A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology

In this chapter, we examine six additional morphological categories + which apply to verbal formatives: Validation, Phase, Sanction, Aspect, + Mood and Bias. Like the categories of Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality and Level in the previous chapter, these + six categories are manifested within the morpho-phonological structure of a + specialized adjunct, in this instance called an aspectual adjunct. +

The structure of an aspectual adjunct is (CB-)VA-CX-(VS-(CB)) + where VA and Vs are + vocalic affixes indicating aspect, Cx is a consonantal infix + indicating validation, phase and sanction, and CB + is an optional consonantal prefix or suffix indicating Bias. Mood is indicated + by the tone and stress pattern of the adjunct as a whole. VA + represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination + (e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and Cx represents a single- or dual-consonant + conjunct (e.g., -k-, -tt-, + -šp-). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may + manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts + may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination + of these categories. These variations are described below.

Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we + now turn to an explanation of the six morphological categories it manifests.

Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than + simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction + with Mood (see Section 6.5 below) to indicate the precise + factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that + the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally + indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain. + Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of + nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity + of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, + presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are CONFIRMATIVE, + REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE + and HORTATIVE. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction + with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see Secs. 6.2 + and 6.3 below) by means of the Cx consonantal affix to + an aspectual adjunct. The values for these infixes are shown in the tables below. + The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.

The CONFIRMATIVE indicates that a statement + is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker. + It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be + unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories + shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect + being conveyed.
+

The REPORTIVE validation indicates that + the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed + true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct + testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s + or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree + of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ + or ‘probably.’
+

The INTUITIVE validation indicates that + the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” + feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ + or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’
+

The INFERENTIAL validation indicates + that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial + evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) + must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences + I must be dreaming or It must have rained last night.
+

The PRESUMPTIVE validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the + statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity + can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently + (so).’
+

The CONJECTURAL validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability + is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply + by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ + or ‘purportedly.’
+

The TENTATIVE validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately + translated by English ‘supposedly.’
+

The PUTATIVE validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can + be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ + ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus + the sentence overtly structured as He caught the bus in time but marked + for the PUTATIVE would actually translate as He must + not have caught the bus in time.
+

The HORTATIVE validation indicates that + the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it + to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ + ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’

+ 6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use

Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in Sec. + 3.4, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. They are marked by one of nine patterns + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, depending on the validation and sanction + of the verb as previously described in Section 6.1 and + shown in Tables 18(a) through 18(i). The nine phases + are explained in the following sections.
+

The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can + be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., + —
+

The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •
+

The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL + phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: — — + — —
+

The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE + above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL + event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. +

The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE + as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. +

The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.

Visual representation: ——• + • •— + • • + •— + • • + •— + • • + •
+

The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL + event.

Visual representation: ——• + •— + • • + • ——• + • —• + • • + • •—— + • —• + •
+

The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc.

Visual representation:—— + • • —— + • — + • •— + ——• + • — • + • • —• + •— + —— • — + • •

6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use

The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.

There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the mutational grade + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, as shown in Table + 18 in Sec. 6.1 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the validation + and phase of the verb. Each sanction is explained in the sections below.
+

The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is either + unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation + of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m + hungry.
+

The EPISTEMIC sanction is marked by Grade + 2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be That mountain is Mount Fuji or The + U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World.
+

The ALLEGATIVE identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No + one in the United States goes hungry.
+

The IMPUTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry + now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].
+

The REFUTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically + objective fact.
+

The REBUTTATIVE identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, + or interpretation.
+

The THEORETICAL identifies an utterance + as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.
+

The EXPATIATIVE identifies an utterance + as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.
+

The AXIOMATIC identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be Gravity + is ubiquitous, or Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food.

+ 6.3.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use

Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in Sec. + 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each + shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown + by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English.

+ 6.4.1 Aspect Prefixes and Suffixes

As explained above in Sec. 6.0, each + aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as a prefix in an + aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be associated with the verb, in which + case it appears as a vocalic suffix to the adjunct. The form of the adjunct + is Vp-Cx-(Vs), where Vp is the prefixed form + of the first aspect, Cx is the consonantal validation-phase-sanction + infix, and Vs, if present, is the suffixed form of the second + aspect.

Each prefix has seven alternate forms for a total of eight + forms whose use is explained in Sec. 6.4.2 below. The first form of the prefix + is the default form. The suffix form of each aspect has but one form. The values + of these prefixes and suffixes is shown in Table 19 below.
+

+ 6.4.2 Using Aspect Prefixes to Express Format for Primary Conflations

The eight forms of each aspect prefix are used as an alternate + way of indicating Format (See Sec. + 5.4.2) in the absence of a conflation (or valence) adjunct. Because they + also show Valence, Version and Modality, it is common to use conflation adjuncts + with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays + conflation (see Sec. 5.4.1) + but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation + adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms + 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, + in the sentence

, + the conflation adjunct

+ indicating INSTRUMENTATIVE format for the ACTIVE + conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix + â- + on the aspectual adjunct to wâ- + and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:

+ Wâloi uatumul.
+

+
+ ‘The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring’ + OR
+ ‘What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an + asteroid.’

+ 6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories

+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.1

RTR

RETROSPECTIVE

+ This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.2

PRS

PROSPECTIVE

+ Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE + equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.3

HAB

HABITUAL

+ When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the + UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.4

PRG

PROGRESSIVE

+ This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.5

IMM

IMMINENT

+ Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + think Carl is about to cry.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.6

PCS

PRECESSIVE

+ Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + saw a clown in the toy store.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.7

REG

REGULATIVE

+ Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.8

EPR

EXPERIENTIAL

+ Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL + does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in Was she ever tired.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.9

RSM

RESUMPTIVE

+ Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in The girl resumed singing, or He is starting to laugh + again.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.10

CSS

CESSATIVE

+ Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in They stopped dancing at midnight.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.11

RCS

RECESSATIVE

+ Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.12

PAU

PAUSAL

+ Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.13

RGR

REGRESSIVE

+ Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE + should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.14

PCL

PRECLUSIVE

+ Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.15

CNT

CONTINUATIVE

+ Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.16

ICS

INCESSATIVE

+ Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + on and on since last year.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.17

PMP

PREEMPTIVE

+ Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.18

CLM

CLIMACTIC

+ Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’ +
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.19

PTC

PROTRACTIVE

+ Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL + phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE + conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.20

TMP

TEMPORARY

+ Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water. +
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.21

MTV

MOTIVE

+ Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in + Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns. +
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.22

CSQ

CONSEQUENTIAL

+ This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway. +
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.23

SQN

SEQUENTIAL

+ This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + or The sheep died off from the disease.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.24

EPD

EXPEDITIVE

+ Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + in a hurry.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.25

DSC

DISCLUSIVE

+ Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.26

CCL

CONCLUSIVE

+ Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car + or He drank to the point where he passed out.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.27

CUL

CULMINATIVE

+ Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE + aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.28

IMD

INTERMEDIATIVE

+ Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.29

TRD

TARDATIVE

+ Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.30

TNS

TRANSITIONAL

+ Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.31

ITC

INTERCOMMUTATIVE

+ Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling + her.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.4.3.32

CSM

CONSUMPTIVE

+ Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.

+ 6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct

Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different + aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other. + For example, the PROSPECTIVE aspect complements the RETROSPECTIVE + aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally + don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same + adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first + aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second + aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such + combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered + an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct + with the second verb.

+ 6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus

All of the aspectual prefixes shown in Table + 19 above can in turn take an initial prefix y- + (or yï- + before a w-) + to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described + in Sec. 3.5), i.e., + it is an alternate to the usual -w- + infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: êstiu + yêstiu, + iwuil yiwuil, + wïttu + yïwïttu.

This y- + (or yï-) + prefix can in turn be augmented to yï’ + (spelled y’ + before a vowel but still pronounced yï’) + to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning + indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: êstiu + y’êstiu, + iwuil + y’iwuil, wïttu + yï’wïttu.

+ 6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use

Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for + us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel + if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., + I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

We have already seen in Section + 5.1 above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ithkuil, + shown by stress and tone of the aspectual adjunct accompanying the verb.

The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. + These are described in the sections below.
+

The FACTUAL mood is shown by penultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described + above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the FACTUAL + mood is subject to whatever specific nuances of attitude, perspective, and evidence + are imparted by the particular bias and validation associated with the verb. + Examples:

His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]

We’re taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our + intention and we have the opportunity to do so]
+

The SUBJUNCTIVE mood is shown by ultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:

Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he + has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]

We may take a walk later on. [i.e., it is known that + the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose + to]
+

Shown by penultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood functions identically to the FACTUAL + except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

His kids’ll be ill OR + If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, + but if he does, they are certainly ill.]

We’ll take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] + OR We intend to take a walk. + [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]
+

Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:

Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he + has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

We may take a walk later on [i.e., it is unknown whether + we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether + we will choose to].
+

Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].

We would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
+

Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.

His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

We might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].
+

Shown by penultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some + other fact such as his staying home from work].

If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on OR She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].
+

Shown by ultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual adjunct. + The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE + immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples:

His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other + fact such as his staying home from work].

If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later + on OR She’s wearing a + blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on [i.e., the + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].

+ 6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use

Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a + translation change as well.

+ 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage

These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms + described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.

+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.1

ASU

ASSURATIVE

+ This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.2

HPB

HYPERBOLIC

+ This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.3

COI

COINCIDENTAL

+ This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.4

ACP

ACCEPTIVE

+ This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.5

RAC

REACTIVE

+ This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.6

STU

STUPEFACTIVE

+ This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.7

CTV

CONTEMPLATIVE

+ This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.8

DPV

DESPERATIVE

+ This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.9

RVL

REVELATIVE

+ This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.10

GRA

GRATIFICATIVE

+ This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.11

SOL

SOLICITIVE

+ This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already! +
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.12

SEL

SELECTIVE

+ This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.13

IRO

IRONIC

+ This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.14

EXA

EXASPERATIVE

+ This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.15

LTL

LITERAL

+ This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.16

CRR

CORRECTIVE

+ This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.17

EUP

EUPHEMISTIC

+ This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.18

SKP

SKEPTICAL

+ This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.19

CYN

CYNICAL

+ This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.20

CTP

CONTEMPTIVE

+ This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.21

DSM

DISMISSIVE

+ This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.22

IDG

INDIGNATIVE

+ This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.23

SGS

SUGGESTIVE

+ This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’
+
+ + + + + + + +

6.6.1.24

PPV

PROPOSITIVE

+ This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We + could meet behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’

6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use
+

Home	5a + Verb Morphology	9 + Syntax
Introduction	5b + Verb Morphology (continued)	10 + Lexico-Semantics
1 + Phonology	6 + More Verb Morphology	11 + The Script
2 + Morpho-Phonology	7a + Using Affixes	12 + The Number System
3 + Basic Morphology	7b + Using Affixes (continued)	The + Lexicon
4 + Case Morphology	8 + Adjuncts	Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh

6.1 Validation	6.4 Aspect
6.2 Phase	6.5 Mood
6.3 Sanction	6.6 Bias

Home	5a + Verb Morphology	9 + Syntax
Introduction	5b + Verb Morphology (continued)	10 + Lexico-Semantics
1 + Phonology	6 + More Verb Morphology	11 + The Script
2 + Morpho-Phonology	7a + Using Affixes	12 + The Number System
3 + Basic Morphology	7b + Using Affixes (continued)	The + Lexicon
4 + Case Morphology	8 + Adjuncts	Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh

Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology