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<h2 align="center" class="style2">Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language<br />
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<td height="24"><a href="00_intro.html"><span class="style8">Introduction</span></a></td>
<td><a href="04_case.html"><span class="style8">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="08_adjuncts.html"><span class="style8">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td>
<td><a href="12_numbers.htm"><span class="style8">12 The Number System</span></a></td>
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<td height="18"><a href="01_phonology.html"><span class="style8">1 Phonology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="05_verbs_1.html"><span class="style8">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="09_syntax.html"><span class="style8">9 Syntax</span></a></td>
<td><a href="abbreviations.html"><span class="style8">List of Abbreviations</span></a></td>
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<td height="18"><a href="02_morpho-phonology.html"><span class="style8">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="06_verbs_2.html"><span class="style8">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td>
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<td><a href="03_morphology.html"><span class="style8">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="07_suffixes.html"><span class="style8">7 Suffixes</span></a></td>
<td><a href="11_script.htm"><span class="style8">11 The Writing System</span></a></td>
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<p align="right"><span class="style47">Update:</span><span class="style46"> <a href="links.html">The Ithkuil Grammar Is Now Available in Book Form</a></span></p>
<p align="right" class="style46"> </p>
<h2 align="center">Chapter 4: Case Morphology</h2>
<table width="65%" border="0" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="14%"> </td>
<td width="52%"><a href="#Sec4o1">4.1 Semantic Role versus Positional Slot </a> </td>
<td width="34%"><a href="#Sec4o5">4.5 The Associative Cases </a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td><a href="#Sec4o2">4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for Case </a> </td>
<td><a href="#Sec4o6">4.6 The Temporal Cases </a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td><a href="#Sec4o3">4.3 The Transrelative Cases </a> </td>
<td><a href="#Sec4o7">4.7 The Spatial Cases </a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td><a href="#Sec4o4">4.4 The Possessive Cases </a> </td>
<td><a href="#Sec4o8">4.8 The Vocative</a></td>
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</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><br />
In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category:
Case. Like the seven categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike
other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ithkuil,
i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which
Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate
analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone.
The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o2">Section
5.2</a>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek
or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to
a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its
phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays
in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence <em>It was me she saw</em>, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed
to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’
distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object
of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence <em>Der
Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann</em> (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the
man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’
distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case)
from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’
(accusative case).</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the
notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language,
there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether
a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another.
In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute
for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases.
The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in
order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and
the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions. </p>
<p align="justify"><span class="style9">There are 96 cases in Ithkuil, comprising 72 main cases, and 24 Comparison cases. The Comparison cases serve specialized functions associated with the verbal category called <strong>Level</strong> and are discussed separately in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o2o4">Section 6.2.4</a>. The 72 main cases are dealt with in this chapter.</span></p>
<p align="justify"><br />
</p>
<p><a name="Sec4o1" id="Sec4o1"></a></p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>4.1
SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT</strong></font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level
of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct
object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is
ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role
can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:</p>
<blockquote class="style9">
<p align="justify">(1a) <em>John opened the door with the key.</em><br />
(1b) <em>The key opened the door.</em><br />
(1c) <em>The wind opened the door.</em><br />
(1d) <em>The door opened.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”,
i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their
semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, <em>John</em>, <em>the key</em>, <em>the wind</em>, and <em>the door</em>. Yet
it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated
in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence
(1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that
the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while
in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role
in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished.
As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first
three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role
in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a
change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’
in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’
in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d),
yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role
of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in
(1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act
of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a
subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of
the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while
being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed
choice to initiate such action.</p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><a name="Sec4o1o1" id="Sec4o1o1"></a><br />
4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role</h3>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot
(i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic
role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between
sets of sentences like those above. In Ithkuil, however, the case of a noun
is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the
sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental
or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns
in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the
underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western
grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little
meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil.
They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects”
of Western languages:</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong>AGENT</strong>: The animate, (and usually conscious
and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing
a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence
(1a) above.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong>FORCE</strong>: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an
act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong>INSTRUMENT</strong>: The noun which functions as the
physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’
in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong>PATIENT</strong>: The noun which undergoes a change
in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or
by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.</p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><a name="Sec4o1o2" id="Sec4o1o2"></a><br />
4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles</h3>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects
in Western languages exist in Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include the
roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained
below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.</p>
<blockquote class="style9">
<p align="justify">(2a) <em>Mary hits the children.</em><br />
(2b) <em>Mary entertains the children.</em><br />
(2c) <em>Mary sees the children.</em><br />
(2d) <em>Mary tells the children a story.</em><br />
(2e) <em>Mary wants children.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary
is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object
(except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns
are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence
(2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the
children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical
to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">In Sentence (2b) however, <em>Mary entertains the
children</em>, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary
an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become
entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result
(enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining.
In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine,
but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a
sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like
a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or
behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen
to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting
change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the
children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an
ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained
or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or
consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves
unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar,
a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS.
Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory
perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and
pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and
autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations
(e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence
(2c) <em>Mary sees the children</em>, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes
an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other
words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever
a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’
does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing”
(as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the
“action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action
at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes.
In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,”
as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction
to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled
states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such
as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are
categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role
in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo
any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not
in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being
seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of
sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result,
the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting
originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun
participant.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">In Sentence (2d) <em>Mary tells the children a story</em>,
Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the
telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory,
or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing
RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western
languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract
referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence
(2e) <em>Mary wants children</em>, where they function as the “object”
of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children
undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s
desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory
referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire,
being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation
similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus,
Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.<br />
<br />
</p>
<p class="style9"><strong><strong><a name="Sec4o1o3" id="Sec4o1o3"></a></strong><br />
4.1.3 Argument Structure</strong></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">In addition to case being based on semantic roles, Ithkuil differs in another important respect from natural languages in that it does not have a default argument structure for its verbal formatives. This is explained below. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The individual verbs of natural languages each have an implied argument structure, i.e., a pattern of how nouns (i.e., “arguments”) interact with the particular verb and what formal role (from a morpho-semantic perspective) each of those nouns plays in relation to the verb. For example, the verb “hit” in English implies the existence of an agent (i.e., someone doing the hitting) and a patient (i.e., someone undergoing the effect/result of the hitting), as in “He hit the dog.” A different argument structure is illustrated by the verb “give” which implies an agent doing the giving, a patient undergoing the receiving, and a noun functioning in the semantic role of content, i.e., the item being given/received.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The grammar of natural languages specifies the requirements of which arguments to a verb must be present for a sentence to be grammatical and which arguments are optional. This is illustrated, for example, in the following English sentences (ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk): </p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">3a) Sam gave the girl a book.<br />
3b) Sam gave a book.<br />
3c) Sam gave.<br />
3d) * Sam gave the girl. (Intended meaning: <em>Sam gave something to the girl.</em>)<br />
3e) * Gave the girl a book. (Intended meaning: <em>The girl was given a book</em> or <em>Someone gave the girl a book</em>.)<br />
3f) * Gave the girl. (Intended meaning: <em>The girl was given something</em>, or <em>Someone gave something to the girl</em>.)<br />
3g) * Gave a book. (Intended meaning: <em>Someone gave a book</em>.)<br />
3h) * Gave. (Intended meaning: <em>Someone did some giving</em>, or <em>Giving occurred</em>). </p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">In sentence (3a), all three arguments to the verb “gave” are expressed, while in sentence (3b) the patient/recipient has been deleted. Sentence (3c) deletes both the patient/recipient and the CONTENT argument. In sentence (3d) however, when we try to delete the CONTENT argument of book while preserving the patient/recipient, the sentence requires syntactic restructuring into S<em>am gave [something] to the girl</em> in order to remain grammatical (the asterisk * in front of the sentence indicates it is ungrammatical). Likewise, sentences (3e), (3f), (3g) and (3h) are ungrammatical when we try to delete the agent, as well as either or both of the other two arguments as well, requiring paraphrasing to make the intended meaning grammatical). </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Compare the above group of sentence containing the verb ‘gave’ with the sentences below featuring the verb ‘broke’:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">4a) Tim broke the window with a hammer.<br />
4b) Tim broke the window.<br />
4c) The hammer broke the window.<br />
4d) The window broke.<br />
4e) *The hammer broke. (Intended meaning: <em>The hammer broke something</em>.)<br />
4f) *Tim broke. (Intended meaning: <em>Tim broke something</em>, or <em>Tim did some breaking</em>.)</p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Notice how sentence (3c) above, <em>Sam gave</em>, is grammatical, but the similarly structured sentence (4f) <em>Tim broke</em> is not. Conversely, notice in comparing sentences (4a) and (4d) that the patient <em>window</em> is grammatical in both object and subject slots, but similarly placing the patient <em>girl</em> from sentence (3a) into subject slot gives the ungrammatical sentence <em>*The girl gave</em> (with intended meaning: <em>The girl was given something</em> or <em>Someone gave the girl something</em>.)</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Other examples of constraints on argument structure in English are illustrated as follows:</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><em>Bill cut the cake with a knife</em> can be shortened to <em>Bill cut the cak</em>e, but the syntactically identical <em>She put the book on the shelf</em> cannot be shortened to *<em>She put the book</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><em>Treatment healed my wounds</em> can delete its agent to give <em>My wounds healed</em>, but the similar <em>Treatment cured my wounds</em> does not allow agent-deletion to *<em>My wounds cured</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">As can be seen, languages such as English are very haphazard in the various constraints on argument structure applied to individual verbs. Sometimes it is possible to delete arguments but at other times doing so results in an ungrammatical sentence, even though a semantically equivalent paraphrase exists. Ithkuil has no such constraints on its argument structure. As long as a sentence makes sense semantically and the relationships between explicit or implied arguments and their verb can be determined or inferred, then the Ithkuil sentence will be grammatically permissible. This is possible because nouns in Ithkuil are marked for semantically-based case, as well as the fact that verbs are marked for Function, a category we will explore <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1">Section 5.1</a>.<br />
</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><br />
</p>
<p align="justify"><strong><a name="Sec4o2" id="Sec4o2"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><strong>4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL
MARKERS FOR CASE</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Case is shown in different ways in Ithkuil depending on
whether the case is being manifested in conjunction with a formative or a personal
reference adjunct (explained in <a href="08_adjuncts.html#Sec8o1">Section
8.1</a>). For formatives, the 72 primary cases are shown by one of 72 forms of the vocalic affix <strong>Vc</strong>. </p>
<br />
<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="52" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td>
<td width="49" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td>
<td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td>
<td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td>
<td width="76" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td>
<td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td>
<td width="37" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td>
<td width="32" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td>
<td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td>
<td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td>
<td width="72" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td>
<td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td>
<td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td>
<td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv)</font></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style6">L)</span></font></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style6">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong>V<span class="style27">c</span></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td>
<td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style9"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style6"> Phase +<br />
Sanction<br />
(+ Illocution)</p></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Valence</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Validation<br />
OR<br />
Aspect<br />
(+ Mood)</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Pattern +<br />
Stem +<br />
Function</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Incorp.Root<br />
OR<br />
Phase + Sanction<br />
(+ Illocution)</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br />
OR<br />
Valence</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Root</div></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style23">Case</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Illocution +<br />
Mood</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Essence +<br />
Extension +<br />
Perspective +<br />
Configuration + Affiliation</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Deriv.<br />
Suffix</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Context + Format</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Bias</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Version</div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style6">Designa-<br />
tion </div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"><br />
<span class="style9">The particular <strong>Vc</strong> suffix-values are given in the Table 7 below. </span><span class="style9"> The names and function of each case are explained beginning in Section 4.3 below.</span></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Table7" id="Table7"></a><br />
Table 7: Values for Vc by Case</strong> (for Cases 1 through 72. For <strong>Vc</strong> values for Cases 73 - 96 see <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o2o4">Section 6.2.4</a>)</p>
<table width="926" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>1 OBL</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">a</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>13 PRP</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">î / û</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>25 PUR</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">e’</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>37 CMM</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">au</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>49 AVR</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">eu’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>61 ALP*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">oi’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>2 IND</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">u</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>14 GEN</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ê</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>26 CSD</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">o’</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>38 COM</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">eu</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>50 CMP</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ou’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>62 INP*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ëi’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>3 ABS</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">e</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>15 ATT</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ô</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>27 ESS</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ea</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>39 CNJ</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">iu</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>51 SML*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">a’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>63 EPS*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">au’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>4 ERG</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">o</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>16 PDC</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ëi</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>28 ASI</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">eo</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>40 UTL</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ou</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>52 ASS*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">e’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>64 PLM*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">eu’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>5 EFF</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ö</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>17 ITP</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">öi</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>29 FUN</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">eö</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>41 ABE</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ëu</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>53 CNR*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">i’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>65 LIM*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">iu’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>6 AFF</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">i</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>18 OGN</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ae</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>30 TFM</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">oa</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>42 CVS</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">öu</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>54 ACS*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">o’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>66 LOC*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">â’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>7 DAT</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ü / a’e</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>19 PAR</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ia / ua</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>31 REF</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">oe</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>43 COR</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ai’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>55 DFF*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">u’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>67 ORI*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ê’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>8 INS</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ai</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>20 CRS</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ie / ue</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>32 CLA</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">öa</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>44 DEP</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ui’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>56 PER *</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ö’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>68 PSV*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ô’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>9 ACT</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ei</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>21 CPS</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">io / uo</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>33 CNV</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">öe</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>45 PVS</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ei’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>57 PRO*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ü’/ ëu’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>69 ALL*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">î’V/û’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>10 DER</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ui</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>22 PRD</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">iö / uö</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>34 IDP</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">üa / i’</p></td>
<td width="73" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>46 PTL</strong></p></td>
<td width="60" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">oi’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>58 PCV*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ai’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>70 ABL*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ëu’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>11 SIT</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">oi</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>23 MED</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">a’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>35 BEN</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">üe / ö’</p></td>
<td valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>47 CON</strong></p></td>
<td valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">au’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>59 PCR*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ei’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>71 NAV</strong><strong>*</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ou’V</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>12 POS</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">â</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>24 APL</strong></p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">u’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>36 TSP</strong></p></td>
<td width="97" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">üo / î’ / û’</p></td>
<td valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>48 EXC</strong></p></td>
<td valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">iu’</p></td>
<td valign="top"><p align="left"><strong>60 ELP*</strong></p></td>
<td valign="top"><p align="center" class="style9">ui’V</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><strong>72 VOC</strong></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style9">ë</span></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">* Cases 51 – 71: The V represents a vowel form whose default value is -<strong>a</strong>-. However, if the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV, then optionally, V takes the value of the <strong>Vr</strong> affix and the <strong>Vr</strong> affix is deleted from Slot IV, e.g., <em>opral</em> declined into the SML case becomes either <em>opra’al</em> or <em>pra’ol</em>.</p>
<p align="justify"><br />
<span class="style9">For personal reference adjuncts, which correspond roughly to personal pronouns in other languages, case markers are dependent on various factors, as explained in <a href="08_adjuncts.html#Sec8o1">Section
8.1</a>. </span></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases
in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects”
and “objects” in Western languages.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><br />
<strong><a name="Sec4o3" id="Sec4o3"></a></strong><br />
</p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><strong> 4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify
nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms
would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and
most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these
cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in <a href="#Sec4o1">Sec.
4.1</a> above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE,
ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL,
ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following
are explanations of the function and usage of each case. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Actual Ithkuil examples
of these cases in use are provided in <a href="#Sec4o3o12">Section 4.3.12</a>.<br />
</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o3o1" id="Sec4o3o1"></a></strong><br />
</p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.1</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>OBL</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Oblique Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The OBLIQUE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>a</strong>-. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a
RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g.,
a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used
in translating sentences such as <em>Sam gave me <strong>a book</strong>, The
child likes <strong>cereal</strong></em>. It is also the case associated with
existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb
‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description
of a noun as in the English sentences <em><strong>That boy</strong> is blind</em> or <em><strong>The house</strong> was built of wood</em>. The OBLIQUE,
being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun
(i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary). </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.2</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IND</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Inducive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The INDUCIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>u</strong>-. The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which
undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential
action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does
not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It
would be used in sentences such as <em><strong>The boy</strong> jumped, <strong>He</strong> sang, <strong>The dog</strong> barked all night, </em>or<em> <strong>She</strong> danced to the music</em>, in which the party initiating and performing the action
are one and the same. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="52%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.3</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ABS</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Absolutive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>e</strong>-. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator
is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note
that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need
not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the ABSOLUTIVE would be <em>The boy hit <strong>the girl</strong>,
She forced <strong>him</strong> to do it, <strong>The bird</strong> fell from
the sky, <strong>The prisoner</strong> died during the gun battle</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o3o4" id="Sec4o3o4"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.4</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ERG</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Ergative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ERGATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>o</strong>-. The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic
role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another
party (the PATIENT), as described in <a href="#Sec4o1o1">Section 4.1.1</a>.
Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not
overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable
using the ERGATIVE would be <em><strong>The bo</strong>y
hit the girl, <strong>She</strong> forced him to do it, <strong>That murderer</strong> kills for fun</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.5</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EFF</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Effectuative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ö</strong>-. The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun
acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in <a href="#Sec4o1o2">Section
4.1.2</a> above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events,
ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug
of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore
be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively
marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action
directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the
Ithkuil translation of the sentence <em>The clown emptied the blood from the
tub</em>, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The
former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would
mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate
the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to
pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating
the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the <a href="07_suffixes.html#ENBsuffix"><span class="style31">ENB</span></a> affix -<strong>ls</strong> to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this suffix, sentences
can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent
or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a
hindrance, or even by inaction. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.6</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>AFF</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Affective Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The AFFECTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>i</strong>-. The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose
semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in <a href="#Sec4o1o2">Section
4.1.2</a>, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled)
experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result
of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory
experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing,
blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm;
automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising
one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state
such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret,
anxiety, etc. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE case would be <em><strong>The baby</strong> is coughing, The lightning startled <strong>her</strong>, <strong>Mortimer</strong> loves his vittles, <strong>Uncle
Davey</strong> slept till noon, My back itches <strong>me</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about
by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be
used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce
the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence <em><strong>The children </strong>smiled with glee</em> (marked using the AFFECTIVE)
with <em><strong>The children</strong> smiled on cue</em> (marked using the INDUCIVE).</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.7</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DAT</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Dative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The DATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ü</strong>- or, if the <strong>Cr</strong> root ends in a -<strong>w</strong> or -<strong>y</strong>, it is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ae’</strong>-. The DATIVE has two functions in Ithkuil.
Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving
and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via
an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or
the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in <a href="#Sec4o1o2">Section
4.1.2</a> above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil
uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference
to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences
such as <em>We're giving <strong>you</strong> a present, Jason lent a dollar <strong>to his sister</strong>, Please grant <strong>me</strong> a wish, <strong>The
student</strong> has three books, <strong>Those mountains</strong> have a mysterious
quality</em>. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o3o8" id="Sec4o3o8"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.8</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>INS</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Instrumental Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ai</strong>-. As described previously in <a href="#Sec4o1o1">Section 4.1.1</a>,
the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the
INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing
about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples
of usage would be <em>She killed him <strong>with a knife</strong>, The man
tripped over <strong>my foot</strong>, <strong>The password</strong> got him
inside</em>. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations
of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the
instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare <em>I pressed the button <strong>with
my finger</strong></em> with <em><strong>My finger</strong> pressed the button</em>,
both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s
missing agent, <em>I</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate
‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied
by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in <a href="#Sec4o5o20">Sec.
4.5.20</a>) as in <em>She arrived with her father</em>. Nor is it used to show
the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the
sentence <em>He cooks with tomatoes</em> (see the COMPOSITIVE case in <a href="#Sec4o5o3">Sec. 4.5.3</a>), it is not the tomatoes that cook
the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used,
whereas in <em>He fueled the fire with wood</em> it is the wood that fuels the
fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o3o9" id="Sec4o3o9"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.3.9</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ACT</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Activative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ei</strong>-. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged
in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result,
creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially
be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated
by the sentence <em>Frank must go to Chicago</em>, in which no actual travel
to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence <em>Mother needs to rest</em>, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both
sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains
an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar
hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences <em>The students want
you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay</em>.
Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal”
verbs such as <em>want, need, can, must</em>, etc. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Notice that the subject of these English sentences (<em>Frank,
Mother, the students, everyone, Joe</em>) are functioning neither as AGENTS
nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify
as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects
are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting,
needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However,
such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within”
the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence <em>Sam wants Shirley
to love him</em>, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked
as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently,
Ithkuil uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose
mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized
situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph
(i.e., F<em>rank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe</em>) would be so marked.
In <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o1">Section 6.1 </a> we will see how the ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological
category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>4.3.10</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DER</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="64%"><strong>The Derivative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The DERIVATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ui</strong>-. The DERIVATIVE serves two functions
in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described
in <a href="#Sec4o1o1">Sec. 4.1.1</a>) or abstract causative situation which
causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in <em><strong>The wind</strong> blew down the door, </em>or<em> <strong>Fame</strong> threatened his freedom</em>.
The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential
forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate
actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the
resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force
or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function,
a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using
phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result
of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in
appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun
in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason
for the other noun, e.g., <em>the danger <strong>of fame</strong>, <strong>love’s</strong> heartache, <strong>wind</strong> song</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The second function of the DERIVATIVE case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS
of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in <em>T<strong>he coffee</strong> smells good, I saw <strong>her</strong> today,
She hates <strong>that boy</strong>, Victor coughed <strong>from the gas</strong>,
We laughed at <strong>his jokes</strong>, <strong>That song </strong>makes me
cry</em>. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having
a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as
in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE case serves to indicate both functions. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o3o11" id="Sec4o3o11"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>4.3.11</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SIT</strong></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="62%"><strong>The Situative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The SITUATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>oi</strong>-. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as
the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship
between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs.
It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the
following examples:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><em><strong>Because of war</strong>, our planet will never
be able to join the Federation.<br />
<strong>Given the presence of clowns</strong>, we must accept the corruption
of our children.<br />
<strong>Using my plan</strong>, we will defeat the enemy.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<h3 align="justify"><br />
<span class="style9"><a name="Sec4o3o12" id="Sec4o3o12"></a><br />
4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use</span></h3>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The following are examples of various Ithkuil sentences showing how assigning different transrelative cases to the noun participants (i.e., the arguments to the verb) allows for various changes in meaning, regardless of argument structure. As can be seen, the English translations of many of these sentences often require word order changes, word-substitution, even outright paraphrase, all in order to accommodate the constraints on English argument structure.</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="style9"><br />
Roots used: -<strong>zb</strong>- informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 <em>‘anger; be angry/feel anger’</em> -<strong>kš</strong>- formal Pattern 1, Stem 2 <em>‘clown’</em></p>
<blockquote>
<p class="style25">STA = STATIVE function DAT = DATIVE case<br />
DYN = DYNAMIC function IND = INDUCIVE case<br />
AFF = AFFECTIVE case GEN = GENITIVE case<br />
SIT = SITUATIVE case ABS = ABSOLUTIVE case<br />
DER = DERIVATIVE case OBL = OBLIQUE case<br />
ERG = ERGATIVE case LOC = LOCATIVE case</p>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center">‘be angry/feel anger’ </p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">‘I/me’</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">‘clown’</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p align="center">MEANING</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="94" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšóil</strong>.<br />
SIT</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p> <img src="images/4-3-12a.jpg" width="132" height="35" /><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-3-12a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-12a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span><br />
<em>‘I’m angry because of the clown </em>(clown can’t help it, not at fault).’ / <em>‘I’m angry because there’s a clown.’ / ‘I’m angry at the presence of a clown.’</em></p> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="55" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšúil</strong>.<br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The clown (unwittingly) makes me angry.’ / ‘I’m angry at the clown </em>(something he’s done has made me angry).’</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="50" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšól</strong>.<br />
ERG</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The clown (deliberately) makes me angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="51" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>èkšöl</strong>.<br />
EFF</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘What the clown has (deliberately) started/caused makes me angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="50" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>èkšül</strong>.<br />
DAT</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘My angry state is directed toward/affects the clown</em> (i.e., the clown notices/reacts to my anger).’</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="49" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tü</strong><br />
DAT</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšíl</strong>.<br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I notice/feel that the clown is angry at me.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="50" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tö</strong><br />
EFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšíl</strong>.<br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘What I (deliberately) started/caused makes the clown angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>to</strong><br />
ERG</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšíl</strong>.<br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I</em> <em>(deliberately) anger the clown.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tui</strong><br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšíl</strong>.<br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I inadvertently anger the clown.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>toi</strong><br />
SIT</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšíl</strong>.<br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘My being here angers the clown.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="49" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tu</strong><br />
IND</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšóil</strong>.<br />
SIT</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I make myself angry at the presence of the clown.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="49" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tu</strong>.<br />
IND</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (deliberately) make myself angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tü</strong>.<br />
DAT</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘Someone is behaving angrily toward me.’ </em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tö</strong>.<br />
EFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I’ve</em> <em>(deliberately) started/caused something that makes someone angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>to</strong>.<br />
ERG</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (deliberately) anger someone.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="49" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tui</strong>.<br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (inadvertently) anger someone.’ / ‘What I’ve done makes someone angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>toi</strong>.<br />
SIT</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘My presence makes someone angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="47" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong>.<br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I’m angry.’ / ‘I feel anger.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="49" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšúl</strong>.<br />
IND</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The clown (deliberately) makes himself angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>èkšül</strong>.<br />
DAT</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘Someone is behaving angrily toward the clown.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>èkšöl</strong>.<br />
EFF</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The clown has (deliberately) started/caused something that makes someone angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="49" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšól</strong>.<br />
ERG</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The clown (deliberately) anger someone.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="49" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšúil</strong>.<br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The clown inadvertently angers someone.’ / ‘What the clown does makes someone angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšóil</strong>.<br />
SIT</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘(The presence of) the clown makes someone angry.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="48" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšíl</strong>.<br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The clown is angry.’ / ‘The clown feels anger.</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Azbal</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘There is a feeling of anger.’ / ‘There is anger.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class="style9"><br />
Same sentences as above but with DYNAMIC Function to convey action rather than state, i.e., angry behavior or physical display of anger rather than mere internal feeling of anger.</p>
<table height="193" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="103" height="92" valign="middle"><div align="center">
<p><strong> Izbal</strong><br />
DYN</p>
</div></td>
<td width="70" valign="middle"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p> </td>
<td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center"><strong>ekšóil</strong>.<br />
SIT</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p> <img src="images/4-3-12b.jpg" width="132" height="37" /><br />
<em>‘My display of anger/my angry behavior was because of the clown </em>(with the clown being unaware of it and not its fault).’</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="50" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Izbal</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="69" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ekšúil</strong>.<br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘My display of anger/my angry behavior was due to the clown </em>(without the clown being necessarily aware of it).’</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Izbal</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="69" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>èkšül</strong>.<br />
DAT</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘My display of anger/my angry behavior affected/intimidated the clown.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><br />
<span class="style9">More examples of transrelative case patterns:</span></p>
<blockquote>
<p class="style9">-<strong>k’</strong>- formal Pattern 3, Stem 2 <em>‘burn’</em> -<strong>p<sup>h</sup></strong>- informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 <em>‘tree’</em></p>
</blockquote>
<table width="951" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center">burn</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">1m</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">tree</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p align="center">MEANING</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Iek’ás</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>to</strong><br />
ERG</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>p<sup>h</sup>el.</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><img src="images/4-3-12c.jpg" width="138" height="37" /><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-3-12b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-12b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span><br />
<em>‘I burn the tree.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Êk’ás</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>p<sup>h</sup>el</strong>.<br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The tree burns.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Iek’ás</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>p<sup>h</sup>ul</strong>.<br />
IND</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘The tree burns itself.’ / ‘The tree makes itself burn.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Iek’ás</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>to</strong>.<br />
ERG</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I cause something to burn.’ / ‘I burn.’</em> [meaning: I cause burning to happen]</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Iek’ás</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tö</strong>.<br />
EFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I cause something to burn (through a chain of events).’ / ‘I burn.’</em> [meaning: I cause a chain of events leading to burning]</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Iek’ás</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>te</strong>.<br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I burn/am burning.’ / ‘Something burns me.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Iek’ás</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tu</strong>.<br />
IND</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I burn myself.’ / ‘I make myself burn.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Iek’ás</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tö</strong><br />
EFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>p<sup>h</sup>el</strong>.<br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘I cause the tree to burn (through a chain of events).’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Iek’ás</strong>.<br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘Something’s doing some burning.’ / ‘Something’s making some burning happen.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="101" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Êk’ás</strong>.<br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="700" valign="top"><p><em>‘Something’s burning.’ / ‘There’s burning happening.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a name="collapsed_adjunct" id="collapsed_adjunct"></a><br />
<span class="style9">Other patterns are possible. For example, the following chart shows patterns that can be used to translate variations on English <em>‘I hit my leg with a rock’</em>, or <em>‘I hit myself on the leg with a rock’</em>, or <em>‘A rock hit me on the leg.’</em></span> </p>
<blockquote>
<p class="style9">-<strong>č</strong>- informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘physical contact’ + <span class="style34">FRC<sub>1</sub></span>/7 --> <strong>čalosk</strong> ‘hit/strike’<br />
-<strong>pr</strong>- informal Pattern 2, Stem 1 ‘leg (as physical body part)’<br />
-<strong>kt</strong>- formal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘(piece of) rock’<br />
<em>tê</em> = ‘I’ in genitive case referring to owner of the leg; combines as a prefix <em>ê</em>- with the various transrelative case forms of ‘I’ such as <em>to, tu, te</em>, etc. to give forms such as <em>êto, êtu, êti</em>.</p>
</blockquote>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center">hit/strike</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">I</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">my leg</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">rock</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">MEANING</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êto</strong><br />
GEN / ERG</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>oprel</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621"><p align="justify"><img src="images/4-3-12d.jpg" width="224" height="45" align="absmiddle" /><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-3-12c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-12c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a></span><br />
Implies an intentional act against my leg, where my leg is seen as being an entity subjectively separate from myself, thus I am the agent while the leg is the patient. Translation: <em>‘I (intentionally) hit my leg with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êtu</strong><br />
GEN / IND</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">In this pattern, the leg is no longer seen as a patient separate from myself as the agent. Rather, I am both agent and patient (i.e, I’m initating the action against myself), and the role of the leg is de-emphasized to being merely a referent for the act of hitting, i.e., it is I who got hit, not the leg; the leg is merely the part of me that got hit. Consequently, The closest English translation would be <em>‘I (intentionally) hit myself with a rock on the leg,’</em> using a locative construction “on the leg” not present in the Ithkuil sentence. A stilted, but more accurate translation might be <em>‘I (intentionally) “leg-hit” myself with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ête</strong><br />
GEN / ABS</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">This sentence masks an implied agent, emphasizing myself as the patient/victim, while, as in the sentence immediately above, the leg is reduced to merely a referent for the hitting, its status as a patient and as the location/site of the hitting suppressed. About the only way to show this suppression of agency in English is with a passive construction or a pseudo-passive construction using the verb ‘get’: <em>‘I am/get (intentionally) “leg-hit” with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ête</strong><br />
GEN / ABS</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">This sentence is like the one immediately above except that the leg is the location/site of the hit. Translation: <em>‘I am/get (intentionally) hit on the leg with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êtu</strong><br />
GEN / IND</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Emphasizes that I am both agent and patient and that the leg is the location/site of the hitting. Translation: <em>‘I (intentionally) hit myself on my leg with a rock.‘</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="75" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êtu</strong><br />
GEN / IND</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Emphasizes that I am both agent and patient but with the leg reduced to merely the referent of hitting. Impossible to translate accurately into English except with the contrived sentences <em>‘I “leg-hit” myself with a rock’</em> or <em>‘I (intentionally) get me my leg hit with a rock.’</em> </p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="74" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN / AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Suppresses the agency of the action, and emphasizes myself as unwilled/accidental victim of the hitting, with my leg as the location/site of the hit. Translations: <em>‘I (accidentally) am/get hit on the leg with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN / AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Like the example immediately above, exept with the role of the leg reduced from location to mere referent of the verb. Translation: <em>‘I am/get “leg-hit” (accidentally) with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>to</strong><br />
ERG</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Translation: <em>‘I (intentionally) hit something with a rock / I (intentionally do some hitting with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tu</strong><br />
IND</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Translation: <em>‘I (intentionally) hit myself with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>te</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Translation: <em>‘I am/get (intentionally) hit with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Translation: <em>‘I am/get hit (accidentally) with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="55" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê opril</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Here, the distinction between myself and the leg is suppressed, so that the leg is seen as the unwilled/accidental victim, not me: <em>‘My leg is/gets hit (accidentally) with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê oprel</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Translation: <em>‘My leg is/gets (intentionally) hit with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" height="95" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">This sentence reduces the role of the participant to the verb as merely an abstract referent for the hitting, with no implications of being the victim/target of hitting, or of me or the leg undergoing any tangible result of hitting. This can only be approximated in English by contrived translations such as <em>‘“Leg-hitting” with a rock occurs’</em> or <em>‘An act of hitting with a rock involving my leg occurs.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">Translation: <em>‘There occurs a hit on my leg with a rock. / A hit with a rock occurs on my leg.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktáil</strong><br />
INS</p></td>
<td width="621" valign="top"><p align="justify">This sentence masks both agent and patient, as well as the location of the hitting, emphasizing only the instrument. Possible translations: ‘<em>Hitting with a rock occurs,’</em> or <em>‘The rock hits something,’</em> or <em>‘Something gets hit with a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><br />
<span class="style9">Note that all of the above sentences can be restated without the presence of the rock as instrument:</span></p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center">hit/strike</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center">I</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center">my leg</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p align="center">MEANING</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êto</strong><br />
GEN / ERG</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>oprel</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (intentionally) hit my leg.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êtu</strong><br />
GEN / IND</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (intentionally) “leg-hit” myself.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ête</strong><br />
GEN / ABS</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I am/get (intentionally) “leg-hit”.’ </em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ête</strong><br />
GEN / ABS</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I am/get (intentionally) hit on the leg.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êtu</strong><br />
GEN / IND</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (intentionally) hit myself on my leg. ‘</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êtu</strong><br />
GEN / IND</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I “leg-hit” myself’</em> or <em>‘I (intentionally) get me my leg hit.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN / AFF</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I am/get hit (accidentally) on the leg.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN / AFF</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (accidentally) am/get “leg-hit”’</em> or<em> ‘I (accidentally) get me my leg hit.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>to</strong><br />
ERG</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (intentionally) hit something.’ / ‘I do some hitting.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tu</strong><br />
IND</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I (intentionally) hit myself.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>te</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I am/get (intentionally) hit.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘I am/get hit (accidentally).’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê opril</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘My leg is/gets hit.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê oprel</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘My leg is/gets (intentionally) hit.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘“Leg-hitting” occurs’</em> or <em>‘An act of hitting involving my leg occurs.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘There occurs a hit on my leg. / A hit occurs on my leg.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="103" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="120" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="93" valign="top"><p align="center">—</p></td>
<td width="620" valign="top"><p><em>‘Some hitting occurs’ / ‘Something does some hitting’ / ‘Something gets hit.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><br />
<span class="style9">Patterns with the rock in the DERIVATIVE case are also possible, in which the rock is seen as a blind force of nature (e.g., it has been hurled at the leg by a strong wind or has fallen on the leg from above, or has hit the leg after being kicked up by a passing vehicle, etc.).</span></p>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center">hit/strike</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center">I</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center">my leg</p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">rock</p></td>
<td width="572" valign="top"><p align="center">MEANING</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>tê oprel</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktúil</strong><br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="572" valign="top"><p><em>‘The rock hits my leg.’ / ‘My leg is/gets hit by a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ête</strong><br />
GEN/ABS</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>prâ’ol</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktúil</strong><br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="572" valign="top"><p><em>‘The rock hits me on my leg.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ête</strong><br />
GEN/ABS</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktúil</strong><br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="572" valign="top"><p><em>‘I get my leg hit by the rock.’ / ‘I was/got “leg-hit” by the rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN/AFF</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>opral</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktúil</strong><br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="572" valign="top"><p><em>‘The rock “leg-hits” me.</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ti</strong><br />
AFF</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktúil</strong><br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="572" valign="top"><p><em>‘The rock hits me.’ / ‘I am/get hit by a rock.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ičalosk</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="90" valign="top"><p align="center">--</p></td>
<td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>aktúil</strong><br />
DER</p></td>
<td width="572" valign="top"><p><em>‘The rock hits something.’</em></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class="style9"><br />
Possible Ithkuil translations for the English sentence ‘My back itches me.’</p>
<p class="style9">-<strong>kç</strong>- informal Pattern 1, Stem 1: <em>‘itch’</em><br />
-<strong>xn</strong>- informal Pattern 2, Stem 1: <em>‘back, dorsal bodily surface’</em><br />
OGN = ORIGINATIVE case</p>
<table height="197" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="86" valign="top"><p align="center">itch</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">I</p></td>
<td width="91" valign="top"><p align="center">my back</p></td>
<td width="684" valign="top"><p align="center">MEANING</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="86" height="80" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Kças</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN/AFF</p></td>
<td width="91" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>oxnall</strong><br />
OBL</p></td>
<td width="684" valign="top"><p><img src="images/4-3-12e.jpg" width="146" height="41" /><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-3-12d.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-12d.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="baseline" /></a></span><br />
<em>‘My back itches me.</em>’ This is grammatically acceptable and the most neutral or vague.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="86" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Kças</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN/AFF</p></td>
<td width="91" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>xnâ’oll</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="684" valign="top"><p><em>‘I itch on my back.’</em> Emphasizes the bodily location of the itch.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="86" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Kças</strong><br />
STA</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN/AFF</p></td>
<td width="91" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>oxnaell</strong><br />
OGN</p></td>
<td width="684" valign="top"><p><em>‘The itching I’m feeling is coming from my back.’</em> Conveys the sense of the back being the place of origin of the itch.</p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class="style9"><br />
Again, each of the above Ithkuil sentences could delete the affective patient “I/me” from the sentence to render equivalents to the English sentence ‘My back itches’ and ‘There’s itching on my back.’ </p>
<p class="style9">Use of the ABSOLUTIVE case with DYNAMIC function conveys the idea of an unnamed external agent that is causing the itching.</p>
<table height="124" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="88" valign="top"><p align="center">itch</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center">I</p></td>
<td width="89" valign="top"><p align="center">my back</p></td>
<td width="680" valign="top"><p align="center">MEANING</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="88" height="50" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ikças</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>êti</strong><br />
GEN/AFF</p></td>
<td width="89" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>oxnell</strong><br />
ABS</p></td>
<td width="680" valign="top"><p align="justify"><em>‘Something is making my back itch me.’</em> Implies that the cause of the itching is an external unnamed agent.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="88" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Ikças</strong><br />
DYN</p></td>
<td width="70" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>ête</strong><br />
GEN/ABS</p></td>
<td width="89" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>xnâ’oll</strong><br />
LOC</p></td>
<td width="680" valign="top"><p align="justify"><em>‘Something is itching me on my back.’</em> Switches the patient role to me as opposed to my back, and implies that the cause of the itching is an external unnamed agent.</p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><span class="style9"><br />
If we remove the personal reference adjunct ‘I/me’ from the above two sentences, the respective translations become <em>‘Something is itching my back’</em> and <em>‘Something itches on my back.’</em></span></p>
<p> </p>
<p class="style9"><strong>4.3.13 Using Case to Achieve “Middle Voice” Semantic Effects</strong></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">English (among other languages) allows some of its verbs to operate both transitively (i.e., taking a direct object) as well as intransitively (i.e., without a direct object), where the object of the transitive sentence becomes the subject of the intransitive sentence. Furthermore, the intransitive sentence describes the same potential event as the transitive version does, except that no agent is expressed, the focus of the sentence being on the result, not the act which gives rise to the result. Examples:</p>
<br />
<blockquote><p align="justify" class="style24">The manager opened the store at 8 a.m.<br />
The store opened at 8 a.m.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style24">Robert flies the airplane beautifully.<br />
The airplane flies beautifully.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style24">The engineer increased the pressure.<br />
The pressure increased.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style24">I molded the soft clay easily.<br />
The soft clay molded easily.</p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Note that the second sentence of each pair above is semantically distinct from its passive voice equivalent (i.e., <em>The store was opened at 8 a.m., The airplane is flown beautifully, The pressure was increased, The soft clay was molded easily</em>) in that passives allow for the agent to be overtly stated (using the preposition ‘by’ in English, as in <em>The store was opened by the manager</em>) or, if absent, nevertheless imply the existence of the agent. However, the intransitive sentences above (equivalent to “middle voice” constructions is languages such as Swahili or Turkish) do not allow for expression of an agent and are designed to supress the semantic relevance (or <em>saliency</em>) of the agent.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">However, English is very haphazard and idiosyncratic as to what verbs it allows to operate this way, often having to resort to paraphrase and idiomatic structures to accomplish the same effects as in the four intransitive sentences above. For example [ungrammatical sentences are preceded by an asterisk]:<br />
</p>
<blockquote><p align="justify" class="style9"> <em>Father painted the fence yellow.<br />
* The fence painted yellow.<br />
</em>(But: <em>The fence came out yellow.)</em></p>
<p align="justify"><span class="style24">I noticed a storm on the horizon.<br />
* A storm noticed on the horizon.<br />
</span><span class="style9">(But: </span><span class="style24">A storm came into view on the horizon.)</span></p>
<p align="justify"><span class="style24">The owner keeps scissors with the sewing supplies.<br />
* Scissors keep with the sewing supplies.<br />
</span><span class="style9">(But: </span><span class="style24">Scissors belong/stay with the sewing supplies.)</span></p>
<p align="justify"><span class="style24">Fans buy beer a lot at baseball games.<br />
* Beer buys a lot at baseball games.<br />
</span><span class="style9">(But: </span><span class="style24">Beer sells a lot at baseball games.)</span></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Of course, many English speakers would simply use the passive voice or a construction using ‘get’ to accomplish the same thing (i.e., <em>The fence was/got painted yellow, A storm was noticed on the horizon, The scissors are/get kept with the sewing supplies, Beer is/gets bought a lot at baseball games</em>.) without worrying about the existence of an implied agent. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Many languages utilize reflexive constructions to accomplish this effect, e.g., Spanish <em>Se habla español aquí</em>, literally “Spanish speaks itself here”, meaning <em>Spanish is spoken here</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Ithkuil, however, can manipulate the assignment of case to verb arguments to achieve this “middle voice” effect for any verb where it is semantically feasible, without having to resort to idiomatic constructions or paraphrase. For example:</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="style9"><img src="images/4-3-12f.jpg" width="163" height="42" /><br />
<strong>Aikkaldhort âļnoccaţ.</strong> <br />
<span class="style25">‘chew’-easily ‘snails’-<strong>ERGATIVE</strong></span><br />
<em>Snails chew easily.</em> [meaning: It is easy for snails to chew things.] <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-3-13a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-13a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
</blockquote>
<p class="style9"><strong> </strong>versus:</p>
<blockquote>
<p class="style9"><img src="images/4-3-12g.jpg" width="163" height="42" /><br />
<strong>Aikkaldhort âļneccaţ.</strong> <br />
<span class="style25">‘chew’-easily ‘snails’-<strong>ABSOLUTIVE</strong></span><br />
<em>Snails chew easily.</em> [meaning: It is easy to chew (on) snails.] <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-3-13b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-3-13b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
</blockquote>
<p><br />
<br />
</p>
<h3 class="style9"> 4.3.14 Specialized Suffixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative
Cases</h3>
<p align="justify" class="style9">It should be noted that Ithkuil provides an array of suffixes specifically designed
to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases
to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal
relationships between participants to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These suffixes
include the Consent <span class="style7">CNS</span> suffix, the Reason <span class="style7">RSN</span> suffix, the Expectation <span class="style7">XPT</span> suffix, the Deliberateness <span class="style7">DLB</span> suffix, the Enablement <span class="style7">ENB</span> suffix, the Agency/Intent <span class="style7">AGN</span> suffix, and the Impact <span class="style7">IMP</span> suffix. These affixes are detailed in <a href="07_suffixes.html#Sec7o4o12">Section
7.4.12</a> and discussed further in <a href="10_lexico-semantics.html#Sec10o1o2">Section
10.1.2</a>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p><strong><a name="Sec4o4" id="Sec4o4"></a></strong></p>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td class="style9"><div><strong>4.4 THE POSESSIVE CASES</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually
have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show
varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing
relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences: </p>
<blockquote class="style9">
<p> <em>the man’s hat</em> = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]<br />
<em>the man’s house</em> = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]<br />
<em>the man’s arm</em> = part of his body [inalienable component]<br />
<em>the man’s brother</em> = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]<br />
<em>the man’s happiness</em> = he feels happy [affective experience]<br />
<em>the man’s rescue</em> = he was or will be rescued [target of others’
purpose]<br />
<em>the man’s gift</em> = the gift is for him [benefaction]<br />
<em>the man’s gift</em> = the gift is from him [source]<br />
<em>the man’s world</em> = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective
association]<br />
<em>the man’s team</em> = the team he is associated with [interactive
mutual association]<br />
<em>the man’s story</em> = the story about him [topical reference]<br />
<em>the man’s painting</em> = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]<br />
<em>the man’s command</em> = his being a commander [role or function]</p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify" class="style9">In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous,
e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the
one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do
the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’
one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature
of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed
by the seven Possessive cases. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The Possessive cases make a distinction between alienable
versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether
the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without.
These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many
American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor
noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE,
PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE, INTERPRETATIVE, and ORIGINATIVE.
Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil
examples of the cases in use are given in <a href="#Sec4o4o8">Sec. 4.4.8</a>.</p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o4o1" id="Sec4o4o1"></a></strong></h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>4.4.1</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>POS</strong></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="62%"><strong>The Possessive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The POSSESSIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>â</strong>-. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to
a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another
noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether
by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in
any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two
can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence,
or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent
separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used
to translate English phrases such as <em><strong>his</strong> coat</em> (e.g.,
the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), <em><strong>the
boy’s</strong> book</em> (e.g., the one in his hand), <em><strong>Father’s</strong> chair</em> (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant). </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o4o2" id="Sec4o4o2"></a></strong></h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>4.4.2</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRP</strong></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="62%"><strong>The Proprietive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>î</strong>- or alternately -<strong>û</strong>-; following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>w</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>î</strong>-, while following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>y</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>û</strong>-; after other <strong>Cr</strong> stems, either <strong>Vc</strong> value is permissible. The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having
alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual
control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention,
law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The
two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship
cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration,
convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: <em><strong>his</strong> coat</em> (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether
he is wearing it or not), <em><strong>the boy’s</strong> book</em> (e.g.,
the one he bought), <em><strong>Father’s</strong> chair</em> (e.g., the
one assigned to him). </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o4o3" id="Sec4o4o3"></a></strong></h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>4.4.3</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>GEN</strong></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="62%"><strong>The Genitive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The GENITIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ê</strong>-. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a
noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or
association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent
or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial)
bond, e.g., <em><strong>my</strong> hand, <strong>the building’s</strong> doors, <strong>the child’s</strong> father, the essence <strong>of that
woman</strong></em>. </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o4o4" id="Sec4o4o4"></a></strong></h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>4.4.4</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ATT</strong></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="62%"><strong>The Attributive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ô</strong>-. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to
a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective
(see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another
noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience,
whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: <em><strong>his</strong> pain, <strong>Mother’s</strong> guilt, <strong>the
child’s</strong> cough, <strong>Dorothy’s</strong> mood, <strong>Davey’s</strong> happiness, <strong>the teacher’s</strong> stubbornness, <strong>my</strong> needs</em>. </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o4o5" id="Sec4o4o5"></a></strong></h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>4.4.5</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PDC</strong></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="62%"><strong>The Productive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ëi</strong>-. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator,
author or originator of another noun, e.g.,<em> <strong>the girl’s</strong> poem, <strong>the clowns’ </strong>plan, <strong>my</strong> statue</em> (i.e., the one I sculpted). </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o4o6" id="Sec4o4o6"></a></strong></h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><strong>4.4.6</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ITP</strong></div></td>
<td width="5%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="66%"><strong>The Interpretative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by
the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>öi</strong>-. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun
acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the
noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described,
as exemplified by the phrases <em><strong>Monet’s</strong> Paris</em>, <em><strong>our</strong> world, life <strong>as seen by children</strong></em>. </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o4o7" id="Sec4o4o7"></a></strong></h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="10%"><strong>4.4.7</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>OGN</strong></div></td>
<td width="2%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="77%"><strong>The Originative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ae</strong>-. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as
being the literal or figurative source of another<font color="#000000">, or which
is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. </font>, e.g., <em><strong>the man’s</strong> story</em> (i.e., the one he told), <em><strong>our</strong> gift</em> (i.e.,
the one we are giving), <em>water <strong>from the river</strong>, the fruit <strong>of the tree</strong></em>, <font color="#000000"><em>Fix the <strong>kitchen</strong> sink!</em> (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), <em><strong>Desert</strong> rocks are so
beautiful</em> (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert
or rocks still present in the desert), <em><strong>Northern</strong> women are
easy-going</em>.</font></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><font color="#000000"> The ORIGINATIVE
should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE in <a href="#Sec4o7o5">Section 4.7.5</a> below, in that
the ABLATIVE position or path of motion away from,
whereas the ORIGINATIVE merely presents a locational context
as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar
noun. </font></p>
<h3 class="style9"><a name="Sec4o4o8" id="Sec4o4o8"></a><br />
<br />
4.4.8 Examples of Possessive Cases in Use</h3>
<blockquote>
<p><img src="images/4-4-8a.jpg" width="98" height="40" /><br />
<span class="style9"><strong>ultánļ êmmâl </strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML STA-‘male child ’-<span class="style22"><strong>POS</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘the boy's book’</em> [i.e., the one he has in his immediate possession, not one he necessarily owns] </span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-4-8b.jpg" width="103" height="40" /><br />
</strong><span class="style9"><strong>ultánļ êmmûl </strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML STA-‘male child ’-<span class="style22"><strong>PRP</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘the boy's book’</em> [i.e., the one he owns] </span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-4-8c.jpg" width="90" height="28" /><br />
</strong><span class="style9"><strong>öpţal àçtêl</strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘interior.corner’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘room/chamber’-<span class="style22"><strong>GEN</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML</span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘corner of a room’</em></span> <span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-4-8d.jpg" width="85" height="36" /><br />
</strong><span class="style9"><strong>xal akţrôl</strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘see+thing.seen’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘eagle’-<span class="style22"><strong>ATT</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘what the eagle sees’</em></span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8d.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8d.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-4-8e.jpg" width="184" height="42" /></strong><br />
<span class="style9"><strong>Isval êzguirs èkšôt âmmit.</strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">DYN-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘sound.of.laughter’-DER-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-IFL STA-‘clown’-<span class="style22"><strong>ATT</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8e.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8e.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘The sound of the clowns’ laughter frightens the children.’</em></span> <img src="images/Clown5.jpg" width="76" height="88" align="top" /></p>
<p><strong><img src="images/4-4-8f.jpg" width="100" height="39" /></strong><br />
<span class="style9"><strong>ultánļ êmmëil </strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML STA-‘male child’-<span class="style22"><strong>PDC</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘the boy's book’</em> [i.e., the one he authored] </span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8f.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8f.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<img src="images/4-4-8g.jpg" width="111" height="40" /><br />
<span class="style9"><strong>Iolmámž ûmmöil.</strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">DYN-‘measure.of.music’-NRM/PRX/M/COA/CST-FML STA-‘mother’-<span class="style22"><strong>ITP</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘They’re playing mother’s song.’</em> [i.e., the one that is special to her]</span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8g.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8g.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p><br />
<br />
<img src="images/4-4-8h.jpg" width="131" height="35" /><br />
<span class="style9"><strong>âmpafseč êqael</strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘whiff.of.odor’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/SEG-QUA<sub>1</sub>/3-IFL STA-‘woman’-<span class="style22"><strong>OGN</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘woman giving off a bad odor’</em> or <em>‘bad odor coming from/off the woman’</em></span> <span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-4-8h.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-4-8h.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<p class="style9"><a name="Sec4o5" id="Sec4o5"></a></p>
</blockquote>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td><div><font size="4"><strong>4.5 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES</strong></font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The Associative cases refer to a large group of cases which
modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent
noun or that it functions in an adverbial relationship to a verb. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation,
we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in <em>cat
box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man,</em> etc., or joined by the word
‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., <em>box of coins, dreams
of youth, sounds of laughte<font color="#000000">r,</font></em><font color="#000000"> or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. </font>Following
are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples
of the cases in use are given in <a href="#Sec4o5o33">Sec. 4.5.33 </a>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o1" id="Sec4o5o1"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.1</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PAR</strong></div></td>
<td width="8%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="64%"><strong>The Partitive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PARTITIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ia</strong>- or -<strong>ua</strong>-; following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>w</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>ia</strong>-, while following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>y</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>ua</strong>-; after other <strong>Cr</strong> stems, either <strong>Vc</strong> value is permissible. When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two
nouns, e.g., <em>a cup <strong>of coffee</strong>, a box(ful) <strong>of books</strong>,
a train(load) <strong>of refugees</strong></em>. When used alone, it signifies
that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun,
rather than the whole noun, e.g., <em>I ate <strong>some bread</strong>, Pour <strong>(some) water</strong> down my back</em>. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a
noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., <em>three <strong>boxes</strong>,
two <strong>clowns</strong>, twenty <strong>words</strong></em>. This usage
is analyzed in detail in Chapter
12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e.,
full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally,
a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not
say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps
more eloquently, “a box trio.” </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing
words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed
in Chapter
12 on enumeration.</p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o2" id="Sec4o5o2"></a></strong></h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.2</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CRS</strong></div></td>
<td width="8%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="64%"><strong>The Contrastive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ie</strong>- or -<strong>ue</strong>-; following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>w</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>ie</strong>-, while following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>y</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>ue</strong>-; after other <strong>Cr</strong> stems, either <strong>Vc</strong> value is permissible. The CONTRASTIVE identifies a noun which
has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. This is translatable by the English
phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘rather than’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g.,<em> <strong>Instead
of rain</strong>, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, <strong>as opposed to
a maid</strong>;</em> <em>I prefer peas <strong>to carrots</strong>; <strong>Rather than marigolds</strong>, let’s buy carnations; That's sugar,</em> <strong><em>not salt</em></strong>. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o3" id="Sec4o5o3"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.5.3</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CPS</strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="63%"><strong>The Compositive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>io</strong>- or -<strong>uo</strong>-; following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>w</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>io</strong>-, while following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>y</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>uo</strong>-; after other <strong>Cr</strong> stems, either <strong>Vc</strong> value is permissible. The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as
being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is
made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be <em>That
statue was carved <strong>out of marble</strong>, She owns three <strong>gold(en) </strong>coins, We were caught in a web <strong>of lies</strong>, I use a <strong>wooden</strong> ladder, It was a house <strong>of cards</strong>, <strong>Three suits</strong> comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests <strong>styrofoam</strong> cups</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction
with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing
or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be <em>She likes to
cook <strong>with tomatoes</strong>, He reads b<strong>y candle(light)</strong>,
That child goes through <strong>four sets of clothes</strong> a day, My uncle
satisfied his sweet tooth <strong>with three chocolate bars</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o4" id="Sec4o5o4"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.4</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRD</strong></div></td>
<td width="8%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="64%"><strong>The Predicative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PREDICATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>iö</strong>- or -<strong>uö</strong>-; following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>w</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>iö</strong>-, while following <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>y</strong>, the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>uö</strong>-; after other <strong>Cr</strong> stems, either <strong>Vc</strong> value is permissible. The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which
constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively),
or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by
the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying
on.’ Examples of use are <em>a book <strong>dependent on a publisher</strong>,
a man <strong>relying on charity</strong>, laws <strong>based in reason</strong>,
Can success <strong>supported by murder</strong> be sustained?</em></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished
from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL,
in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely
the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to
translate <em>anxiety based on terror</em>, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’
or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in
the phrase <em>an attitude fueled by greed</em>, the attitude derives from or
results from greed, but is not relying on it.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.5</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>MED</strong></div></td>
<td width="8%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="64%"><strong>The Mediative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The MEDIATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>a’</strong>-. The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical,
psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes
place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as <em>a <strong>radio</strong> announcement, arrival <strong>by water</strong>, a <strong>letter</strong> bomb, <strong>air</strong> mail, achieving ecstasy <strong>through sex</strong>, I
showed her my love <strong>with chocolate</strong></em>. It should be distinguished
from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see <a href="#Sec4o3o8">Section 4.3.8</a> above),
which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a
causative action. For example, in the sentence <em>Call him on the phone!</em>,
translating the phrase <em>on the phone</em> into the INSTRUMENTAL case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call
him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case
would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’ </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.6</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>APL</strong></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="65%"><strong>The Applicative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The APPLICATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>u<strong>’</strong></strong>-. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which
represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance.
As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for
the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be <em>a cup for coffee</em> (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), <em>a box for tools</em> (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold
tools), <em>a room for changing.</em> Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in <em>a “weapon”
cat</em> = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or <em>a “projectile”
book</em> = ‘a book used as a projectile.’ </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.7</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PUR</strong></div></td>
<td width="8%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="64%"><strong>The Purposive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PURPOSIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>e<strong>’</strong></strong>-. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which
characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that
the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or
in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another
noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual
instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended
use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or
‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately
an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would
be <em>a <strong>coffee</strong> cup, a <strong>tool</strong>box, a <strong>litter</strong> box, a <strong>trash</strong>can. </em></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="14%"><strong>4.5.8</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CSD</strong></div></td>
<td width="5%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="72%"><strong>The Considerative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>o<strong>’</strong></strong>-. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun
as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs
or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according
to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion
of.’ Examples of usage would be <em><strong>In my opinion</strong> he’s
a coward; He’s leaving town <strong>as per orders</strong> from the court;
You were arrested <strong>pursuant to law</strong>; <strong>According to our
teacher</strong>, humans are descended from apes</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o9" id="Sec4o5o9"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><strong>4.5.9</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ESS</strong></div></td>
<td width="5%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="71%"><strong>The Essive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ESSIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ea<strong></strong></strong>-. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name
by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’
in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would
be used in translating the English sentences <em>They called him <strong>a clown</strong>,
The woman entered the club <strong>as an equal</strong> of any man, We consider
you our <strong>only hope</strong></em>. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o10" id="Sec4o5o10"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="14%"><strong>4.5.10</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ASI</strong></div></td>
<td width="5%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="70%"><strong>The Assimilative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>eo</strong>. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as
a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a
verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in
the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of
usage are <em>She sings <strong>like a bird</strong>, <strong>As children </strong>they
seemed to me</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="13%"><strong>4.5.11</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>FUN</strong></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="71%"><strong>The Functive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The FUNCTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>eö<strong></strong></strong>-. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in <em>-ly</em> or the adverbial use of <em>with</em>, identifying the manner in which an action,
event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to
characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately
by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would
be: <em>She dances <strong>gracefully</strong> </em>(i.e., in a manner characterized
by grace),<em> The boys ate <strong>with gusto</strong>, That clown is speaking <strong>nonsense</strong>, Father speaks <strong>with such fortitude</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="13%"><strong>4.5.12</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>TFM</strong></div></td>
<td width="4%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="72%"><strong>The Transformative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by
the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>oa<strong></strong></strong>-. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome
or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’
or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone
some transformation. Example usages would be <em>The house burned <strong>to
ashes</strong>, The clown reached a state <strong>of tranquility</strong>, The
clowns will turn our children <strong>into slaves</strong>, Her father drank
himself <strong>to death</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="14%"><strong>4.5.13</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>REF</strong></div></td>
<td width="4%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="73%"><strong>The Referential Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The REFERENTIAL case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>oe<strong></strong></strong>-. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning
as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’
‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’
‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’
Examples of use would be <em>a song <strong>of love</strong>; <strong>As for
those books</strong>, burn them!; Let’s talk <strong>about clowns</strong>;
His attitude <strong>toward women</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="14%"><strong>4.5.14</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CLA</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="74%"><strong>The Classificative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by
the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>öa<strong></strong></strong>-. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun
as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various
English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are <em>Place them <strong>in groups of three</strong>, The workers arranged the
tables <strong>in rows</strong>, He lay down <strong>lengthwise</strong>, Can
you count <strong>by fives</strong>?, I will sort them <strong>by color</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify
a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing
the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time
periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature
of an event. Examples would be <em><strong>Month by month</strong>, their departure
crept closer; <strong>Year after year</strong>, I see more and more clowns; <strong>Day in</strong>,<strong> day out</strong>, he’s always working;
The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, <strong>bag upon bag</strong>; <strong>Patient by patient</strong>, the nurse administered injections</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not
be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used
to translate the sentence <em>One bomb after another fell on the city</em>.
Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations
of the noun (see <a href="07_suffixes.html#Sec7o4o4">Sec.
7.4.4</a>).</p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<p class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o15" id="Sec4o5o15"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="10%"><strong>4.5.15</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CNV</strong></div></td>
<td width="4%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="77%"><strong>The Conductive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>öe<strong></strong></strong>-. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful
or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship
signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains
to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English
phrases translatable using this case are <em>a <strong>circus</strong> clown,
a <strong>mountain</strong> man, a feeling <strong>of loneliness</strong>, the <strong>Mafia’s</strong> world, a realm <strong>of fear</strong>, my<strong> life</strong> achievement, <strong>childhood</strong> memories, Let’s
discuss the morality<strong> of war</strong></em>. </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"> </h3>
<div align="justify" class="style9"></div>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="10%"><strong>4.5.16</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IDP</strong></div></td>
<td width="4%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="77%"><strong>The Interdependent Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by
the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>üa</strong>- unless the preceding <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>w</strong> or -<strong>y</strong>, in which case the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>i’</strong>-. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun
which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship
with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal
in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within
it’s natural context, e.g., <em>the<strong> students</strong>’ teacher,
an <strong>army</strong> general, the blood <strong>in my veins</strong>, the
driver <strong>of the truck</strong>, the nation’s leader, <strong>his</strong> team</em> (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case
does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate <em>the book’s pages</em>,
or <em>the leaves of a tree</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="62%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.5.17</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>BEN</strong></div></td>
<td width="2%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="72%"><strong>The Benefactive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>üe</strong>- unless the preceding <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>w</strong> or -<strong>y</strong>, in which case the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>ö’</strong>-. The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for
whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the
recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or
consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English
‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’
Examples of usage are <em>a toy <strong>for the children</strong>, We threw <strong>him</strong> a party, Go to</em> <em>the <strong>teachers</strong>’
lounge</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The BENEFACTIVE also translates the English
phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or
‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is
paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would
be <em>He remained silent <strong>for her sake</strong>, They went on with the
ceremony <strong>out of respect for the families</strong>, They dressed in robes <strong>because of tradition</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><strong>4.5.18</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>TSP</strong></div></td>
<td width="2%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="74%"><strong>The Transpositive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>üo</strong>- unless the preceding <strong>Cr</strong> stem ends in -<strong>w</strong>, in which case the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>î’</strong>-, or the preceding <strong>Cr</strong> stem ends in-<strong>y</strong>, in which case the <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong><strong>û’</strong></strong>. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution
of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense
of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead
of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are <em>The boss made the speech <strong>for me</strong>, She went up into the attic <strong>for her brother</strong></em> (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><strong>4.5.19</strong></td>
<td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CMM</strong></div></td>
<td width="2%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="70%"><strong>The Commutative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>au<strong></strong></strong>-. The COMMUTATIVE translates English
‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in <em>You
paid too much money <strong>for that dress</strong>, She kills <strong>for thrills</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o20" id="Sec4o5o20"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="12%"><strong>4.5.20</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>COM</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="76%"><strong>The Comitative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The COMITATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>eu<strong></strong></strong>-. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish
or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’
in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in <em>The
child went <strong>with the clown </strong>to the party</em>. Like English ‘with,’
the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun
is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb
as the head noun. For example, in the sentence <em>My father was walking with
a loaf of bread</em>, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two
nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences <em>They danced
with each other</em> or <em>Mother wants to talk with you</em>. These would
be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb,
explained in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o7">Section 5.7</a>.
This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following
two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE,
the second would not: <em>This man fought with my father</em> (e.g., alongside
him during the war) versus <em>This man fought with my father</em> (e.g., they
had a fight with each other).</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Note also that the COMITATIVE is not
used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by
means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as <em>I
cut the meat with a knife</em>. As previously discussed in <a href="#Sec4o3o8">Section
4.3.8</a>, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed
in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE case is used. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="14%"><strong>4.5.21</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CNJ</strong></div></td>
<td width="4%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="74%"><strong>The Conjunctive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>iu<strong></strong></strong>-. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English
‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e.,
to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary
activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the <em>walking with
a loaf of bread</em> example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate
the usage, consider the sentence <em>I’m with the brigade</em>. Translating
‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean
that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’
while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m
a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE would be used are <em>They skate with the best team, That teacher works well
with children</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><strong>4.5.22</strong></td>
<td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>UTL</strong></div></td>
<td width="4%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="72%"><strong>The Utilitative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The UTILITATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ou<strong></strong></strong>-. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in
the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’
where it refers to actual use in progress as in <em>A man <strong>with a gun</strong> ran into the room</em>. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL (see <a href="#Sec4o3o8">Sec. 4.3.8</a>) in that the latter indicates the implement
used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies
a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish
a stated action. For example, compare the sentence <em>The man <strong>with
an umbrella</strong> was pushing a stroller in the rain</em> (UTILITATIVE)
with <em>The man pushed a stroller in the rain <strong>with an umbrella</strong></em> (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was
pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the
rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller.
Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use
an English gerundial construction as in <em>A <strong>gun-wielding</strong> man ran into the room</em> or <em>An <strong>umbrella-toting</strong> man pushed
a stroller in the rain</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case
above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment,
while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example,
the sentence <em>Go sit next to the girl <strong>with the book</strong></em>,
if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify
a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.23</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ABE</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Abessive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ABESSIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ëu<strong></strong></strong>-. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite
of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’
or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not
having’ as in <em>a day <strong>without rain</strong></em> or <em>a <strong>treeless</strong> plain</em>. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE case, it is <strong>not</strong> used to translate ‘without’ when
it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception
to a potential outcome as in <em>I can’t go on without love</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.24</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CVS</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Conversive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CONVERSIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>öu<strong></strong></strong>-. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction
with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception
to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered
a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where
it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the
conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition
‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense
does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec.
4.5.23 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by
such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if
it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’
Example of usage: <em><strong>Without peace</strong>, this society is doomed; <strong>If not for the rain</strong>, we would have had a good time</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o5o25" id="Sec4o5o25"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.25</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>COR</strong></div></td>
<td width="8%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="64%"><strong>The Correlative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><font color="#000000">The CORRELATIVE case is marked by the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ai’</strong>-. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate
an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another
noun or verb, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’
‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association
with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as <em><strong>career</strong> goals, the soup o<strong>f the day</strong>, the direction o<strong>f that road</strong>,
The elapsed time <strong>relative to the distance </strong>determines the winner,
Our next topic is sex <strong>and (</strong></em>or<em><strong> in) art</strong></em> (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Additional examples are <em>years <strong>of wonder</strong>,
the <strong>Clown</strong> Planet, <strong>life</strong> blood, city <strong>of
evil</strong></em>. Note that the CORRELATIVE case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often
uses an adjective, e.g., <em><strong>spatial</strong> coordinates, the <strong>political</strong> economy, a <strong>dangerous</strong> situation</em> (i.e., a situation
characterized by danger).</font></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">When used in contexts involving directional motion or spatial positioning is,
the CORRELATIVE signifies the directional orientation or position of one
noun relative to another, i.e., <font color="#000000">a noun relative
to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial
orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater
sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships
are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the
right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, this use of the CORRELATIVE case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples
of how it would be used are <em>I’m standing four feet north <strong>of
the desk</strong>, The one hanging above <strong>the boxes</strong> looks fresh,
It lies at a 30° angle <strong>relative to the tree</strong></em></font>, <em>He turned his back <strong>on me</strong>,
The upstairs bedroom faces <strong>the yard</strong>, It’s alongside <strong>the
desk</strong></em> (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk).</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">As will be described in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o4o2o3">Section 5.4.2.3</a>, the CORRELATIVE is used with verbal case-frames to convey the equivalent of simple relative clauses in Western languages. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.26</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DEP</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Dependent Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The DEPENDENT case is marked by <font color="#000000">the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ui’</strong>-</font>. The DEPENDENT translates the English
phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which
the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be <em><strong>Depending
on the rain</strong>, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, <strong>depending
on her attitude</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The DEPENDENT should be distinguished
from the PREDICATIVE case in <a href="#Sec4o5o4">Sec.
4.5.4</a>, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE denotes reliance. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.27</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PVS</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Provisional Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PROVISIONAL case is marked by <font color="#000000">the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ei’</strong>-</font>. The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which
the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required
condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the
main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided
(that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’
or ‘but only if,’ e.g., <em><strong>Provided [there’s] food</strong>,
I will attend the meeting; We will fight <strong>only in case of war</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.28</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PTL</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Postulative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The POSTULATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>oi’</strong>-</font>. The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or
consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s)
and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun,
situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence,
but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated
by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in
case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where
it means ‘whether’ as in <em>I don’t know if it’s warm
enough</em>, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality
(but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences).
Examples of usage: <em><strong>If [there’s] snow</strong>, I’m not
going out; <strong>In case of fire</strong>, flee; <strong>If friend</strong>,
welcome them, <strong>if foe</strong>, kill ’em</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><font color="#000000"> The example below is offered to further distinguish the use of the POSTULATIVE case
from the PROVISIONAL case above:</font></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><font color="#000000">PROVISIONAL: <em>We’re packing
umbrellas, <strong>but only in case of bad weather</strong></em> (i.e., umbrellas
will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).<br />
<br />
POSTULATIVE: <em>We’re packing umbrellas <strong>in
case of bad weather</strong></em> (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation
for the possibility of bad weather).</font></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">
</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>4.5.29</strong></td>
<td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CON</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="68%"><strong>The Concessive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CONCESSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>au’</strong>-</font>. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun,
situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result
which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions,
conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’
‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’
‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: <em><strong>In spite of
his stupidity</strong>, he passed the test; <strong>The law notwithstanding</strong>,
I will stand my ground; <strong>No matter how ignorant</strong> (they may be),
they are welcome, <strong>Although foreigners</strong>, we will let them attend
the meeting.</em></p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.30</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EXC</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Exceptive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>iu’</strong>-</font>. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation,
or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main
clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’
or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: <em>She loves everybody <strong>except
clowns</strong>; I like all animals, <strong>excluding dogs</strong>; He eats
almost anything <strong>but (not) spinach</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="52%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.31</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>AVR</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Aversive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The AVERSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>eu’</strong>-</font>. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a
source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions
such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in
avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o2">Sec.
5.2</a>) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage
are <em>She finished her plate <strong>for fear of my wrath</strong>, I traveled
by night <strong>to avoid the sun</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><a name="Sec4o5o32" id="Sec4o5o32"></a></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.5.32</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CMP</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Comparative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The COMPARATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">the <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ou’</strong>-</font>. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being
compared to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as
compared to,’ or certain usages of ‘versus’ or ‘as opposed to.’ It is similar to the CONTRASTIVE case (see Section 4.5.2 above), except that it does not carry the sense of opposition, joint exclusivity, or either-or binary substitution of the CONTRASTIVE, but rather merely comparison/choice/preference from various options or along a spectrum or scale. With verbal case-frames (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o4">Sec. 5.4</a>) it would translate as
‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’).
Examples are <em>She chose the red one <strong>as opposed to the others</strong>,
Sam drives a van <strong>versus Joe</strong>, who prefers a truck</em>, <em>You’ll find it in Room <strong>Twelve</strong></em> [as opposed to a room with a different number].</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><a name="Sec4o5o33" id="Sec4o5o33"></a></p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9">4.5.33 Examples of Associative Cases in Use </h3>
<blockquote>
<p><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34a.jpg" width="124" height="45" /></strong><br />
<span class="style9"><strong>âkyuál vlalêx</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-<span class="style22"><strong>PAR</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ<sub>2</sub>/3-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘cup of coffee’</em></span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34b.jpg" width="50" height="29" /></strong><br />
<strong>âkniel </strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘pet.snake’-<span class="style22"><strong>CRS</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL </span><br />
<em>‘as opposed to the pet snake / rather than the pet snake’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34c.jpg" width="88" height="28" /></strong><br />
<strong>uçtál op<sup>h</sup>iol</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘wall.of.room’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘wood’-<span class="style22"><strong>CPS</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><span class="style35">-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘wooden wall’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34d.jpg" width="94" height="34" /></strong><br />
<strong>t<sup>h</sup>arl riöč</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘law/statute’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘reason’-<span class="style22"><strong>PRD</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/A/ASO/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘laws based in reason’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34d.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34d.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34e.jpg" width="147" height="48" /></strong><br />
<strong>Opçav ökcul ödhá’šk.</strong><br />
<span class="style35">DYN-‘(self).directed.motion.throughout.three.dimensional.volume’-NRM/PRX/N/VAR/UNI-IFL STA-‘virus’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL
STA-‘drink.of.water’-<span class="style22"><strong>MED</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CST-FML </span><em><br />
‘The virus spreads via the drinking water.’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34e.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34e.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34f.jpg" width="119" height="37" /></strong><br />
<strong>âkyú’l vlalêx</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-<span class="style22"><strong>APL</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ<sub>2</sub>/3-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘cup being used for coffee’</em></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34g.jpg" width="115" height="36" /></strong><br />
<strong>âkyé’l vlalêx</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘coffee.bean.drink’-<span class="style22"><strong>PUR</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘contain.via.gravity/basin’-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SIZ<sub>2</sub>/3-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘coffee cup’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34f.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34f.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34h.jpg" width="76" height="36" /></strong><br />
<strong>esro’láun</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘prepared/cooked food’-<span class="style22"><strong>CSD</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML-AGC<sub>2</sub>/2 </span><br />
<em>‘according to the cook’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34g.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34g.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34i.jpg" width="170" height="38" /></strong><br />
<strong>Idawelar êmmil ukšeal.</strong><br />
<span class="style35">DYN-‘nickname/label’-DIR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA1<sub>1</sub>/5-IFL STA-‘male.child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘nerd’-<span class="style22"><strong>ESS</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘Don't call the boy a nerd.’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34h.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34h.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34j.jpg" width="91" height="33" /></strong><br />
<strong>las almeodh </strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘voice’-OBL-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘musical.note’-<span class="style22"><strong>ASI</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘a voice like music’</em></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34k.jpg" width="50" height="29" /></strong><br />
<strong>eqtèöck</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘degree.of.happiness’-<span class="style22"><strong>FUN</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-FML </span><br />
<em>‘happily /in a manner characterized by happiness’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34i.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34i.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34l.jpg" width="175" height="43" /></strong><br />
<strong>ˉSakč’a tô myick<strong>a</strong> zboack.</strong> <br />
<span class="style35">CPT-STA-‘change.state’-NRM/GRA/U/CSL/UNI-IFL 1m/ATT STA-‘sense.of.gratitude’-AFF-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL <br />
STA-‘feeling.of.anger’-<span class="style22"><strong>TFM</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘My sense of gratitude gradually turned into anger.’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34j.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34j.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34m.jpg" width="90" height="40" /></strong><br />
<strong>ultánļ açk<sup>h</sup>woeţ</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘page.of.writing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/SEG/COA-FML STA-‘porcupine’-<span class="style22"><strong>REF</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘a book about porcupines’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34k.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34k.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p class="style9"><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-5-34n.jpg" width="44" height="27" /><br />
</strong><span class="style9"><strong>kpöal</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘extent.of.spatial.length’-<span class="style22"><strong>CLA</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘lengthwise’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-5-34l.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-5-34l.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a><br />
</span> </p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<p align="justify"><br />
<a name="Sec4o6" id="Sec4o6"></a><br />
</p>
</blockquote>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td class="style9"><div><strong>4.6 THE TEMPORAL CASES</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In
many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly
in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases
as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’
and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear
using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’
‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the SIMULTANEITIVE,
ASSESSIVE, CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE,
POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations
of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases
in use are provided in <a href="#Sec4o6o16">Sec. 4.6.16</a>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.6.1</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SML</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Simultaneitive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by
<font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>a’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>a’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun
signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion.
Examples would be <em>I was in class <strong>at the same time as his accident</strong>,
I worked a side-job <strong>concurrent to the strike</strong>, She laughed <strong>simultaneously
with my coughing fit</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.6.2</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ASS</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Assessive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ASSESSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>e’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>e’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of
time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to
English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be <em>My lawyer
charges <strong>by the minute</strong>, He publishes several books <strong>each
year</strong>, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles <strong>per hour</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o6o3" id="Sec4o6o3"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.6.3</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CNR</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Concursive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CONCURSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>i’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>i’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal
locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during
or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered
a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be <em>He prays <strong>during
lunch</strong>, She studied hard <strong>last night</strong>, I won’t
visit until <strong>then</strong></em> (i.e., during that period in time). </p>
<p align="center"><img src="images/4-6-3.jpg" width="364" height="92" /></p>
<blockquote class="style9">
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
</blockquote>
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.4</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>ACS</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Accessive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ACCESSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>o’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>o’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ACCESSIVE is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except
that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited
period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something
occurs. Examples of usage would be <em>Dinner will be served <strong>at sunset</strong>; <strong>When</strong> </em>(i.e., at the moment that)<em> you hear his voice,
call in the clowns; <strong>Upon impact</strong>, both cars were accelerating</em>.</p>
<p align="center"><img src="images/4-6-4.jpg" width="364" height="114" /></p>
<p class="style9"></p>
<p class="style9"></p>
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.5</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>DFF</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Diffusive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>u’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>u’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal
locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time
period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on
the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase
‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be <em>Most cars had tail fins <strong>in those days</strong>; I was abroad <strong>during
that era</strong>; <strong>At the time of his death</strong>, the number of
clowns was increasing; <strong>Over the past several seasons</strong>, your
talent has matured</em>.</p>
<p align="center"><img src="images/4-6-5.jpg" width="364" height="92" /></p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.6</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>PER</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Periodic Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PERIODIC case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ö’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>ö’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PERIODIC identifies the span of
time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This
case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above,
in that the CONCURSIVE signifies
a contextually single holistic event, whereas the PERIODIC specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions,
or durationally extended acts or states take place. Examples would be <em>He wrote the novel <strong>in six months</strong>, These clowns can corrupt your child <strong>within
a few days</strong>, The woman has been ill a lot <strong>this year</strong>, <strong>For the last several concerts</strong>, my voice has been deteriorating</em>.</p>
<p align="center"><img src="images/4-6-6.jpg" width="364" height="95" /></p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<table width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.7</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>PRO</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Prolapsive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ü’a</strong>- (or -<strong>ëu’a</strong>- if the preceding <strong>Cr</strong> stem ends in -<strong>w</strong> or -<strong>y</strong>). Optionally <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value can be -<strong><strong>ü</strong>’V</strong>- (or -<strong>ëu’V</strong>- if the preceding <strong>Cr</strong> stem ends in -<strong>w</strong> or -<strong>y</strong>), where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration
of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case
should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that
the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act,
condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies
a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition,
or event occurs. Examples would be <em>He prayed <strong>through lunch</strong>, <strong>While he was dying</strong>, the number of clowns increased, It rained <strong>all night</strong>, It took <strong>three days</strong> for the fever
to break, She sang <strong>for an hour</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="center"><img src="images/4-6-7.jpg" width="364" height="92" /></p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.8</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>PCV</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Precursive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PRECURSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ai’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>ai’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in
time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be <em>This
situation occurred <strong>before the war</strong>, It rained <strong>prior
to his appearance</strong>, There will be a presentation <strong>preceding the
banquet</strong></em>.</p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.9</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>PCR</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Postcursive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ei’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>ei’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point
in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be <em>This
situation occurred <strong>after the war</strong>, It rained <strong>subsequent
to his appearance</strong>, There will be a presentation <strong>following the
banquet</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.10</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>ELP</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Elapsive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ELAPSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ui’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>ui’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount
of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act,
condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’
Examples would be <em><strong>Four years ago</strong> I was a student; <strong>Going
back three generations</strong>, women could not even vote</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.11</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>ALP</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Allapsive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>oi’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>oi’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount
of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of
a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be <em><strong>Four years
from now</strong>, I will be a student; <strong>Looking ahead three generations</strong>,
clowns will rule the world; I will be home <strong>in three days</strong>; Little
did he know that <strong>two months later</strong> he’d be a rich man</em>.</p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<p class="style9"> </p>
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%" class="style9"><strong>4.6.12</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style9"><div align="center"><strong>INP</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%" class="style9"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%" class="style9"><strong>The Interpolative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ëi’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong><strong>ëi</strong>’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the
context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the
duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are <em>We heard several <strong>five-second</strong> snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals <strong>of several
seconds</strong>; She gets recurring migraines, <strong>each lasting hours</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.6.13</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EPS</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Episodic Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The EPISODIC case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>au’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>au’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The EPISODIC identifies a contextually
recurring time-period. Examples of usage are <em>The man talks with his mother <strong>every three days</strong>; <strong>Each year</strong>, I travel to the
Clown Planet; He works <strong>nights</strong>; <strong>By day</strong>, she
is an artisan; The clowns visit us <strong>on Sundays</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.6.14</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PLM</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Prolimitive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>eu’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>eu’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in
time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e.,
the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would
be <em><strong>By the time of your graduation</strong>, I want you out of the
house; Please be on board <strong>by midnight</strong>; <strong>By the time
of the raid</strong>, there was nothing left to steal</em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.6.15</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>LIM</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Limitative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The LIMITATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>iu’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong>iu’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating
an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time
for.’ Examples of usage are <em>He arrived <strong>in time for dinner</strong>,
Be inside the Big Tent <strong>in time for the clowns</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<h3 align="justify" class="style9"><a name="Sec4o6o16" id="Sec4o6o16"></a><br />
4.6.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use</h3>
<blockquote class="style9">
<p><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-6-16a.jpg" width="90" height="36" /></strong><br />
<strong>ţkoi’al żial</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘three’-<span class="style22"><strong>ALP</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNIIFL STA-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><span class="style6">-<span class="style28">IFL</span></span><br />
<em>‘three days from now’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-6-16a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-6-16a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p><strong><br />
<img src="images/4-6-16b.jpg" width="96" height="31" /></strong><br />
<strong>qô teu’at’</strong><br />
<span class="style35">ma-ATT STA-‘life’-<span class="style22"><strong>PL<strong>M</strong></strong></span>-NRM/TRM/M/CSL/UNI</span>-<span class="style35">IFL</span><br />
<em>‘by the time of his death</em><em>’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-6-16b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-6-16b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p><strong><br />
</strong><br />
<strong>llau’atļuarl</strong><br />
<span class="style35">STA-‘one’-<span class="style22"><strong>EPS</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-CAL<sub>2</sub>/1-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘on Sundays’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-6-16c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-6-16c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p><br />
<img src="images/4-6-16d.jpg" width="200" height="43" /><br />
<strong>Igvarsukt tu ţkü’al żial.</strong><br />
<span class="style35">DYN-‘article of clothing’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-DEF<sub>1</sub>/9-IFL 1m-IND STA-‘three’-<span class="style22"><strong>PRO</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL <br />
IFL-‘day (24-hr. period)’-PAR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><br />
<em>‘I’ve been (deliberately) wearing these clothes for three days.</em><em>’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-6-16d.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-6-16d.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
<p><br />
<img src="images/4-6-16e.jpg" width="78" height="36" /><br />
<strong>žô c<sup>h</sup>ei’as</strong><br />
<span class="style35">1m+2u+ua-ATT STA-‘grief’-<span class="style37">PCR</span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br />
<em>‘after our period of grief’</em> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-6-16e.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-6-16e.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p>
</blockquote>
<p><br />
<font color="#FFFFFF">_<a name="Sec4o7" id="Sec4o7"></a>_<span class="style9">___</span></font></p>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td class="style9"><div><strong>4.7 THE SPATIAL CASES</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify" class="style9">As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil.
While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque
and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional
relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished
in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be
inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless,
there are six cases corresponding to certain types of spatial relationships.
These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE,
and NAVIGATIVE. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Also: see <a href="#Sec4o5o25">Section 4.5.25</a> above regarding the use of the CORRELATIVE case in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">Following are explanations of the function
and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided
in <a href="#Sec4o7o7">Sec. 4.7.7</a>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.7.1</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>LOC</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Locative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The LOCATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>â’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong><strong>â</strong>’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The LOCATIVE signifies general static
position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable
by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’
or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., <em>in that building, by
the wall, on the street, at my house</em>.<br />
<br />
<br />
</p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.7.2</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ORI</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Orientative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ê’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong><strong>ê</strong>’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun
(usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end”
of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable
into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’
in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., <em>He jumped in <strong>feet-first</strong>, The car rolled <strong>backward</strong></em>.
The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept
to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., <em>He walked “butt-ward”
down the street</em> (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading
the way).</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.7.3</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PSV</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Procursive Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PROCURSIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ô’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong><strong>ô</strong>’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often
a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point,
interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction
with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears
in the ALLATIVE case (see below). Examples of use would be <em>They
collided <strong>sideways</strong>, She turned <strong>her back</strong> on
him, The chair “<strong>faced</strong>” the doorway</em> (i.e.,
The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.7.4</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ALL</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Allative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ALLATIVE case is marked by either <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>î’a</strong>- or -<strong>û’a</strong>-; if the preceding <strong>Cr</strong> stem ends in -<strong>w</strong>, <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong><strong><strong>î</strong></strong>’V</strong>-, whereas if the preceding <strong>Cr</strong> stem ends in -<strong>y</strong>, <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value is -<strong>û’V</strong>-; for other <strong>Cr</strong> stems, either Vc value is permissible. Optionally <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value can be -<strong><strong><strong>î</strong></strong>’V</strong>- or -<strong><strong>û</strong>’V</strong>- (under the same rules for <strong>Cr</strong> stems ending in -<strong>w</strong> or -<strong>y</strong>), where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">When used in the context of explicit or implied directional
motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion,
translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’
in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that
the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion
or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be <em>I wandered <strong>eastward</strong>, The little girl ran <strong>toward me</strong>, Throw
the rock <strong>at that clown</strong>!, We headed <strong>for home</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><a name="Sec4o7o5" id="Sec4o7o5"></a></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.7.5</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ABL</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Ablative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The ABLATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ëu’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong><strong><strong>ëu</strong></strong>’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if both phonotactically and morpho-phonologically permissible (i.e., if it’s deletion does not violate phonotactic rules (see <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o4">Section 1.4</a>) and does not cause confusion or ambiguity in parsing the various consonants and vowels of the formative into their respective morphemes (i.e., their grammatical components). </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion,
the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin
of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin
or departure. Examples would be <em>He came <strong>out of the east</strong>,
She walked here <strong>from (the direction of) the river</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied,
the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation
of one noun relative to another, e.g., <em>He faced <strong>away from me</strong></em>.</p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"> </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9"><strong><a name="Sec4o7o6" id="Sec4o7o6"></a></strong></p>
<div align="justify" class="style9">
<table width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="17%"><strong>4.7.6</strong></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>NAV</strong></div></td>
<td width="3%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="69%"><strong>The Navigative Case</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ou’a</strong>-, or optionally -<strong><strong>ou</strong>’V</strong>-, where <strong>V</strong> has the value of the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for <strong>Vc</strong>, then the formative’s <strong>Vr</strong> affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position. </p>
<p align="justify" class="style9">The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun
relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event
takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in <a href="10_lexico-semantics.html#Sec10o3o3">Section
10.3.3 </a> that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors
of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as
the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be<em> I looked <strong>down
the street</strong>, We aligned it perpendicular <strong>to the path of the
sun</strong>, He crossed the room <strong>diagonally</strong></em> (i.e., walked
diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)</p>
<h3 class="style9"><a name="Sec4o7o7" id="Sec4o7o7"></a><br />
4.7.7 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use</h3>
<blockquote>
<p><span class="style9"><img src="images/3-5-2c.jpg" width="141" height="47" /><br />
<strong>Ûb eikkradwa smou’olâxh.</strong><br />
<span class="style32">EXN<sub>1</sub>/6 <strong> <strong> </strong> </strong> DYN-‘move.along.obliquely.vertical.path.between.two.points’-RPV/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL<strong> </strong> <strong> <strong> </strong> </strong> STA-‘valley’-<span class="style22"><strong>NAV</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-SCO<sub>2</sub>/5</span><span class="style6">-<span class="style33">IFL</span></span><br />
<em>The path through the canyon is steep.</em></span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/3-5-2c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/3-5-2c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="style9"><strong><img src="images/4-7-7a.jpg" width="178" height="45" /><br />
Ičatosk </strong><strong> êti prâ’ol</strong></span><br />
<span class="style9"><span class="style32">DYN-‘physical.contact’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FRC<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL<strong><strong><strong><strong> </strong> <strong> <strong> </strong></strong> </strong></strong> </strong> <strong> </strong>GEN-1m-AFF<strong> <strong> <strong> <strong> </strong></strong> </strong> </strong> STA-‘leg’-<span class="style22"><strong>LOC</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span></span><span class="style9"><span class="style32">-IFL</span></span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>‘I got hit on the leg.</em></span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-7-7b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-7-7b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p> </p>
<p><span class="style9"><strong> <strong><img src="images/4-7-7b.jpg" width="181" height="40" /><br />
Uajatiuçkims </strong>ţê’al qi.</strong></span><br />
<span class="style35">DYN-‘downward movement’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-PHY<sub>2</sub>/1-AGN<sub>1</sub>/1-IFL STA-‘head’-<span class="style22"><strong>ORI</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL ma-AFF</span><br />
<span class="style9"><em>He fell headfirst to his death.</em></span><span class="style9"> <span class="style6"><a href="sound_files/4-7-7c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/4-7-7c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span></p>
<p> </p>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><a name="Sec4o8" id="Sec4o7"></a><br />
</p>
</blockquote>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td class="style9"><div><strong>4.8 THE VOCATIVE</strong></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p class="style9">The VOCATIVE case is marked by <font color="#000000">t</font>he <strong>Vc</strong> value -<strong>ë</strong>-. The VOCATIVE is used when a nominal formative is used in direct address. In modern colloquial English, there is no vocative form, and the base form of the noun, name, or pronoun is used, usually followed by an exclamation point if the vocative functions as its own sentence, e.g., <em>‘<strong>Bill!</strong>’</em> or <em>‘Please come this way, <strong>sir</strong>’</em> or <em>‘<strong>Driver</strong>, take me to 53rd and 3rd.’</em> However, in archaic, poetic, formal or dramatic contexts, English utilizes the vocative particle "o", as in <em>‘<strong>O Time</strong>, thy pyramids!’</em> or <em>‘Why me, <strong>o lord</strong>?’</em></p>
<blockquote>
<p><br />
<span class="style18"></span></p>
<p align="right"> </p>
<p align="right"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="05_verbs_1.html"> Proceed to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >></a></strong></p>
<p align="left"> </p>
<p align="left"> </p>
<table width="92%" border="0" align="center">
<tr>
<td width="14%"> </td>
<td width="3%"> </td>
<td width="20%"><p class="style3"> </p></td>
<td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td>
<td width="21%"> </td>
<td width="19%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style8"><a href="index.htm">Home</a></span></td>
<td> </td>
<td height="24"><a href="00_intro.html"><span class="style8">Introduction</span></a></td>
<td><a href="04_case.html"><span class="style8">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="08_adjuncts.html"><span class="style8">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td>
<td><a href="12_numbers.htm"><span class="style8">12 The Number System</span></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style8"><a href="faqs.html">FAQs</a></span></td>
<td> </td>
<td height="18"><a href="01_phonology.html"><span class="style8">1 Phonology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="05_verbs_1.html"><span class="style8">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="09_syntax.html"><span class="style8">9 Syntax</span></a></td>
<td><a href="abbreviations.html"><span class="style8">List of Abbreviations</span></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style8"><a href="links.html">Links of Interest</a></span></td>
<td> </td>
<td height="18"><a href="02_morpho-phonology.html"><span class="style8">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="06_verbs_2.html"><span class="style8">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="10_lexico-semantics.html"><span class="style8">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td>
<td><a href="lexicon.htm"><span class="style8">The Lexicon</span></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><a href="03_morphology.html"><span class="style8">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td>
<td><a href="07_suffixes.html"><span class="style8">7 Suffixes</span></a></td>
<td><a href="11_script.htm"><span class="style8">11 The Writing System</span></a></td>
<td><span class="style8"><a href="texts.html">Texts</a></span></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
<table width="98%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="18%" height="219"><a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/a-grammar-of-the-ithkuil-language/18672158?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank"><img src="images/front_cover-small.png" alt="Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book" width="164" height="212" border="0" /></a></td>
<td width="66%" valign="top"><p class="style9"> </p>
<p class="style9">For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar<br />
in book form, <a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/a-grammar-of-the-ithkuil-language/18672158?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank">it is now available!</a> </p>
<p align="right"><span class="style9">And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-<br />
wrote</span><span class="style9"> with my twin brother Paul, <a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/beyond-antimony/18666681?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank">also now available!</a> </span></p>
<p align="right"><span class="style9">(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the<br />
philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features<br />
Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)</span></p></td>
<td width="16%" valign="middle"><p class="style9"><a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/beyond-antimony/18666681?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank"><img src="images/front_cover-novel.png" alt="Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada" width="149" height="217" border="0" align="top" /></a></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify">©2004-2011 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website for private, individual, or personal use which is non-commercial in nature and not for purposes of profit. Otherwise, you may copy or excerpt brief portions of the contents of this website in published, web-accessible, or commercially distributed articles, papers or webpages for purposes of review, commentary or analysis, provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. </p>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p></p>
</blockquote>
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