Chapter 2

Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language

Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology

2.1.1 The Structure of Ilaksh Words

2.2.2 Disambiguation of Specific Affixes Within Words

+ 2.2.1 The Root

+ 2.2.2 The Stem

+ 2.2.3 Pattern

+ 2.4.1 Holistic Stems

+ 2.4.2 Complementary Stems

+

+ 2.6.1 Formatives

2.6.2 Adjuncts

2.7.1 Consonant-based Suffixes

+ 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting

+

From ddbbfedf15e970c02e128294890adbeb97c4a5ae Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Tue, 15 Mar 2022 19:13:44 +0100 Subject: init --- 2004-en/Chapter_2.html | 2211 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 2211 insertions(+) create mode 100644 2004-en/Chapter_2.html (limited to '2004-en/Chapter_2.html') diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_2.html b/2004-en/Chapter_2.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..79c07b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_2.html @@ -0,0 +1,2211 @@ + + + + +Chapter 2 + + + + +

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Home	4 Case Morphology	9 Syntax
Introduction	5 Verb Morphology	10 Lexico-Semantics
1 Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	11 The Writing System
2 Morpho-Phonology	7 Suffixes	12 The Number System
3 Basic Morphology	8 Adjuncts	The Lexicon

+
+
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., +singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.

+ + + + +

2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY

Ilaksh morpho-phonology is primarily agglutinative and secondarily + synthetic. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily + via affixation and secondarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself. Specifically, Ilaksh morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different +kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.
+

As will be discussed later in Section 2.6, the part of speech in Ilaksh which corresponds to nouns and verbs in Western languages is called a formative. The morphological structure of the Ilaksh formative can be shown by the following formula:

((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress]

The above terms, other than Vr and Ca refer to various consonantal and/or vocalic affixes. Cr and Vr correspond to the word-stem itself which is dicussed below in Section 2.2. All of the terms shown in gray are optional. However, as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the formula, the presence of certain terms requires the presence of others.. A brief, preliminary explanation of these terms is given in the following chart.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

VL	A word-initial vocalic prefix which shows a verbal category called Level, discussed in Section Section 5.8.
Ci	A consonantal affix which indicates a verbal category called Illocution, discussed in Section Section 5.7.
Vc	A vocalic "portmanteau" affix (i.e., conveying multiple types of morphological information), indicating the following morphological categories: Designation (discussed in Section 3.6), Essence (discussed in Section 3.6), and Format (discussed in Section 6.5.2).
Cx	A consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following three verbal categories: Phase, Sanction, and Version. These categories are discussed in Chapter 5.
Vp	A vocalic affix indicating a verbal category called Aspect, discussed in Section 5.6.
Cm	Indicates a verbal category called Function, discussed in Section 6.4.
Cr + Vr	The basic root of the word, consisting ofthe structure consonant + vowel (+ tone), declined into a category called Case. The structure of the root and stem is discussed below in Section 2.2. The category of Case is discussed in Chapter 4.
Ca	A consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following four categories: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, and Extension. These are all discussed in Chapter 3.
Vx-C	An optional derivational suffix of the form vowel + consonant(s) which conveys additional morpho-semantic information. There are over 1300 such suffixes which can be combined with a formative to expand the meaning of a word. These suffixes can also be multiply added to a stem, i.e., two or more such affixes can appear on a stem. The nature of these affixes are introduced below in Section 2.7 and analyzed at length in Chapter 7.
VF	A vocalic suffix which conveys the category of Context (discussed in Section 3.5) and verbal Mood (discussed in Section 5.1).
’Cb	A consonantal word-final suffix of the form glottal stop + consonant which indicates one of 48 Bias categories (discussed in Section 6.6)
[tone]	In conjunction with the Cr + Vr elements above, signifies which of the 3600 roots of the language is the basis of the word.
[stress]	Shows which of three particular stems derived from the root is indicated. The relationship between root and stem is discussed below in Section 2.2.

+
+
+

As an example of part of the above structure in actual use, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ilaksh word uccuẹilšrokö’z (listen ). + The stem of this word, cu + low tone meaning ‘sheep,’ has been completely transformed + into + a word containing no less than 16 morphemes (i.e., sixteen semantically distinct + word-components). These morphemes and the mutation and affixation process +by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

((VL)

(Cx

Vdiv))

(Cm)

(VxC)

(VF

(Cb))

[stress]

18 Levels

7 Illocutions

2 Designation X 2 Relations
+ X 2 Essences X 8 Formats

9 phases
+ X 9 Sanctions
+ X6 Versions +

32 aspects

8 functions
+

120 C-root
+ X 3 patterns

5 V-root
+ X 6 tones
+ x 96 cases

9 configurations
+ x 4 affiliations
+ x 6 extensions
+ x 4 perspectives

VxC- suffix

4 contexts X 8 moods

48 biases

penultimate
+ = Stem 1
+ ultimate
+= Stem 2
+antepenultimate
+= Stem 3

—

uẹi

lšr

’z

[antepen.]

+ +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

u-	a synthetic infix indicating FORMAL Designation, UNFRAMED Relation, NORMAL Essence, and SCHEMATIC Format
-ccuei-	in conjunction with low tone, indicates the root cu + low tone in Pattern 3 = ‘derived product of sheep’, declined into the REFERENTIAL Case
-lšr-	a synthetic infix indicating COHERENT Configuration, COALESCENT Affiliation, DEPLETIVE extension, and ABSTRACT Perspective
-ok-	a Type-1 sufix in 8th degree, indicating a specific derivation of the stem (in this case: ‘wool’)
-ö	a synthetic suffix indicating the AMALGAMATIVE Context and the DESIDERATIVE Modality
’z	a suffix indicating CONTEMPLATIVE Bias
[stress]	antepenultimate stress indicates Stem 3 of the root = ‘derived product of ewe ’

APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: ‘concerning a hypothetically puzzling desire for an end to everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing’ +
+

+ +

Because many of the terms in the above morphological formula are optional, the reader might easily wonder how a speaker/reader of Ilaksh, when looking at or hearing an Ilaksh word, can possibly know which terms are actually shown in any given word, i.e., how to interpret from the given consonants and vowels in a particular word which of the optional morphological categories is being displayed or spoken. In fact, such interpretation is indeed possible and is unambiguous due to the specific allowable consonant or vowel combinations allowed for each term, i.e., the specific consonantal or vocalic values allowed for one term are distinct from those allowed for another term which might occupy the same sequential position in a specific word. Also, as previously stated in Section 2.1.1 above and as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the ((VL +) Ci + Vc (+ Cx + Vp) +) (Cm +) Cr + Vr + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ VF (+ Cb)) [+ tone][+ stress] morphological formula, the presence of certain terms e.g., VL, requires the presence of other terms (Ci + Vc), in order to maintain a discernible sequence which can be unambiguously differentiated.

+ + + + +

2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION

All words in Ilaksh which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic stem, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract root. This process + is explained in the sections below.

The root in Ilaksh forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of a consonantal form, Cr, plus one of five vowels Vr, plus one of six tones. The Cr consonantal form can consist of a single consonant or a consonant cluster. There are 120 possible Cr consonantal forms. Combined with the five Vr vowels and six tones, this renders 3600 possible roots. Example roots are tâ- or ksù-.

The root is the basic semantic unit in Ilaksh. For example, dá- is a root whose semantic referent is NAME/DESIGNATION. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply stems) from the + roots, the CR consonantal form can be mutated and the syllabic stress of the word containing the root can be shifted. Such consonant mutation and stress shifting is described below.

There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ilaksh roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate Patterns. Pattern is shown by mutation of the CR consonantal form (i.e., modifying the consonant or consonant cluster into another consonant or consonant cluster). The three stems are shown by the syllabic stress of the word containing the root, either ultimate (stress on the last syllable of the word), penultimate (stress on the second-to-last syllable), or antepenultimate (third-from-last syllable).

The three patterns are labeled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem spouse, with its two complementary + sub-stems husband and wife. This holistic versus complementary distinction is discussed at length below in Section 2.4. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ilaksh systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ilaksh + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while +having such a small number of semantic word roots.

+ + + + +

2.3 CONSONANTAL MUTATION

As stated earlier, there are 120 distinct Cr + consonantal forms. Each of these can mutate into two other forms, giving a total of three possible manifestations + of each Cr form. These are labelled +Grade A, Grade B, and Grade C. The three grades of all 120 Cr forms are shown in Table No. 3 below.

+ Table No. 3: Cr Mutation Patterns by Grade

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

ŧp

ppy

spl

špl

spr

špr

př

fř

ftr

ŧt

tty

stl

štl

str

štr

tř

ŧř

ŧkr

ŧk

kky

skl

škl

skr

škr

kř

xtr

bby

zbl

žbl

zbr

žbr

bř

vř

ptř

ddy

zdl

ždl

zdr

ždr

dř

đř

tkř

ggy

zgl

žgl

zgr

žgr

gř

ktř

ffy

sfl

šfl

sfr

šfr

psr

psl

đg

ŧŧ

ŧy

fŧ

ŧŧy

ŧl

sŧl

šŧl

ŧr

sŧr

šŧr

pš

pšr

pšl

bđ

vvy

skř

škř

zgř

žgř

ksr

ksl

đy

gđ

đđy

spř

špř

zbř

žbř

kš

kšr

kšl

đb

đđ

mmy

đl

stř

štř

đr

zdř

ždř

pst

psk

nny

fsl

fsr

ňl

mř

bž

pšt

pšk

çç

šš

đm

lly

ŧkl

ftl

ňr

nř

kst

ksp

pç

đn

rry

cř

sř

gž

kšt

kšp

kç

žž

spf

spy

šl

čl

čř

šr

čr

šř

çm

stf

sty

żl

żř

żr

zř

šf

žv

čp

çn

skf

sky

žl

jř

žr

žř

sŧ

zđ

çň

ňň

špf

špy

gzb

šŧ

žđ

čt

štf

šty

gzd

xtl

čk

čč

škf

šky

bzg

šx

xŧ

xtř

żg

żż

çp

ptl

ptr

šp

žb

gžb

çt

tkl

tkr

št

žd

gžd

ŧm

šm

čm

çl

çk

ktl

ktr

šk

žg

bžg

ŧn

žm

çr

řř

pŧ

pŧl

pŧr

kŧ

kŧl

kŧr

šn

žn

čn

+ + + + +

2.4 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS

We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. We will start with the three stems associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.

The three stems for Pattern 1 are designated by Grade 1 mutation, plus penultimate, ultimate, and antepenultimate stress respectively, as previously stated in Sec. 2.2.2 above. Thus, + the previously mentioned root -dá- generates the following stems:

+
1. dá- ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
+ 2. adá- ‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
+ 3. áda(la)*- ‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’
+
* The -la- syllable shown here (and in subsequent examples below) is not part of the stem but merely indicates that this stem, when used as an actual word, would bear antepenultimate stress, thus requiring the addition of an additional syllable, acccomplished by adding any of numerous required suffixes which we will begin to explore in Chapter 3.
+

The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root dá above with that of the Form I root xá (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.

+
1. xá-‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
+ 2. axá- ‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
+ 3. áxa(la)- ‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’
+

Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology.

Any Ilaksh stem is capable of being further broken down into + two complementary stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ilaksh stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems.

By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ilaksh, + for example, words such as male, night, speech, sit, + and happen are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole.

Thus, Ilaksh lexical structure recognizes that the word male has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, female, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as living being. Similarly, + the word night(time) derives along with its complement day(time) from the underlying concept translatable as day (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of speak(ing) divides into complementary concepts + of talking (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus saying/telling (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound).

Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between sit and seat; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word happen or occur, which Ilaksh recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of consequence or result, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as event or situation.

2.4.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem consonant from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., k → kt , while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., k → kk . Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:

+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	akà-: + human being, person
1st + Comp. Stem	aktà-: + male person
2nd + Comp. Stem	akkà-: + female person

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	ùklo-: + a river
1st + Comp. Stem	ùsklo-: + the water in a river
2nd + Comp. Stem	ùzglo-: + a riverbed

+
+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	áta(la): + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing
1st + Comp. Stem	átka(la): + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition
2nd + Comp. Stem	átta(la): + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Stem	àxa-: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)
1st + Comp. Stem	àxta-: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
2nd + Comp. Stem	àxxa-: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image

+
+ 2.4.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ilaksh holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is +counterintuitive to Western semantic notions.

For example, let us analyze the root kmè ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages + would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the + concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ilaksh recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem kmè. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of kmè is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ilaksh root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for kmè.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

	Holistic + Stem	1st + Complementary Stem	2nd + Complementary Stem
Stem 1	kmè- + nuclear family member	xmè-: + parent	gmè-: + child
Stem 2	akmè-: + male nuclear family member	axmè-: + father	agmè-: + son
Stem 3	àkme(la): + female nuclear family member	àxme(la): + mother	àgme(la): + daughter

Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ilaksh lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Holistic + Concept	Complementary + Concepts
eating	food	ingestion
think, act of thinking	a thought (thing considered)	process of consideration
liquid	fluid (= ontological nature)	wet[ness] (=defining attribute)
measuring	a measurement	process of measuring
transference of possession	giving	taking
traversal between points	coming, arrival	going, departure
commercial transaction	buying	selling

+ + + + + +

2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION

In addition to the mutation of the 120 Cr consonantal forms, each of the five vowels used to form roots can in turn mutate into 95 + variations for a total of 96 mutations, termed Series 1, Series 2, Series + 3, etc., all the way to Series 96. This mutation of the root vowel is used to show a morphological category called Case which will be analyzed in Chapter 4. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 4(a) through (f) below.

Tables 4(a)-(f): Vocalic +Mutation Series

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

→

äi

iä

öa

ä-i

üä

a-ü

üa

a’e

a’i

a’u

→

äu

eë

öe

eö

eä

e-ü

üe

e’e

e’i

e’u

→

ëi

iö

ië

e-i

a-i

o-i

ö-i

ë-i

üë

ö-ü

u-i

uä

i’e

i’i

i’u

→

öi

oë

öä

ë-u

oä

o-ü

üo

o’e

o’i

o’u

→

ëu

öu

i-u

e-u

a-u

o-u

ö-u

ä-u

üö

ë-ü

uë

uö

u’e

u’i

u’u

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

a →

a’a

a’o

a’ë

a’ö

ä’ä

a’ü

ä’ë

ü’a

ö’a

ä’ö

aoi

aou

aei

aeu

a-ui

a-iu

iai

iau

e →

e’a

e’o

e’ë

e’ö

e’ä

e’ü

ë’ë

ü’e

ö’e

ë’i

eoi

eou

eëi

eëu

e-ui

e-iu

eai

eau

i →

i’a

i’o

i’ë

i’ö

i’ä

i’ü

ö’ä

ü’i

ö’i

ë’ü

ioi

iou

iei

ieu

i-ui

u-iu

iëi

iëu

o →

o’a

o’o

o’ë

ö’ö

o’ä

o’ü

ö’ë

ü’o

ö’u

ö’ü

oëi

oëu

oei

oeu

o-ui

o-iu

oai

oau

u →

u’a

u’o

u’ë

u’ö

u’ä

ü’ü

ü’ë

ü’ö

ë’u

ü’ä

uoi

uou

uei

ueu

uëi

uëu

uai

uau

a →

a’ai

a’au

a’ei

a’eu

a’oi

a’ou

a’ui

a’iu

a’ëi

a’ëu

a’öi

a’öu

ë’ai

ë’au

ü’ai

ü’au

ö’ai

ö’au

e →

e’ai

e’au

a’ei

e’eu

e’oi

e’ou

e’ui

e’iu

e’ëi

e’ëu

e’öi

e’öu

ë’ei

ë’eu

ü’ei

ü’eu

ö’ei

ö’eu

i →

i’ai

i’au

i’ei

i’eu

i’oi

i’ou

i’ui

i’iu

i’ëi

i’ëu

i’öi

i’öu

ë’ëi

ë’ëu

ü’ëi

ü’iu

ö’ëi

ö’iu

o →

o’ai

o’au

o’ei

o’eu

o’oi

o’ou

o’ui

o’iu

o’ëi

o’ëu

o’öi

o’öu

ë’oi

ë’ou

ü’oi

ü’ou

ö’öi

ö’öu

u →

u’ai

u’au

u’ei

u’eu

u’oi

u’ou

u’ui

u’iu

u’ëi

u’ëu

u’öi

u’öu

ë’ui

ë’iu

u’öi

u’öu

ö’ui

ü’ëu

a →

awa

awe

awi

awo

awu

awö

aya

aye

ayi

ayo

ayu

ayö

äwä

awü

äyä

üwa

üya

ayü

e →

ewa

ewe

ewi

ewo

ewu

ewö

eya

eye

eyi

eyo

eyu

eyö

ewä

ewü

eyä

üwe

üye

eyü

i →

iwa

iwe

iwi

iwo

iwu

iwö

iya

iye

iyi

iyo

iyu

iyö

iwä

iwü

iyä

üwi

üyi

iyü

o →

owa

owe

owi

owo

owu

owö

oya

oye

oyi

oyo

oyu

oyö

owä

owü

oyä

üwo

üyo

oyü

u →

uwa

uwe

uwi

uwo

uwu

uwö

uya

uye

uyi

uyo

uyu

uyö

uwä

öwü

uyä

üwü

üyü

öyü

a →

awai

awei

awoi

awui

ayau

ayeu

ayou

ayiu

aiwa

aiwe

aiwi

aiwo

aiwu

aiwë

aiwö

aiwä

auya

auye

e →

ewai

ewei

ewoi

ewui

eyau

eyeu

eyou

eyiu

eiwa

eiwe

eiwi

eiwo

eiwu

eiwë

eiwö

eiwä

euya

euye

i →

iwai

iwei

iwoi

iwui

iyau

iyeu

iyou

iyiu

ëiwa

ëiwe

ëiwi

ëiwo

ëiwu

ëiwë

ëiwö

ëiwä

iuya

iuye

o →

owai

owei

owoi

owui

oyau

oyeu

oyou

oyiu

oiwa

oiwe

oiwi

oiwo

oiwu

oiwë

oiwö

oiwä

ouya

ouye

u →

uwai

uwei

uwoi

uwui

uyau

uyeu

uyou

uyiu

uiwa

uiwe

uiwi

uiwo

uiwu

uiwë

uiwö

uiwä

ëuya

ëuye

+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

	91	92	93	94	95	96
a →	auyi	auyo	auyu	auyë	auyö	auyä
e →	euyi	euyo	euyu	euyë	euyö	euyä
i →	iuyi	iuyo	iuyu	iuyë	iuyö	iuyä
o →	ouyi	ouyo	ouyu	ouyë	ouyö	ouyä
u →	ëuyi	ëuyo	ëuyu	ëuyë	ëuyö	ëuyä

+
+

+ + + + +

2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH

Ilaksh has only two parts of speech: formatives and adjuncts. While there are words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term formative. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ilaksh, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.

Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).

The stem formed as per the discussion in Section + 2.3 above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the formative. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative ùklo- illustrated above in Section 2.4.2 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ilaksh to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ilaksh formative exclusively into a noun or verb form +is arbitrary.

The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ilaksh morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ilaksh instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:

+

+
+

Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”).

Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in Chapter + 8: Adjuncts. These include:

Personal Reference Adjuncts: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship.
+
+
Valence Adjuncts and Modality Adjuncts: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology.
+

+ + + + +

2.7 AFFIXES

Ilaksh, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. Ilaksh makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants), affixes which are based on a consonant + only, and consonant-based affixes which contain vowels. The former two are simple static affixes, while the rules governing the formation of these vowel+consonant affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals of these vowel+consonant affixes are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in Chapter + 7: Suffixes.
+

In this section we will explore those consonant-based + affixes which also contain a vowel. Such affixes always appear as suffixes in Ilaksh (i.e., they are appended to the end of a formative stem, rather than preceding the stem).

Every consonant-based suffix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The form of a consonant-based suffix is of the + form V+C (i.e., vowel + consonant). While the consonantal portion of the suffix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as degree and suffix-type. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for suffix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C suffix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three suffix-types are labelled V1, V2, and V3, + in reference to the vowel portion of the suffix.

In addition to the three suffix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three suffix-types. + Table 5 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each suffix-type.

Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical C2), + Ilaksh permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.

Table 5: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Suffix Type

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

	Suffix + Type 1: -V1C	Suffix + Type 2: -V2C	Suffix + Type 3: -V3C
Degree + 1	-iC	-ëC	-iuC
Degree + 2	-eC	-ëuC /-ioC	-eiC
Degree + 3	-äC	-ieC	-auC /-eaC
Degree + 4	-öC	-ueC	-euC
Degree + 5	-(a)C	-iaC	-aiC
Degree + 6	-üC	-uëC	-uoC
Degree + 7	-ïC	-iëC	-ëiC
Degree + 8	-oC	-oaC	-oiC
Degree + 9	-uC	-uaC / -uiC	-ouC

Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 6 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem ri-, which must first take a suffix such as -t indicating various morphological categories which will be explained in Chapter 3, thus giving the form rit-:

+ TABLE 6: Example of Application of Suffixes to a Stem

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

	Suffix: + -V1k	Suffix + Type 2: -V2k	Suffix + Type 3: -V3k
Degree + 1	ritik	ritëk	ritiuk
Degree + 2	ritek	ritëuk / ritiok	riteik
Degree + 3	ritäk	ritiek	ritauk / riteak
Degree + 4	ritök	rituek	riteuk
Degree + 5	ritak	ritiak	ritaik
Degree + 6	ritük	rituëk	rituok
Degree + 7	ritïk	ritiëk	ritëik
Degree + 8	ritok	ritoak	ritoik
Degree + 9	rituk	rituak/rituik	ritouk

As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ilaksh to create a gradient system for all consonantal suffixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + suffix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in Chapter + 7: Suffixes how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated +with the nine degrees for the suffix -V1d.

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Degree	Suffix	Meaning
1	-id	wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all
2	-ed	way too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough
3	-äd	not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]
4	-öd	not quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]
5	-ad	enough (of) / sufficient(ly)
6	-üd	a little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]
7	-ïd	too / too much / over-[+verb]
8	-od	way too much / totally over-[+verb]
9	-ud	nothing but / to the exclusion of all else

2.1 Grammatical Typology

2.5 Vocalic Mutation

2.2 Root and Stem Formation

2.6 Parts of Speech

2.3 Consonantal Mutation

2.7 Affixes

2.4 Semantic Instantiation of Stems

2.8 Note On Terminology

+ + + + +

2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ilaksh, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.

+
Proceed to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >>
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Home 4 Case Morphology 9 Syntax
Introduction 5 Verb Morphology 10 Lexico-Semantics
1 Phonology 6 More Verb Morphology 11 The Writing System
2 Morpho-Phonology 7 Suffixes 12 The Number System
3 Basic Morphology 8 Adjuncts The Lexicon

+
©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.
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