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<h2 align="center" class="style31">Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</h2>
<table width="100%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="22%" rowspan="7"><div align="center"><span class="style31"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></span></div></td>
<td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td>
<td width="24%"><p class="style3"> </p></td>
<td width="31%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="18"><span class="style35"><a href="http://www.ithkuil.net">Home</a></span></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style35">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style35">9 Syntax</span></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="18"><span class="style35"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></span></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style35">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style35">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style35">1 Phonology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style35">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style35">11 The Writing System</span></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style35">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style35">7 Suffixes</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style35">12 The Number System</span></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style35">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style35">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style35">The Lexicon</span></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="21"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<br />
<br />
<h2 align="center" class="style32">Chapter 1: Phonology </h2>
<p align="justify">The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system of Ilaksh is detailed in the sections below. </p>
<p> </p>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td><div align="justify" class="style6"><strong>1.1 NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">The native script used to represent Ilaksh is both alien and complex. It is explained in Chapter 11. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic structure of Ilaksh words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in transliterating some of the phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ilaksh, various diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system. Additionally, the hyphen is used in Ilaksh to separate dissyllabic vowel combinations which might otherwise be interpreted as diphthongs, e.g., <strong>a-i</strong> versus <strong>ai</strong>.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td><span class="style6"><strong>1.2 PHONEMIC INVENTORY<a name="Sec1o2" id="Sec1o2"></a> </strong></span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Ilaksh has 30 consonants and ten vowels, far fewer than Ithkuil's 65 consonants and 17 vowels. These phonemes are illustrated by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized orthography. <br />
</p>
<p align="justify" class="style20"><strong>Tables 1(a) and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory</strong></p>
<p align="justify"><strong>Table 1(a): Consonantal Inventory</strong>
<table cellpadding="2" width="68%" border="1">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="13%" rowspan="2"> </td>
<td colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>Plosives</strong></div> <div align="center" class="style20"></div></td>
<td colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>Affricates</strong></div> <div align="center" class="style20"></div></td>
<td colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>Fricatives</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>Nasals</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>Taps/<br />
Trills</strong></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>Liquids</strong></div></td>
<td width="12%"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>Approximants</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="6%" height="30"><div align="center" class="style20">un-<br />
voiced</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style20">+voice</div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center" class="style20">un-<br />
voiced</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style20">+voice</div></td>
<td width="8%"><div align="center" class="style20">un-<br />
voiced</div></td>
<td width="8%"><div align="center" class="style20">+voice</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style20">+voice</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style20">+voice</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style20">+voice</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style20">+voice</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="style20"><strong>BILABIAL</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">p</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">b</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div> </td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">m</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="style20"><strong>LABIO-VELAR</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div> </td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">w</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="style20"><strong>LABIO-DENTAL</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div>
<div align="center" class="style37"></div> </td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">f</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">v</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="style20"><strong>DENTAL</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">t</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">d</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div> </td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">ŧ</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">đ</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">n</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style38">l</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="30"><span class="style20"><strong>ALVEOLAR</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">c</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">ż</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">s</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">z</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="style20"><strong>ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">r</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="style20"><strong>POST-ALVEOLAR</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">č</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">j</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style36">š</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style38">ž</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="39"><span class="style20"><strong>PALATAL</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div> </td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><strong>ç</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><strong>y</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="38"><span class="style20"><strong>VELAR</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><strong>k</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><strong>g</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div> </td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><strong>x</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><span class="style2">_</span></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style38">ň</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="36"><span class="style20"><strong>UVULAR</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><span class="style2">_</span></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div> </td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><span class="style2">_</span></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style38">ř</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="37"><span class="style20"><strong>GLOTTAL</strong></span></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><strong>’</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div> </td>
<td><div align="center" class="style39"><strong>h</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
<td><div align="center" class="style37">_</div></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><br />
<strong>Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory</strong></p>
<table cellpadding="0" width="423" border="1">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="81" height="26"> </td>
<td valign="center" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style20">FRONT</div></td>
<td valign="center" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style20">CENTRAL</div></td>
<td valign="center" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style20">BACK</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="25"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td valign="center" width="48"><div align="center" class="style20">unrounded</div></td>
<td valign="center" width="48"><div align="center" class="style20">rounded</div></td>
<td valign="center" width="49"><div align="center" class="style20">unrounded</div></td>
<td valign="center" width="55"><div align="center" class="style20">rounded</div></td>
<td valign="center" width="55"><div align="center" class="style20">unrounded</div></td>
<td valign="center" width="55"><div align="center" class="style20">rounded</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26"><div align="center" class="style20">High</div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>i</strong></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style33">_</div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ï</strong></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ü</strong></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style33">_</div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>u</strong> </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="25"><div align="center" class="style20">Mid</div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>e</strong></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ö</strong></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center"><span class="style6"><strong>ë</strong></span></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style33">_ </div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>o</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="27"><div align="center" class="style20">Low</div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ä</strong></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style33">_ </div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>a</strong></div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style33">_ </div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style33">_</div></td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center" class="style33">_ </div></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p> </p>
<h3><strong> 1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants </strong></h3>
<p align="justify">The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal sounds of Ilaksh. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ilaksh words have been provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar but distinct phonemes.</p>
<table cellpadding="0" width="97%" border="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="7%" height="33"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>b</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top" width="93%"><div align="justify">As in English. A voiced bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>b</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="37"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>c</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">
<p>As in English <em>bi<strong>ts</strong></em>. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [<strong>ts</strong>]. X-SAMPA [<strong> t_s</strong> ]. <br />
</p>
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="53"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>č</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>ch</strong>in</em> but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA [<img height="18" src="images/Symbols/IPA ts-v.gif" width="13" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [ <strong>t_S</strong> ]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="44"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ç</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Like the initial sound in English <em><strong>h</strong>uman</em>, <em><strong>h</strong>uge</em>, <em><strong>h</strong>ue</em>, or the sound in German <em>i<strong>ch</strong></em>. A voiceless dorso-palatal non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [<strong>ç</strong>]. X-SAMPA [<strong>C</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="50"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>d</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA [<img src="images/Symbols/IPA d-dental.gif" alt="d-dental" width="10" height="18" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>d_d</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="35"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>đ</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>th</strong>is</em>, <em>ba<strong>th</strong>e</em>, <em>wea<strong>th</strong>er</em>. A voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [<strong>ð</strong>]. X-SAMPA [<strong>D</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="38"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>f</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English. A voiceless labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>f</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="37"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>g</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Always as in English <em><strong>g</strong>a<strong>g</strong></em>; never as in <em>ginger</em>. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>g</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="54"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>h</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>h</strong>all</em>. Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable in Ilaksh. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>h</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="51"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>j</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>j</strong>u<strong>dg</strong>e</em> but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA [<img height="17" src="images/Symbols/IPA dz-v.gif" width="16" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>d_Z</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="54"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>k</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English <strong><em>k</em></strong> but without aspiration. Like the <em>k</em>-sound of the Romance languages, e.g., Spanish or Italian <em><strong>c</strong>asa</em>. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>k</strong>]. <br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="50"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>l</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">The “light” <em>l</em>-sound of the Romance languages, or as in British English <em><strong>l</strong>eader</em>; not the “dark” (velarized) <em>l</em>-sound of American English <em><strong>l</strong>u<strong>ll</strong></em>. A voiced apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>l</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="31"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>m</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>m</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="58"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>n</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English, but made with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant obstruent; IPA [<img height="13" src="images/Symbols/IPA n-dental.gif" width="9" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>n_d</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="36"><div align="center" class="style6"><span class="style32">ň</span></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">The English <em>ng</em>-sound as in <em>so<strong>ng</strong></em> or <em>ri<strong>ng</strong>er</em>; NEVER as in <em>fi<strong>ng</strong>er</em>. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant obstruent;. IPA [<strong>ŋ</strong>]. X-SAMPA [<strong>N</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="38"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>p</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English, but without aspiration. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>p</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="57"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>r</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">This sound is a single flap of the tongue tip as in Spanish <em>ca<strong>r</strong>o</em> or <em>pe<strong>r</strong>o</em>. When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish <em>ca<strong>rr</strong>o</em> or <em>pe<strong>rr</strong>o</em>. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex flap/trill; IPA [<img height="10" src="images/Symbols/IPA r-flap.gif" width="6" />], [<strong>r</strong>]. X-SAMPA [<strong>4</strong>], [<strong>r</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="56"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ř</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. Like the throaty or “gargled” <em>r</em>-sound found in colloquial French and German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA [<img height="10" src="Images/Symbols/IPA R-uvular approxmt.gif" width="8" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>R</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="35"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>s</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>s</strong>i<strong>s</strong>ter</em>. A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>s</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="59"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>š</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>sh</strong>oe<strong>sh</strong>ine</em> but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<img height="17" src="images/Symbols/IPA S-esh.gif" width="10" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>S</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="58"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>t</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English but without aspiration and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental unaspirated plosive; IPA [<img height="16" src="images/Symbols/IPA t-dental.gif" width="7" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>t_d</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="32"><div align="center"><strong>ŧ</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>th</strong>in</em>, <em>ba<strong>th</strong></em>. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; IPA [<strong>θ</strong>]. X-SAMPA [<strong>T</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="40"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>v</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English. A voiced labio-dental fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>v</strong>].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="42"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>w</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">
<p>As in English <em><strong>w</strong>ell</em>, <em><strong>w</strong>orry</em>. A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>w</strong>].<br />
</p>
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="80"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>x</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled <span class="style20"><strong>x</strong></span> in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish <strong>j</strong>. Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce a <em>k</em>-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing an <em>h</em>-sound instead. IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>x</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="42"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>y</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>y</strong>et</em>, <em><strong>y</strong>am</em>. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); IPA and X-SAMPA [ <strong>j </strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="40"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>z</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>z</strong>oo</em>, <em>wi<strong>z</strong>ard</em>. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong>z</strong>]. <br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="37"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ż</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Like an English <em>d</em>+<em>z</em> sound, as in <em>roa<strong>ds</strong></em>, <em>a<strong>dz</strong>e</em>. A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [<strong>dz</strong>]. X-SAMPA [<strong>d_z</strong>]. <br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="49"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ž</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">The voiced counterpart of <strong>š</strong> above. Similar to the sound in English <em>plea<strong>s</strong>ure</em> or <em>lei<strong>s</strong>ure</em>, but without lip-rounding. A voiced lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<img height="14" src="images/Symbols/IPA ezh.gif" width="8" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>Z</strong>]. <br /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="76"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>’</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">This sound is the glottal stop heard between the two vowels in English o<em>h-oh</em> or as the sound heard in the word <em>fa<strong>tt</strong>ening</em> as pronounced by most American English speakers. This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [<img height="14" src="images/Symbols/IPA glottal stop.gif" width="7" align="absmiddle" />]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p align="justify"><span class="style8"><strong><a name="Sec1o2o1o1" id="Sec1o2o1o1"></a>1.2.1.1 Syllabic consonants</strong></span><span class="style8">.</span> The consonants, <span class="style6"><strong>l</strong>, <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>,</span> and <span class="style6"><strong>ň</strong></span> can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants <em>n</em> and <em>l</em> as in the second syllable of words like <em>button</em> and <em>little</em>. Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words <em>nda</em> ‘no’, and <em>ndíghílii</em> ‘sunflower.’ In Ilaksh, these four syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant as in <span class="style6"><strong>ntal</strong></span>. However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate syllable. These special dyssyllabic geminates are indicated by writing a hyphen between the two syllabic “halves,” e.g., <em>ho<strong>m-m</strong>, i<strong>l-l</strong>ûi, thi<strong>ň-ň</strong>àx</em>.<br />
.</p>
<h3 align="justify">1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels</h3>
<p align="justify">There are ten vowel phonemes, all of which are pure sounds, not glided into diphthongs as in English. </p>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="4%" height="40" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>a</strong></div></td>
<td width="96%" valign="top"><div align="justify">A low unrounded central vowel as in Spanish or Italian. IPA or X-SAMPA [<strong>a</strong>].<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="40" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>e</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">The mid unrounded front vowel of Spanish <em><strong>e</strong>st<strong>e</strong></em> or Italian <em>cad<strong>e</strong>re</em> or French <em>d<strong>é</strong>jà</em>; IPA or X-SAMPA [<strong>e</strong>]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="79" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>i</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><p>This vowel is pronounced either as the high tense rounded vowel of Spanish or Italian <em>l<strong>i</strong>bro</em>, and German <em>s<strong>ie</strong>gen</em>, IPA or X-SAMPA [<strong>i</strong>], or as the high lax unrounded front vowel as in English <em>s<strong>i</strong>t</em>, or German <em>s<strong>i</strong>tzen</em>. IPA [<span class="style18">I</span>] or X-SAMPA [<strong>I</strong>]. The rules for determining which pronunciation is used is discussed in <a href="Sec1o2o5o2">Section 1.2.5.2</a> below on allophonic rules. </p> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="40" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>o</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">The mid rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian <em>c<strong>o</strong>sa</em>. IPA or X-SAMPA [<strong>o</strong>]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="77" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>u</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">This vowel is pronounced either as the high tense rounded back vowel of Spanish or Italian <em>p<strong>u</strong>ta</em> or <em>cr<strong>u</strong>do</em>, IPA X-SAMPA [<strong>u</strong>], or as the high lax rounded back vowel as in English <em>p<strong>u</strong>t</em> or <em>l</em><em><strong>oo</strong>k</em>. IPA [<span class="style18">U</span>] or X-SAMPA [<strong>U</strong>]. The rules for determining which pronunciation is used is discussed in <a href="Sec1o2o5o2">Section 1.2.5.2</a> below on allophonic rules. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="75" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ä</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">The low unrounded front vowel in American English <em>s<strong>a</strong>t</em>, IPA [<strong>æ</strong>] or X-SAMPA <span class="style8">[<strong>{</strong> ]</span>. Alternately, this vowel may be pronounced as the mid-low unrounded front vowel of English <em>b<strong>e</strong>t</em>, Italian <em>l<strong>e</strong>tto</em>, or French <em>apr<strong>è</strong>s</em> IPA [<img height="14" src="images/Symbols/IPA e-epsilon.gif" width="8" align="absbottom" />] or X-SAMPA [E], if this is easier for the speaker and to better distinguish it from the sound of Ilaksh <span class="style6"><strong>e</strong></span> above. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="39" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ë</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">The mid unrounded central vowel in American English <em>c<strong>u</strong>t</em> or <em>n<strong>u</strong>t</em>, IPA [<strong>ə</strong>] or X-SAMPA [<strong>@</strong>]. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="76" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ï</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">This vowel may be pronounced in either of two ways, whichever is easier for the speaker. The first is as the high central unrounded vowel of Russian <span class="style6">б<strong>ы</strong>ть</span>, IPA [<img src="images/Symbols/IPA i-bar.gif" alt="i-bar" width="10" height="21" align="absbottom" />] or X-SAMPA [<strong>1</strong>]. The second way is to pronounce it as the high back unrounded vowel found in Turkish (spelled with an undotted <strong>i</strong>), also found in Japanese as the pronunciation of the short vowel <strong>u</strong>, IPA <img src="images/Symbols/IPA u-unrounded.gif" alt="unrounded-u" width="22" height="14" align="absbottom" /> or X-SAMPA [<strong>M</strong>].</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="40" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ö</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">The mid rounded front vowel of French <em>f<strong>eu</strong></em> or German <em>sch<strong>ö</strong>n. </em>IPA [<strong>ø</strong>] or X-SAMPA [<strong>2</strong>]. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="40" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ü</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top">A high central rounded vowel, as found in Norwegian <em>h<strong>u</strong>s</em> or the Highland Scottish pronunciation of English <em>b<strong>oo</strong>k</em> or <em>g<strong>oo</strong>d</em>; IPA [<img src="images/Symbols/IPA u-bar.gif" alt="barred-u" width="11" height="15" align="absbottom" />] or X-SAMPA [ <strong>}</strong>]. Alternately, this vowel may be pronounced as the high rounded front vowel of French <em>d<strong>u</strong></em> or German <em><strong>ü</strong>ber</em>, IPA or X-SAMPA [<strong>y</strong>], if this is easier for the speaker.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p> </p>
<h3 align="justify">1.2.3 Diphthongs</h3>
<p align="justify">An Ilaksh syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ilaksh diphthongs are “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 14 diphthongs in Ilaksh, described as follows:</p>
<table cellpadding="0" width="100%" border="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="10%" height="33"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ai </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top" width="90%"><div align="justify">Pronounced as in Spanish or Italian; like English <em>i</em> in <em>white</em> or <em>ice</em>. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="33"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>äi </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel <strong>ä</strong> plus an English <em>y</em>-sound. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="33"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ei </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; like English <em>ai</em> in <em>rain</em> or <em>ei</em> in <em>rein</em>.</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="55"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ëi </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English <em>rut</em> + an English <em>y</em>-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the <em>i</em> in <em>ice</em>. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="33"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>oi </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; as in English <em>b<strong>oy</strong></em> or <em>v<strong>oi</strong>ce</em>.</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="41"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>öi </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel <strong>ö</strong> plus an English <em>y</em>-sound. Somewhat like the French word <strong><em>oeil</em></strong>. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="75"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ui </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">A combination of the Ilaksh vowel <strong>u</strong> /<span class="style19">U</span>/ + an English <em>y</em>-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the <em>u</em>-sound is reduced to a <em>w</em>- (the result sounding like English <em>wee</em>). This diphthong may also be pronounced as the high rounded back vowel /<strong>u</strong>/ + an English <em>y</em>-sound, as in Spanish or Italian. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="37"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>au </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; like English <em>ou</em> in <em>loud</em> or <em>ow</em> in <em>cow</em>. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="37"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>äu </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel <strong>ä</strong> plus an English <em>w</em>-sound. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="42"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>eu </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English equivalent. A combination of the vowel /<strong>e</strong>/ + an English <em>w</em>-sound. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="56"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ëu </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination of the vowel sound in American English <em>rut</em> + an English <em>w</em>-sound. Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word <em>oh!</em>. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="56"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>iu </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent; a combination of the Ilaksh vowel <strong>i</strong> /<span class="style19">I</span>/ + an English <em>w</em>-sound. May also be pronounced as the high front unrounded vowel /i/ + an English <em>w</em>-sound, as in Portuguese <em>part<strong>iu</strong></em>. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="44"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ou </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Like the <em>o</em> + <em>w</em>-glide of English <em>road</em> or <em>mode</em>. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese <em>roupa</em>. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="52"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>öu </strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination of the Ilaksh vowel <strong>ö</strong> plus an English <em>w</em>-sound. Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the word <em>oh!</em>. </div></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p align="justify">All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing the many two-vowel combinations beginning with <strong>u</strong>- and <strong>i</strong>- into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a <em>w</em>-sound or <em>y</em>-sound. This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives the syllabic stress. </p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<h3 align="justify">1.2.4 Orthographic Representation of Dissyllabic Vowel Conjuncts</h3>
<p align="justify">Dissyllabic vowel conjuncts, wherever they might be confused with a diphthong, are written with a hyphen between the two vowels to indicate they are separate syllables. Examples: <span class="style6"><strong>du-int, a-uroth</strong></span>. Naturally dissyllabic conjuncts which cannot be mistaken for a diphthong appear without a hyphen, e.g., <span class="style30">steox</span><strong><em>, </em><span class="style6">dapua</span></strong>.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<h3 align="justify">
<span class="style8">1.2.5 Allophonic Distinctions</span></h3>
<p align="justify">Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that phoneme occurs. These variances, known as allophones, while audible to a trained linguist, are often indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional role in the language. As an example, compare the two <em>t</em>-sounds in the English words <em><strong>t</strong>op</em> and <em>s<strong>t</strong>op</em>. The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, the difference in the two <em>t</em>-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other Indic languages). </p>
<p align="justify">Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without aspirating the initial <em>t</em>-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.)</p>
<p align="justify"><strong>1.2.5.1 Consonantal Allophones</strong>. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ilaksh consonants are as follows:</p>
<table cellpadding="0" width="100%" border="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="6%" height="92" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>dy</strong></div></td>
<td width="94%" valign="top"><div align="justify">This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled <em>gy</em> and <em>d´</em> respectively. Sort of like a <em>g</em>+<em>y</em> sound as in English <em>bi<strong>g y</strong>ear</em> pronounced rapidly, with the <em>g</em>-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate as opposed to the soft palate. A . IPA [<img height="15" src="Images/Symbols/j-bar.gif" width="9" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>J\</strong>]. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="78"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>hh</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">The geminated version of Ilaksh <strong>h</strong> is pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English <em><strong>th</strong>in</em>) as well as the English <em>f</em>-sound, however there is absolutely no contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. No IPA equivalent. <br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="90"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ly</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal lateral liquid continuant found in Castillian Spanish <em>ca<strong>ll</strong>e</em>, Portuguese <em>o<strong>lh</strong>ar</em>, or Italian <em>e<strong>gl</strong>i</em>. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the <strong>y</strong> in <strong>y</strong>es, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an <strong>l</strong>-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA [<strong>λ</strong>]. X-SAMPA [<strong>L</strong>]. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="92"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ny</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as the voiced palatal nasal found in Spanish <em>a<strong>ñ</strong>o</em>, Italian <em>a<strong>gn</strong>ello</em>, Portuguese <em>cami<strong>nh</strong>o</em>, or French <em>champa<strong>gn</strong>e</em>. For English speakers, this can best be approximated by placing the tongue in the position to say the <strong>y</strong> in <strong>y</strong>es, and while keeping the tongue in that position flat against the hard palate, pronouncing an <strong>n</strong>-sound instead without touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge behind the front teeth. IPA [ <img src="images/Symbols/IPA n-palatal.GIF" alt="n-palatal" width="11" height="14" align="absbottom" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>J</strong>]. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="68"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ř</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar to the throaty <em>r</em>-sound found in colloquial French and German, IPA [<img height="10" src="Images/Symbols/IPA R-uvular approxmt.gif" width="8" />]. However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [<img height="11" src="Images/Symbols/IPA R-uvular trill.gif" width="8" />].<br />
<br />
</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="57"><div align="center"><span class="style6"><strong><strong>ř</strong>x</strong></span></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">The combination of<strong> </strong><span class="style6"><strong><strong>ř</strong></strong></span> before <span class="style6"><strong>x</strong></span> causes the <strong>x</strong> to be pronounced as a voicelss uvular fricative, as in German <em>Ba<strong>ch</strong></em> or the Castilian pronunciation of Spanish <span class="style6"><strong>j</strong></span>. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" height="96"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>ty</strong></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">This consonant cluster may be pronounced either as it is spelled, or as a voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive, the unvoiced counterpart to <strong>dy</strong> above. Like a <em>k</em>-sound but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, not the soft palate as with English <strong><em>k</em></strong>. The result should sound somewhat like a <em>k</em>+<em>y</em> as in <em>ba<strong>cky</strong>ard</em> when spoken rapidly. IPA [<img height="10" src="Images/Symbols/IPA c-bar.gif" width="12" />]. X-SAMPA [<strong>c</strong>]. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td colspan="2"><blockquote class="style6">
<strong>bm, dn, km, kn, pm, tn</strong></blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="99"><span class="style6"></span></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">When in word-initial position, the first consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead. </div></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td colspan="2" height="23"><blockquote class="style6">
<div align="left"><strong>hl, hm, hn, hn, hr, hw</strong> </div>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="98"><div align="center"><span class="style6"></span></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="justify">Each of these consonant conjuncts, when word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct. To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce an Ilaksh <strong>l</strong>,<strong> m</strong>,<strong> n</strong>,<strong> n, r</strong>,<strong> </strong> or <strong>w</strong>, and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear <em>h</em>-sound instead. </div></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p align="justify"><br />
<strong><a name="Sec1o2o5o2" id="Sec1o2o5o2"></a>1.2.5.2 Vocalic Allophones</strong>. As previously stated in Section 1.2.2, the Ilaksh vowels i and u have two different pronunciations. Specifically, they are pronounced as the vowels in American English sit and put respectively if they appear by themselves, not adjacent to another vowel or not as part of a diphthong. However, when part of a dissyllabic vowel conjunct, their pronunciation is as follows: </p>
<p align="justify">For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel <strong><span class="style6">i</span>-</strong> (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>ia</strong>, <strong>ie</strong>, <strong>io</strong>, <strong>i-u</strong>, <strong>iai</strong>, <strong>iau</strong></span>, etc.), the initial <strong><span class="style6">i</span>-</strong> is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian <em>l<strong>i</strong>bro</em>, or German <em>s<strong>ie</strong>gen</em>. IPA or X-SAMPA [<strong>i</strong>].</p>
<p align="justify">For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is <span class="style6"><strong>i</strong></span>, (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>a-i</strong>, <strong>u-i</strong>, <strong>ö-i</strong></span>, etc.), the <span class="style6"><strong>i</strong></span> may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English <em>s<strong>i</strong>t</em> and German <em>s<strong>i</strong>tzen</em> (IPA [<span class="style18">I</span>] or X-SAMPA [<strong>I</strong>], or as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian <em>l<strong>i</strong>bro</em>, or German <em>s<strong>ie</strong>gen</em>. IPA or X-SAMPA [<strong>i</strong>].</p>
<p align="justify">For disyllabic vowel conjuncts beginning with the vowel <strong><span class="style6">u</span>-</strong> (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>ua</strong>, <strong>ue</strong>, <strong>uo</strong>, <strong>u-i</strong>, <strong>uai</strong>, <strong>uau</strong></span>, etc.), the initial <strong>u-</strong> is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian <em>p<strong>u</strong>ta</em> or <em>cr<strong>u</strong>do</em>. IPA X-SAMPA [<strong>u</strong>].</p>
<p align="justify">For disyllabic vowel conjuncts where the second member is <span class="style6"><strong>u</strong></span>, (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>a-u</strong>, <strong>i-u</strong>, <strong>ö-u</strong>,</span> etc.), the <span class="style6"><strong>u</strong></span> may be pronounced either as the lax vowel in English <em>p<strong>u</strong>t</em> and German <em>p<strong>u</strong>tsch</em> (IPA [<span class="style18">U</span>] or X-SAMPA [<strong>U</strong>], or as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian <em>p<strong>u</strong>ta</em> or <em>cr<strong>u</strong>do</em>. IPA X-SAMPA [<strong>u</strong>].</p>
<p align="justify">In word-final position the vowel <span class="style6"><strong>i</strong></span>, when not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high unrounded front vowel in Spanish or Italian <em>l<strong>i</strong>bro</em>, or German <em>s<strong>ie</strong>gen</em>. IPA or X-SAMPA [<strong>i</strong>]. Similarly, the vowel <span class="style6"><strong>u</strong></span> in word-final position and not part of a diphthong, is pronounced as the high rounded back vowel in Spanish or Italian <em>p<strong>u</strong>ta</em> or <em>cr<strong>u</strong>do</em>. IPA X-SAMPA [<strong>u</strong>].</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<table cellpadding="0" width="100%" border="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#cccccc"><span class="style6"><strong>1.3 PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RULES<a name="Sec1o3" id="Sec1o3"></a></strong></span></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p align="justify">Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ilaksh productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends. <br />
</p>
<h3 align="justify">1.3.1 Gemination</h3>
<p align="justify">Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish).</p>
<p align="justify">In Ilaksh, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination:</p>
<p align="justify"><strong>1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination</strong>. All consonants are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except for <span class="style6"><strong>y</strong></span> and <span class="style6"><strong>w</strong></span>. </p>
<p align="justify"><strong>1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination</strong>. The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: <span class="style6"><strong>c</strong>, <strong>ç</strong>,<strong> č</strong>, <strong>j</strong>,<strong> l</strong>, <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <strong>ň</strong>, <strong>r</strong>, <strong>ř</strong>, <strong>s</strong>, <strong>š</strong>,<strong> z</strong>, <strong>ż</strong></span> and <span class="style6"><strong>ž</strong></span>.</p>
<p align="justify"><strong>1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants</strong>. Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite duration), specifically <span class="style6"><strong>ç</strong>, <strong>đ</strong>, <strong>f</strong>, <strong>l</strong>, <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <strong>r</strong>, <strong>ř</strong>, <strong>s</strong>, <strong>š</strong>, </span><strong>ŧ</strong><span class="style6">, <strong>v</strong>, <strong>x</strong>, <strong>z</strong>, </span>and <span class="style6"><strong>ž</strong></span>, are simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated <span class="style6"><strong>r</strong></span> is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like <em>rr</em> in Spanish or Italian. </p>
<p align="justify">The non-aspirated plosive consonants <span class="style6"><strong>b</strong>, <strong>d</strong>, <strong>g</strong>, <strong>k</strong>, <strong>p</strong>,</span> and <span class="style6"><strong>t</strong></span>, when geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two <em>d</em>-sounds in the English phrase <em>ba<strong>d d</strong>og</em> when spoken rapidly. </p>
<p align="justify">The pronunciation of affricates (<span class="style6"><strong>c</strong>,<strong> č</strong>,<strong> j</strong>,</span> and <span class="style6"><strong>ż</strong></span>) when geminated depends on whether or not they are intervocalic (between two vowels) versus word-initial or word-final position. If intervocalic, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative or sibilant portion, e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>čč </strong></span>is pronounced as IPA [<strong>ttš</strong>]. When in word-initial or word-final position, geminated pronunciation is achieved by simply lengthening the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of each affricate). Thus, <span class="style6"><strong>čč </strong></span>in word-initial or word-final position is pronounced as IPA [<strong>tšš</strong>]. </p>
<p align="justify"><strong>1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates</strong>. Consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>bb</strong>, <strong>dd</strong>, <strong>nn</strong>,<strong> šš</strong></span>. </p>
<h3 align="justify"><br />
<a name="Sec1o3o2" id="Sec1o3o2"></a>1.3.2 Tone</h3>
<p align="justify">Ilaksh is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages and some American Indian languages. This means that tone of voice is used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other attitudes. Ilaksh marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories). </p>
<p align="justify">There are seven tones used in Ilaksh, one of which, mid tone, is considered to be morpho-phonologically neutral. The other six tones are <strong>low</strong>, <strong>high</strong>, <strong>falling</strong>, <strong>rising</strong>, <strong>falling-rising</strong> and <strong>rising-falling</strong>, and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries one functionally significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid tone. Therefore, the function of mid tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid. Like natural tone languages, the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:</p>
<table cellpadding="0" width="74%" border="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="13%" height="74"><img src="images/mid_tone.gif" alt="mid tone" width="113" height="65" /></td>
<td width="13%"><img src="images/low_tone.gif" alt="low tone" width="109" height="68" /></td>
<td width="12%" valign="top"><img src="images/high_tone.gif" alt="high tone" width="109" height="67" /></td>
<td width="13%"><img src="images/falling_tone.gif" alt="falling tone" width="118" height="66" /></td>
<td width="13%"><img src="images/rising_tone.gif" alt="rising tone" width="107" height="66" /></td>
<td width="12%"><img src="images/falling-rising_tone.gif" alt="falling-rising tone" width="109" height="65" /></td>
<td width="24%"><img src="images/rising-falling_tone.gif" alt="rising-falling tone" width="114" height="66" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="32"><div align="center"><strong>(mid)</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>low</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>high</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>falling</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>rising</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>falling-rising</strong></div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong>rising-falling</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p align="justify"><strong>1.3.2.1 Indicating Tone in the Romanized Transliteration</strong>. The six significant tones are indicated in the Romanized transliteration by diacritics on the stressed vowel of the word, as follows: </p>
<ul>
<li>Low tone is indicated by an underposed dot (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>ạ</strong></span>), unless the word is stressed on the penultimate syllable, in which case it is unmarked. Note that if particular keyboards and/or text-editing programs or Unicode restrictions do not readily allow for making underposed dots as diacritics, low tone may be alternately indicated using an underline (e.g., <u><span class="style6"><strong>a</strong></span></u>).</li>
<li>High tone is indicated by a macron (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>ā</strong></span>).</li>
<li> Falling tone is indicated by a grave accent (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>à</strong></span>).</li>
<li>Rising tone is indicated by an acute accent (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>á</strong></span>).</li>
<li>Falling-rising tone is indicated by either a hacek or a breve (e.g.,<span class="style6"><strong> ă</strong></span>). For those keyboards and/or text-editing programs which do not readily allow for these diacritics over vowels, falling-rising tone may be alternately indicated using a tilde (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>ã</strong></span>).</li>
<li>Rising-falling tone is indicated by a circumflex (e.g., <span class="style6"><strong>â</strong></span>). </li>
</ul>
<p>To show superposed tone diacritics on letters which already carry the diaeresis diacritic (i.e., <span class="style6"><strong>ä</strong>, <strong>ë</strong>,<strong> ö</strong>, or <strong>ü</strong></span>), the following rules apply:</p>
<ul>
<li><span class="style6"><strong>ä</strong></span>, <span class="style6"><strong>ë</strong></span>,<span class="style6"><strong> ö</strong></span> and <span class="style6"><strong>ü</strong></span> become written as <strong><span class="style6"><strong>äa</strong></span></strong>, <span class="style6"><strong>ëe</strong></span>, <span class="style6"><strong>öo</strong></span> and <span class="style6"><strong>üu </strong></span>and the tone diacritic is placed on the second of the two vowels, e.g., <strong><span class="style6"><strong>äá</strong></span></strong>, <span class="style6"><strong>ëê</strong></span>, <span class="style6"><strong>öō</strong></span>, <span class="style6"><strong>üù</strong></span>, etc. The second vowel of these <span class="style6"><strong> </strong></span>pairs is not pronounced, but is merely there to indicate the tone. Examples: <span class="style6"><strong>emir</strong></span><strong><span class="style6"><strong>äàs</strong></span>, </strong> <span class="style6"><strong>trë</strong><strong>ěwai</strong>, <strong>öólantuin</strong>, <strong>küûm</strong>.</span> <br />
</li>
</ul>
<h3 align="justify"><br />
1.3.3 Syllabic Stress<a name="Sec1o3o3" id="Sec1o3o3"></a></h3>
<p align="justify">Stress normally falls on the <strong>penultimate</strong> (next-to-last) syllable but can shift to either the <strong>ultimate</strong> (last) syllable of a word or the <strong>antepenultimate</strong> (third-from-last) syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations. </p>
<p align="justify">As described above in Section 1.3.2.1, the stressed syllable is indicated by carrying the word's tone diacritic, unless the word carries low tone and is stressed antepenultimately, in which case, stress is unmarked. Likewise, monosyllabic words with low tone are unmarked. </p>
<p align="justify">NOTE: Monosyllabic words in Ilaksh are to be interpreted grammatically as having the equivalent of penultimate stress. When necessary to gramatically indicate the equivalent ultimate or antepenultimate stress on a monosyllabic word, extra “anaptyptic” syllables (the vowel <strong>-a-</strong>) are added to the word in order to allow the necessary ultimate or antepenultimate syllable to be stressed, e.g., <span class="style30">kûist → kuistâ</span>,<span class="style6"><strong> kûist → âkuista</strong></span>.</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"> </p>
</blockquote>
<table cellpadding="0" width="100%" border="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#cccccc"><span class="style30">1.4 PHONOTAXIS<a name="Sec1o4" id="Sec1o4"></a></span></td>
</tr>
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</table>
<p align="justify">In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or word. This concept is called <strong>phonotaxis</strong> and such rules are known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain why <em>sprelch</em> could be a hypothetical word in English, while <em>znatk</em> could not be, even though <em>znatk</em> is as easily pronounced by a linguist as <em>sprelch</em>. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis</p>
<p align="justify">Equally important are the optional rules each language employs to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ilaksh are described in the sections below.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br />
<a name="Sec1o4o1" id="Sec1o4o1"></a>1.4.1 Syllable Structure</h3>
<p align="justify">The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents a mandatory vowel or diphthong. </p>
<p align="justify"><strong><br />
<span class="style20">Table 2: Syllabic Structure</span></strong></p>
<table cellpadding="5" width="97%" border="1">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td width="15%" height="35"><div align="center"><strong>Syllable Type</strong></div></td>
<td width="37%"><div align="center"><strong>Structure</strong></div></td>
<td width="48%"><div align="center"><strong>Examples</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="center" height="48">Consonantal Word</td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center"><strong>C(C)(C)</strong> <em>where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless fricative continuant</em></div></td>
<td valign="center"><span class="style8"><strong>s, h, ll, mm, pçç</strong></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="center" height="32">Monosyllabic</td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center"><strong>(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)</strong></div></td>
<td><span class="style8"><strong>a, ui, öt, isk, du, tuil, kleb, tlips, pskarn, xxoršt</strong></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="center" height="30">Word-initial</td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center"><strong>(C)(C)(C)V(C)-</strong> <em>or</em> <strong>l</strong>,<strong> m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <strong>ň</strong></div></td>
<td><span class="style8"><strong>uran, tahin, ui’wá, prinu, klâtma, xmoiskra, kstòllap, ltuirbis, mpéiltumi</strong></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="center">Word-medial</td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center"><strong>-(C)(C)V(C)(C)-</strong> <em>or </em><strong>l</strong>, <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <strong>ň</strong></div></td>
<td valign="center"><span class="style8"><strong>kialùn, ruentik, isteixläm, ïkspûtkai, hen-nôu </strong></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="center">Word-final</td>
<td valign="center"><div align="center"><strong>-(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)-</strong> <em>or </em><strong>l</strong>, <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <strong>ň</strong></div></td>
<td><span class="style8"><strong>lua, āntoi, tial, eifkés, poxšurn, ön-n </strong></span></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p align="justify">The following rules apply: </p>
<div align="justify">
<ul>
<ul>
<li>A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the vowel following, not preceding. <br />
</li>
<li>An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e., each consonant is part of a different syllable), even if the conjunct is a geminate consonant. <br />
</li>
<li>If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first consonant of the three must be in a separate syllable from the last consonant of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever of the two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or word-final cluster. If it can form permissible clusters with either surrounding consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically associated.<br />
</li>
</ul>
</ul>
</div>
<h3 align="justify"><br />
1.4.2 Constraints on Vowels</h3>
<p align="justify">All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts previously mentioned can occur in any syllable, however, the maximum number of dissyllabic vowels which can occur immediately next to each other is two. If one of the two syllables is a diphthong, the diphthong must be the second syllable. Any syllable immediately following a diphthong must begin with at least one consonant. Trisyllabic vowel conjuncts (or more) are not permitted. Thus, words such as <span class="style6"><strong>dea</strong></span> or <span class="style30">aitua</span> or <span class="style6"><strong>ruai</strong></span> are permissible, but words such as <span class="style30">oia</span>, <span class="style6"><strong>tuoa</strong></span>, <span class="style6"><strong>auem</strong></span>, and <span class="style6"><strong>la-uio</strong></span> are not. </p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<h3 align="justify">1.4.3 Constraints on Consonants<a name="Sec1o4o3" id="Sec1o4o3"></a></h3>
<ul>
<li>
<div align="justify">The consonants <span class="style6"><strong>w</strong></span> and <span class="style6"><strong>y</strong></span> cannot appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel. Additionally, <span class="style6"><strong>w</strong></span> cannot immediately follow a diphthong ending in <span class="style6"><strong>-u</strong></span>, while <span class="style6"><strong>y</strong></span> cannot follow a diphthong ending in <span class="style6"><strong>-i</strong></span>.<br />
<br />
</div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify">The glottal stop (<strong>’</strong>) does not occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel, Ilasksh phonetically separates the words by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that the word-final vowel of the first word does not combine with the word-initial vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and distinct. This glottal stop is unmarked in the Romanized transliteration. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear intervocalically, or may appear in syllable-final position if preceded by a vowel, or may appear in syllable-initial position immediately following a consonant as long as it is followed by a vowel.<br />
<br />
</div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify">No more than four consonants can occur in conjunction. Such four-consonant conjuncts may occur intervocalically or in word-initial position. When intervocalic, the first two and last two consonants must each form permissible syllable-final and syllable initial pairs respectively, or alternately, the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final conjunct or the last three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-initial conjunct. For word-initial conjuncts, the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final conjunct on their own. Examples: <strong>kstruihântu, jalzmwei</strong>. <br />
<br />
</div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify">For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a separate syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic from the other two, then those other two consonants must be a permissible syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the first two, then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct.<br />
</div>
</li>
<li>
<div align="justify">For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts, these are generally permissible if the both the first two consonants are permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the conjunct are permissible as a conjunct by themselves.</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3 align="right"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="Chapter_2.html">Proceed to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >></a></strong></h3>
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<td height="18"><span class="style35"><a href="http://www.ithkuil.net">Home</a></span></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style35">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style35">9 Syntax</span></a></td>
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<td height="18"><span class="style35"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></span></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style35">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style35">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td>
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<td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style35">1 Phonology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style35">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style35">11 The Writing System</span></a></td>
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<td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style35">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style35">7 Suffixes</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style35">12 The Number System</span></a></td>
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<td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style35">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style35">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td>
<td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style35">The Lexicon</span></a></td>
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<p align="justify">©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. </p>
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