align="left"><strong>ritiuk /ritkiï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
4</font></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritök / ritkua</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritøk / riteuk / ritkiu</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritiok / ritkoï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
5</font></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritk / ritak / ritka</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>rituik / ritkui</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritiäk / ritkuï</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
6</font></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritük / ritëuk / ritkü</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritÿk / ritauk / ritkau</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>rituäk / ritkäi</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
7</font></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritïk / ritëik / ritkï </strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritëk / ritkëu</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>rituok / ritköi</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
8</font></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritok /ritkoi</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>rituëk / ritkäu</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree
9</font></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>rituk / ritku</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>ritûk / ritkû</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="left"><strong>rituek / ritköu</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"> Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix
reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such
reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (<a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o5">see
Sec. 1.4.5</a>).</p>
<p align="justify">As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used
in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal affixes, which generally
indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular
affix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree
(i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal
degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We
will see in <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter
7: Using Affixes</a> how this gradient system is used systematically in many
dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated
with the nine degrees for the affix -<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<font size="1">1</font>d</font></strong>.</p>
<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#FFFFFF">
<tr>
<td width="5%"> </td>
<td width="12%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree</font></strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> <div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix</font></strong></div></td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> <div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Meaning</font></strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
1</font></div></td>
<td width="21%"><strong>-id / -dai</strong></td>
<td width="62%">wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2</font></div></td>
<td><strong>-ed / -dei</strong></td>
<td>way too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
3</font></div></td>
<td><strong>-äd / -aed / -dia</strong></td>
<td>not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
4</font></div></td>
<td><strong>-öd / -dua</strong></td>
<td>not quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
5</font></div></td>
<td><strong>-d / -ad / -da</strong></td>
<td>enough (of) / sufficient(ly)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
6</font></div></td>
<td><strong>-üd / -ëud / -dü</strong></td>
<td>a little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
7</font></div></td>
<td><strong>-ïd / -ëid / -dï</strong></td>
<td>too / too much / over-[+verb]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
8</font></div></td>
<td><strong>-od /-doi</strong></td>
<td>way too much / totally over-[+verb]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
9</font></div></td>
<td><strong>-ud / -du</strong></td>
<td>nothing but / to the exclusion of all else</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes</h3>
<p align="justify">Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in <a href="#Sec2o3">Section
2.3</a> et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather
than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes
to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic
affixes -<strong>ï</strong>-, and -<strong>a</strong>. Each of these contexts
is discussed below:</p>
<p align="justify"><strong>2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes</strong>. Vocalic prefixes
are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels
or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., <strong>a</strong>-, <strong>ui</strong>-,
<strong>ae</strong>-, <strong>ia</strong>-, <strong>ö</strong>-, <strong>eu</strong>-,
etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial <strong>w</strong>-
or <strong>y</strong>- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic
morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical
categories), they do not mutate. A word can take only one such prefix. The usage
and function of these vocalic prefixes will be discussed as they are encountered
in the chapters on morphology which follow.</p>
<p align="justify"><strong>2.7.3.2 Vocalic Suffixes</strong>. Purely vocalic suffixes
(other than the anaptyctic vowels discussed below) occur only in adjuncts, not
formatives. Like vocalic prefixes described immediately above, they can be highly
synthetic morphologically but do not mutate. Unlike vocalic prefixes, there
can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e.,
added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.</p>
<p align="justify"><strong><a name="Sec2o7o3o3"></a>2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels
-ï- and -a</strong>. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require
a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix,
suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter
7: Using Affixes</a>, an anaptyctic infix, -<strong>ï</strong>-, is used
in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>
stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to
prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the
<strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radical. For example, while the prefix
<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s</font></strong>- is phonotactically
permissible before the stem <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kaf</font></strong>,
the resulting word must be <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>sïkaf</strong></font>,
not <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">skaf</font></strong>,
as the latter is a completely different stem employing a <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>
radical <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>sk</strong></font>-.</p>
<p align="justify">An anaptyctic vowel is also sometimes required in Ithkuil when
grammatical rules call for antepenultimate stress on a word (i.e., the third-from-last
syllable is stressed), but the word in question has only one or two syllables.
In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes
this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have,
but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the
anaptyctic vowel <strong>ï</strong>- can be prefixed to a word beginning
with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -<strong>a</strong>
can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kfuil
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> ïkfùila</font></strong>.
This anaptyctic suffix -<strong>a</strong> is also required for phonotactical
euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>
to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> tt</font></strong>
as in <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>reit <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></font>
reitta</strong></font>.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><font size="4"><strong>2.8
NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY<a name="Sec2o8"></a></strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological
categories in passing, beginning with <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter
3: Basic Morphology</a>, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be
discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt
morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories
is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic
category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic
terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Ibero-Caucasian grammar
has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity
of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.</p>
<p align="right"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm" onClick="javascript:changenavhome();"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed
to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >></font></a></strong></p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
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<tr>
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<td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a
Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9
Syntax</a></font></font></div></td>
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<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10
Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td>
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<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1
Phonology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6
More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11
The Script </a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2
Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a
Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12
The Number System</a></font></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3
Basic Morphology</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The
Lexicon</a></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4
Case Morphology </a></font> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8
Adjuncts</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td>
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