A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics

The term lexico-semantics refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these + categories internally organized?

1) Ithkuil morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.

In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages.

The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ithkuil lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

Ithkuil systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ithkuil word-roots.

+ 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots

We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in Section + 2.3 et seq. regarding the use of three different sets of vocalic infixes + to a root to generate a trinary array of interrelated stems, as well as varying + the mutation patterns of those trinary sets to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of vowel patterns and mutation, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root h-f + ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root h-f + demonstrates how concepts such come versus go + are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept TRANSLATIVE + MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective + are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated + below:

Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative

+ affix -V1t’ + from Sec. 7.7.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity

+ affix -V0k + from Sec. 7.7.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the + animal.

A different pattern applies to individual animal species, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem. The

+ affix is again used to specify parts or products of the animal, while the

+ affix distinguishes the developmental stages, providing derived equivalents + to words such as foal, fawn, lamb or cub, from horse, + deer, goat, or lion.

+ 10.1.2 The Use of Affixes

In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V1x/7 + ‘very large’

+ xälïx ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V2x/7 + ‘very large’

+ xälëx ‘mountain’). As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem köl ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

+ Similarly the use of the Consent

, + Reason

, + Expectation

, + Deliberateness

, + Enablement

, + Agency/Intent

+ and Impact

affixes + from Section 7.7.12 + in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (Sec. + 4.3), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as The singer stopped the boys from playing around can be translated + into Ithkuil in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates + the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:
+

+ The

+ affix from Sec. 7.7.9, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ithkuil this affix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + categories (Sec. 5.5) and Modality + affixes (Sec. 7.7.11) + to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:

promise to + = + foreswear, vow never to
+ can (know how to) + + = be ignorant of
+ decide to + + = avoid
+ offer to + + = refuse to
+ agree upon/to + + = decline to/abstain from
+ like to + + = loathe
+ fear to + + = love to
+ need to + + = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with

10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context +

Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.

10.1.3.1 Configuration: In Sec. + 3.1 we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:

10.1.3.2 Affiliation: In Sec. + 3.2 we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include:

10.1.3.3 Context: In Sec. + 3.6.4 we encountered the AMALGAMATE context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:

10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version

In Section + 3.7 on Designation as well as Sec. + 5.3 on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

(the) past + history	see + observe
writings + literature	one + single/singular
wordplay + rhetoric	hear + listen
behavior + demeanor	desire + request
wander + travel	query + research
eat + dine	ponder + analyze
containment + storage	path + route

Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions + in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ithkuil lexicon.

10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension

The use of the nine Phases, as explained in Sec. + 6.2, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (Sec. + 3.4) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative affixes from Sec. + 7.7.7, the Iteration

+ and Repetition

+ affixes from Sec. 7.7.5 + and the Intensity

+ affix from Sec. 7.7.10, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to + a single stem

+ ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:

+ + + + + + + +

acoustic
+ audible
+ auditory
+ bang
+ blast
+ boom
+ buzz
+ cacophony
+ calm
+ click
+ clickety-clack
+ clink
+ crack
+ crackle
+ crash
+ din
+ discord
+ dissonance
+ drone
+ echo
+ explosion

faint + sound
+ fizz
+ gag
+ grate
+ hiss
+ howl
+ hullabaloo
+ hum
+ hush
+ jangle
+ kerplunk
+ knock
+ loud(ness)
+ lull
+ moan
+ muffle
+ murmur
+ mute
+ noise
+ pandemonium
+ peal
+

pit-a-pat
+ plink
+ pop
+ quaver
+ quiet
+ racket
+ rap
+ rat-a-tat
+ rattle
+ raucous
+ resonant
+ reverberate
+ ring
+ roar
+ rumble
+ rush of sound
+ rustle
+ screech
+ shrill
+ silence
+ snap

sonorous
+ sound
+ staccato
+ stifle
+ strident
+ stutter
+ swirl
+ swish
+ tap
+ thump
+ tick
+ toot
+ twang
+ uproar
+ vibration
+ whir
+ whistle
+ whiz
+ whoosh

The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.

Many languages have class systems for both nouns and verbs, + in which a specific pattern of morpho-phonological markers are assigned to a + specified set of roots. Often, class membership is quite arbitrary as in the + three conjugational classes of Spanish, Italian, or French verbs. In other cases, + class membership roughly corresponds to an underlying semantic category, as + seen in the masculine versus feminine versus neuter class system of many languages. + Non-Western languages often delineate a greater number of classes determined + by categories of shape, purpose, socio-cultural factors, and other objective + or subjective semantic factors.

Ithkuil displays a pattern of 17 morpho-semantic classes for + its 3600 roots. In Ithkuil, class is delineated by the C2 + consonantal radical (see Sec. + 2.2.1), i.e., the C2 radical indicates + to which of the 17 classes a root belongs. In this manner, the consonant pattern + of an Ithkuil root always provides a clue as to general meaning of the root. + The seventeen Ithkuil classes with their corresponding C2 radicals are shown + in the table below.

Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ithkuil lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ithkuil delineates these qualities as varying + points along a continuous range. In other words, in Ithkuil you do not + say X is cold and Y is hot, but rather X has less temperature + and Y has greater temperature. Similarly, one does not say A is + near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from + me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me + to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ithkuil as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.

1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ithkuil sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? + an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + Ithkuil speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ithkuil + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective.

+ 10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ithkuil + has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.” + The dynamics of such formatives become very apparent when combined with the + numerous verbal Conflation/Derivation + Format combinations which Ithkuil offers + the speaker (see Sec. 5.4).

10.4.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance

Ithkuil grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ithkuil grammar is more interested in answering the question How + do X and Y function relative to each other, rather than How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?

For example: in uttering the English sentence The vase + is on the table, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting + the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ithkuil are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

+ This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ithkuil is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.

+ 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).

In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ithkuil utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:

1) Solar-based system. This is the standard + Ithkuil system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below).

Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).

2) Length vs. width of enclosed space or room. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.

3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ithkuil + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE + case (see Sec. 4.8.12). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.

+ 10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight. (I know, I know, technically, I should use the term "octant", but considering the latter term refers to a seafaring navigational instrument, I will stick to the term "quadrant.")

There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + indicated in the illustrations below.

Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different quadrants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).
+
+

+ It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between 2 objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ithkuil speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.

To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ithkuil sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.
+

There is no way to translate this Ithkuil sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: The woman stood still + as something made the boy run from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows:

In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ithkuil lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ithkuil. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ithkuil, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ithkuil truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.

+ 10.5.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions

As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize + – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in + delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the ESSIVE + and ASSIMILATIVE + cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or + via the manipulation of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Sec. + 5.4).

Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ithkuil would be (1) herd, flock, pride, gaggle, etc.; (2) hair, + fur, fleece, coat, etc.; (3) skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument, etc.

10.5.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories

By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ I tossed it into + the basket. +	It sailed + into the basket.
+ I flung it into the + basket. +	It flew into the basket.
+ I hurled it into + the basket. +	It arced its way into + the basket.
+ I pitched it into + the basket. +	It fell into the basket.

The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ithkuil the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as I made it + end up inside the basket, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the ERGATIVE + personal referent I, thus: It ended up inside the basket.

So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ithkuil speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ithkuil grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ithkuil views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.

Before the reader begins to think that Ithkuil is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can + augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ithkuil language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.

10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes

In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English limp + to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ithkuil speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ithkuil speaker would + say He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound.

To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ithkuil standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]

While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ithkuil grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ithkuil provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena.

Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ithkuil + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages.

Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.

+ 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”

Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).

So, an Ithkuil speaker does not say I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill, or Murder is wrong, but + rather One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder + controverts morality.

+ 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’

In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other.

+ 10.7.3 Translating Questions

As was discussed earlier in Sec. + 5.1.6 on the INTERROGATIVE illocution, the Ithkuil + language does not have a way of forming questions. Instead, Ithkuil grammar + treats an interrogative as reflecting an underlying cognitive demand for information + and/or a validation of the truth or factuality of a statement. Therefore, a + specific kind of imperative command is employed, telling the addressee to provide + the required validation or information. In some instances, questions in Western + languages are rhetorical and in fact represent a request or command. As might + be expected, Ithkuil translates such rhetorical questions as the commands they + truly are. The following examples illustrate how questions are handled in Ithkuil.

Do you know the way to San Jose?
+ [= Validate whether you know the way to San Jose.]

+ 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, + there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands + for validation that substitute for questions in Ithkuil. The closest approximations + are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”

“Do you want to dance?” “No.”
+ [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”

Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of bias affixes (see + Sec. 6.6) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in Section 8.6.2. + Additionally, Section + 8.4 described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.

+ 10.7.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases

Ithkuil grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in The ham-and-cheese wants fries with + his order or The White House has its nose in our business). + Ithkuil allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the REPRESENTATIONAL + context, Conflation and Derivation, + the metonymic affix + -V0qt, + and the two part-whole + affixes -V0

+ and -V0š.

Home	5a + Verb Morphology	9 + Syntax
Introduction	5b + Verb Morphology (continued)	10 + Lexico-Semantics
1 + Phonology	6 + More Verb Morphology	11 + The Script
2 + Morpho-Phonology	7a + Using Affixes	12 + The Number System
3 + Basic Morphology	7b + Using Affixes (continued)	The + Lexicon
4 + Case Morphology	8 + Adjuncts	Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh

10.1 Systemic Morphological + Derivation	10.5 Lexical Generalization
10.2 Phonological Classification of + Roots	10.6 Lexical Differentiation
10.3 Dimensional and Descriptive Oppositions	10.7 Comparison to Western + Categorization
10.4 Spatial Position + and Orientation

CLASS	C2 MARKERS	SIGNIFICATION
1	s, s or + š	numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics
2	p, t, k + or q	intellectual concepts, thought, ideas, propositions
3	c, + or	concepts relating to change and causation
4	m, n or + +	concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic matter
5	l, r or + +	concepts relating to communication, learning and language
6	b, d, g + or	concepts relating to the physical attributes of inorganic matter
7	f, , + ç or	spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion
8	p, + t + or q +	taxonomies of organic life
9	p’, t’, + k’ or q’	taxonomies of physical substances
10	c’, ’ + or ’	relational concepts, identity, associations
11	c, + + or	concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration
12	, + ç’, x’ or ’ +	socially or externally-induced affectations
13	v, , + + or	personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences
14	z, or + ž	concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations
15	, + + or j +	concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness
16	x, , + h or	concepts relating to individual volition and choice
17	, + , + ’ + or	temporal concepts

ENGLISH + SENTENCE	CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)'	NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO ITHKUIL EQUIVALENT
The man works in(side) that building.	general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidental	The man works at that building.
The book is in that box.	physical containment + only with no specific purpose	That box contains the book.
You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.	incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravity	The small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
I poured soup in(to) the bowl.	same as above	I enabled the bowl to hold soup
We stayed in(side) due to the rain.	shelter, containment + for purpose of protection	We shelter ourselves from the rain.
He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.	containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protection	He sheathed the sword.
He stayed in(side) his room.	containment for purpose + of privacy	He shuttered himself.
The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.	containment to prevent + escape	The tiger remained captured.
There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.	ingredient, composite + substance	That pottery contains much lead.
Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.	inherent or integral + component	These days, any machine incorporates microchips.
I put fuel in the gas tank.	integral component + having function to hold or contain other component	I (re-)fueled the gas tank.
We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.	intangible containment	We’ll never know her thoughts.
He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.	enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding medium	His pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.	fastening/connecting	He fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.
The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.	fitting together one + object to another	The child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.

Home	5a + Verb Morphology	9 + Syntax
Introduction	5b + Verb Morphology (continued)	10 + Lexico-Semantics
1 + Phonology	6 + More Verb Morphology	11 + The Script
2 + Morpho-Phonology	7a + Using Affixes	12 + The Number System
3 + Basic Morphology	7b + Using Affixes (continued)	The + Lexicon
4 + Case Morphology	8 + Adjuncts	Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh