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diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dd94d0b --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2007 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology</title> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<script language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//--> +</script> +</head> + +<body> +<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br> + <img src="Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br> + <br> +</div> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h2 align="center"> </h2> +<h2 align="center"><a name="Sec6o0"></a>Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology</h2> +<div align="center"> + <table width="43%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="183"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o1">6.1 Validation</a></font></td> + <td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o4">6.4 Aspect</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o2">6.2 Phase</a></font></td> + <td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o5">6.5 Mood</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o3">6.3 Sanction</a></font></td> + <td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o6">6.6 Bias</a></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">In this chapter, we examine six additional morphological categories + which apply to verbal formatives: <strong>Validation, Phase, Sanction, Aspect, + Mood </strong>and<strong> Bias</strong>. Like the categories of Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality and Level in the previous chapter, these + six categories are manifested within the morpho-phonological structure of a + specialized adjunct, in this instance called an <strong>aspectual adjunct</strong>. +</p> +<p align="justify">The structure of an aspectual adjunct is <strong>(C<font size="B">B</font>-)V<font size="1">A</font>-C<font size="1">X</font>-(V<font size="1">S</font>-(C<font size="1">B</font>))</strong> + where <strong>V<font size="1">A</font></strong> and <strong>Vs</strong> are + vocalic affixes indicating aspect, <strong>Cx</strong> is a consonantal infix + indicating validation, phase and sanction, and <strong>C<font size="1">B</font></strong> + is an optional consonantal prefix or suffix indicating Bias. Mood is indicated + by the tone and stress pattern of the adjunct as a whole. <strong>V<font size="1">A</font></strong> + represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination + (e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and <strong>Cx</strong> represents a single- or dual-consonant + conjunct (e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-k-, -tt-, + -šp-</font></strong>). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may + manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts + may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination + of these categories. These variations are described below.</p> +<div align="justify"> + <ol> + <li>If an aspectual adjunct is being used to show Validation, Phase, and Sanction + only (i.e., it is not showing Aspect), it takes the form<strong> a + Cx + (+ a)</strong>, where <strong>Cx</strong> represents a single, geminate, + or biconsonantal consonantal form as described above. The <strong>a</strong>- + prefix distinguishes the word as an aspectual adjunct, and the (+<strong> + a</strong>) suffix is present if necessary to comply with Ithkuil phonological + constraints (see <a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o1">Sec. 1.4.1</a>). + There are 81 <strong>Cx</strong> affix representing a combination of one + of nine validations with one of nine phases, each of which in turn mutates + into eight additional forms depending on which of nine sanctions applies + to the associated verb (see <a href="#Sec6o3">Sec. 6.3</a> below on Sanction). + These affixes are shown in Table 18 below. Examples. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ar, + ac, axx, aks, akká, amra<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/tone-rising.gif" width="10" height="10" align="top"></font></strong>.<br> + </li> + <li>If an aspectual adjunct shows a single aspect, it takes the form <strong>V<font size="1">A</font> + + Cx (+ a)</strong>, where Va is the vocalic aspectual prefix followed by + the consonantal <strong>Cx</strong> affix (i.e., the validation-phase-sanction + affix). Examples: <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eur, + oks, iakka</font></strong>.<br> + </li> + <li>If an aspectual adjunct shows two aspects, it takes the form <strong>V<font size="1">A</font> + + Cx + Vs</strong>, that is two aspectual vowel forms, the first in as a + prefix, the second as a suffix, separated by the validation-phase-sanction + consonantal affix. Examples: <strong> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eurai, + òksëi, iakkua</font></strong>. </li> + </ol> +</div> +<p align="justify">Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we + now turn to an explanation of the six morphological categories it manifests.</p> + +<p> </p> +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td height="25"> <a name="Sec6o1"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.1 VALIDATION</strong></font> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than + simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction + with Mood (see <a href="#Sec6o5">Section 6.5</a> below) to indicate the precise + factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that + the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally + indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain. + Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of + nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity + of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, + presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are <font size="2">CONFIRMATIVE, + REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE</font> + and <font size="2">HORTATIVE</font>. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction + with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see <a href="#Sec6o2">Secs. 6.2</a> + and <a href="#Sec6o3">6.3</a> below) by means of the Cx consonantal affix to + an aspectual adjunct. The values for these infixes are shown in the tables below. + The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.</p> +<p align="center"><br> + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="Table18"></a>Tables + 18 (a </font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">–<strong> + i): Cx Affixes By Validation, Phase and Sanction</strong></font></p> +<p><br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(a): Cx Affixes for + the Confirmative Validation</strong></font></p> +<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1a.gif" width="696" height="354"></font></strong></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br> + Table 18(b): Cx Affixes for the Reportive Validation</strong></font></p> +<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1b.gif" width="696" height="356"></font></strong></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br> + Table 18(c): Cx Affixes for the Intuitive Validation</strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1c.gif" width="696" height="361"><br> + </strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(d): Cx Affixes for + the Inferential Validation</strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1d.gif" width="696" height="361"><br> + </strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(e): Cx Affixes for + the Presumptive Validation</strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1e.gif" width="696" height="358"><br> + </strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(f): Cx Affixes for + the Conjectural Validation</strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1f.gif" width="695" height="347"><br> + </strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(g): Cx Affixes for + the Tentative Validation</strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1g.gif" width="696" height="346"><br> + </strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(h): Cx Affixes for + the Putative Validation</strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1h.gif" width="696" height="360"><br> + </strong></font></p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(i): Cx Affixes for + the Hortative Validation </strong></font></p> +<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1i.gif" width="696" height="360"></font></strong></p> +<p align="justify">The nine validations are explained as follows:<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CNF</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Confirmative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONFIRMATIVE</font> indicates that a statement + is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker. + It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be + unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories + shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect + being conveyed.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RPT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Reportive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REPORTIVE</font> validation indicates that + the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed + true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct + testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s + or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree + of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ + or ‘probably.’<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITU</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Intuitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTUITIVE</font> validation indicates that + the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” + feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ + or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>INF</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inferential</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INFERENTIAL</font> validation indicates + that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial + evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) + must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences + <em>I must be dreaming</em> or <em>It must have rained last night</em>.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PSM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Presumptive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PRESUMPTIVE</font> validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the + statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity + can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently + (so).’<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CNJ</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Conjectural</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONJECTURAL</font> validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability + is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply + by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ + or ‘purportedly.’<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>TEN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Tentative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">TENTATIVE</font> validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately + translated by English ‘supposedly.’<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PUT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Putative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PUTATIVE</font> validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can + be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ + ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus + the sentence overtly structured as <em>He caught the bus in time</em> but marked + for the <font size="2">PUTATIVE</font> would actually translate as <em>He must + not have caught the bus in time</em>.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>HOR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Hortative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">HORTATIVE</font> validation indicates that + the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it + to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ + ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use</h3> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1-10.gif" width="441" height="437"> <br> + <font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-1.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">___</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-1.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + </blockquote> +</div> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><strong></strong></p> +</blockquote> + +<p> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><a name="Sec6o2"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.2 PHASE</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o4">Sec. + 3.4</a>, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE</font>, + and <font size="2">FLUCTUATIVE</font>. They are marked by one of nine patterns + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, depending on the validation and sanction + of the verb as previously described in <a href="#Sec6o1">Section 6.1</a> and + shown in <a href="#Table18">Tables 18(a) through 18(i)</a>. The nine phases + are explained in the following sections.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CTX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Contextual</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can + be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">—</font></strong><br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PUN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Punctual</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PUNCTUAL</font> describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">•</font></strong><br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Iterative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ITERATIVE</font> refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the <font size="2">PUNCTUAL</font> above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> event. </p> +<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• + • • •</strong></font></p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>REP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Repetitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REPETITIVE</font> refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> + phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>— — + — —</strong></font><br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Intermittent</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTERMITTENT</font> is similar to the <font size="2">ITERATIVE</font> + above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a <font size="2">PUNCTUAL</font> + event, however, unlike the <font size="2">ITERATIVE</font>, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. +</p> +<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> + • <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> • <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> + • <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> •</strong></font><br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Recurrent</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">RECURRENT</font> is to the <font size="2">REPETITIVE</font> + as the <font size="2">INTERMITTENT</font> is to the <font size="2">ITERATIVE</font>. + It indicates a slow repetition of a <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. +</p> +<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> + —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> + —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> + —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> + —</strong></font><br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Frequentative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FREQUENTATIVE</font> indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.</p> +<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>• + • •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> + </strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• • + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> + </strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• • + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> + </strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• • + • </strong></font><br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FRG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Fragmentative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FRAGMENTATIVE</font> indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> + event. </p> +<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>• + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> + • •</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> + • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>• + • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>• + </strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• • + • •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> + • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>• + • </strong></font><br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FLC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Fluctuative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FLUCTUATIVE</font> indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc. </p> +<p align="justify">Visual representation:<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>— + • •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font></strong></font> + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> —</strong></font> + •</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>• + • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>— </strong></font>• + • • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>• + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> + —</strong></font>— • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>—</strong></font> + • •</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong></strong></font></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify">6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use</h3> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote> + <div align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-2-10a.gif" width="580" height="251"><br> + <font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Intro-6.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="Sound_Files/Intro-6.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + <br> + </div> + </blockquote> +</div> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-2-10b.gif" width="710" height="248"></p> + <p align="justify"><br> + </p> +</blockquote> + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><a name="Sec6o3"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.3 SANCTION</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.</p> +<p align="justify">There are nine sanctions: the <font size="2">PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE</font>, + and <font size="2">AXIOMATIC</font>. Sanction is shown by the mutational grade + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, as shown in <a href="#Table18">Table + 18</a> in Sec. 6.1 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the validation + and phase of the verb. Each sanction is explained in the sections below.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PPS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Propositional</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROPOSITIONAL</font> sanction is either + unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation + of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be <em>That is a mountain</em>, or <em>I’m + hungry</em>.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EPI</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Epistemic</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EPISTEMIC</font> sanction is marked by Grade + 2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be <em>That mountain is Mount Fuji</em> or <em>The + U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World</em>.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ALG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Allegative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ALLEGATIVE</font> identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be <em>That mountain is beautiful</em> or <em>No + one in the United States goes hungry</em>.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IPU</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Imputative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMPUTATIVE</font> identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be <em>He knows + how to drive</em> [e.g., because he owns a car] or <em>She can’t be hungry + now</em> [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant]. <br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RFU</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Refutative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REFUTATIVE</font> identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically + objective fact.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>REB</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Rebuttative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REBUTTATIVE</font> identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, + or interpretation.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>THR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Theoretical</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">THEORETICAL</font> identifies an utterance + as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EXV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Expatiative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXPATIATIVE</font> identifies an utterance + as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>AXM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Axiomatic</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">AXIOMATIC</font> identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be <em>Gravity + is ubiquitous</em>, or <em>Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food</em>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.3.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use</h3> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-3-10.gif" width="523" height="403"> <br> + <font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-2.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-2.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + </blockquote> +</div> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><font color="#FF0000"></font></p> +</blockquote> + +<p> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="96%" border="0" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><a name="Sec6o4"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.4 + ASPECT</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3">Sec. + 3.3</a>), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each + shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown + by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English. </p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.4.1 Aspect Prefixes and Suffixes</h3> +<p align="justify">As explained above in <a href="#Sec6o0">Sec. 6.0</a>, each + aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as a prefix in an + aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be associated with the verb, in which + case it appears as a vocalic suffix to the adjunct. The form of the adjunct + is <strong>Vp-Cx-(Vs)</strong>, where <strong>Vp</strong> is the prefixed form + of the first aspect, <strong>Cx </strong>is the consonantal validation-phase-sanction + infix, and <strong>Vs</strong>, if present, is the suffixed form of the second + aspect.</p> +<p align="justify">Each prefix has seven alternate forms for a total of eight + forms whose use is explained in Sec. 6.4.2 below. The first form of the prefix + is the default form. The suffix form of each aspect has but one form. The values + of these prefixes and suffixes is shown in Table 19 below. <br> +</p> +<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="Table19"></a>Table + 19: Aspectual Prefixes (Vp) and Suffixes (Vs)</font></strong></p> +<p><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-1.gif" width="633" height="718"></p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.4.2 Using Aspect Prefixes to Express Format for Primary Conflations</h3> +<p align="justify">The eight forms of each aspect prefix are used as an alternate + way of indicating Format (See <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o2">Sec. + 5.4.2</a>) in the absence of a conflation (or valence) adjunct. Because they + also show Valence, Version and Modality, it is common to use conflation adjuncts + with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays + conflation (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Sec. 5.4.1</a>) + but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation + adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms + 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, + in the sentence <img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-2c.gif" width="108" height="16" align="absmiddle">, + the conflation adjunct <img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-2d.gif" width="15" height="17" align="absmiddle"> + indicating <font size="2">INSTRUMENTATIVE</font> format for the <font size="2">ACTIVE</font> + conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix + <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>â</strong></font>- + on the aspectual adjunct to <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>wâ</strong></font>- + and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:</p> +<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-2a.gif" width="126" height="30"><br> + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Wâloi uatumul.</font></strong><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-2b.gif" width="212" height="16" align="absbottom"> + <br> + ‘<em>The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring</em>’ + <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong><br> + ‘<em>What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an + asteroid</em>.’</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories</h3> +<p align="justify">The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below. </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RTR</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the <font size="2">MONADIC</font>, + the <font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font> can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>, + the <font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font> is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the <font size="2">NOMIC</font> and <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font>, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PRS</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROSPECTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Like the <font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font> above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the <font size="2">MONADIC</font>, the <font size="2">PROSPECTIVE</font> + equates with the English future tense. With the <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the <font size="2">NOMIC</font> and <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font>, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">HAB</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">HABITUAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + When used with the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the + <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in <em>She used to come see me on Wednesdays</em>.<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PRG</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROGRESSIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IMM</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">IMMINENT</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in <em>I + think Carl is about to cry</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PCS</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PRECESSIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in <em>We just + saw a clown in the toy store</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">REG</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REGULATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EPR</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EXPERIENTIAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in <em>Does he ever shut up?</em> Note the <font size="2">EXPERIENTIAL</font> + does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in <em>Ever does he seek his destiny</em> nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in <em>Was she ever tired</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.9</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RSM</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">RESUMPTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in <em>The girl resumed singing</em>, or <em>He is starting to laugh + again</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.10</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CSS</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CESSATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in T<em>hey stopped dancing at midnight</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.11</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RCS</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">RECESSATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in <em>Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.12</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PAU</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PAUSAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in <em>Mother took a break from cleaning to </em><em>gossip with + her friends</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.13</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RGR</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REGRESSIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The <font size="2">REGRESSIVE</font> + should be distinguished from the <font size="2">RESUMPTIVE</font> above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be <em>Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.14</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PCL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PRECLUSIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in <em>Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp</em>.<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.15</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CNT</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONTINUATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in <em>She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore</em>.<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.16</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ICS</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INCESSATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in <em>They danced the night away</em> or <em>They’ve been battling + on and on since last year</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.17</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PMP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PREEMPTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’ <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.18</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CLM</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CLIMACTIC</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’ + <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.19</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PTC</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROTRACTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> or <font size="2">PUNCTUAL</font> + phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the <font size="2">PROTRACTIVE</font> + conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: <em>It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.20</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">TMP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">TEMPORARY</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in <em>This will be sufficient + for now</em> or <em>For the time being you’ll have to drink water</em>. + <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.21</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">MTV</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">MOTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in + <em>Dad’s off hunting</em> or <em>They went off to cavort with the clowns</em>. + <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.22</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CSQ</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONSEQUENTIAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in <em>She went + ahead and bought the furniture</em> or <em>I decided to go there anyway</em>. + <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.23</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SQN</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SEQUENTIAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in <em>He's checking off each item as it is inventoried</em>, + or <em>The sheep died off from the disease</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.24</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EPD</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EXPEDITIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in <em>Hurry up and finish</em> or <em>They ate + in a hurry</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.25</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">DSC</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">DISCLUSIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’ <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.26</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CCL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONCLUSIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in <em>I ended up crashing the car</em> + or <em>He drank to the point where he passed out</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.27</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CUL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CULMINATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Similar to the <font size="2">CONCLUSIVE</font> above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the <font size="2">CONCLUSIVE</font> + aspect above: <em>In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.28</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IMD</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INTERMEDIATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’ <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.29</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">TRD</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">TARDATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.30</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">TNS</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">TRANSITIONAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in <em>I’m planning to take up golf</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.31</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ITC</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INTERCOMMUTATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in <em>The boy threw it back</em> or <em>She stared back at the men ogling + her</em>. <br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.32</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="2">CSM</font></strong></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONSUMPTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in <em>Mother spends her life + worrying</em> or <em>He’s pining away</em>. </div> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct</h3> +<p align="justify">Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different + aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other. + For example, the <font size="2">PROSPECTIVE</font> aspect complements the <font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font> + aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally + don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same + adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first + aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second + aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such + combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered + an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct + with the second verb.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + <a name="Sec6o4o5"></a>6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus</h3> +<p align="justify">All of the aspectual prefixes shown in <a href="#Table19">Table + 19 above</a> can in turn take an initial prefix <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>y</strong></font>- + (or <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>yï</strong></font>- + before a <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</font></strong>-) + to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described + in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Sec. 3.5</a>), i.e., + it is an alternate to the usual -<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>w</strong></font>- + infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>êstiu + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> yêstiu, + iwuil <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> yiwuil, + wïttu <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + yïwïttu</strong></font>.</p> +<p align="justify">This <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</font></strong>- + (or <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï</font></strong>-) + prefix can in turn be augmented to <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’</font></strong> + (spelled <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’</font></strong> + before a vowel but still pronounced <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’</font></strong>) + to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning + indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">êstiu</font> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’êstiu</font>, + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">iwuil</font> <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + y’iwuil</font>, <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">wïttu</font> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’wïttu</font></strong>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use</h3> +<div align="justify"><strong><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><img src="Images/Clowns/Clown8.GIF" width="67" height="77" border="0" align="bottom"></a></strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-6.gif" width="489" height="661"> + <br> + <font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">________________</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> +</div> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"> </p> +</blockquote> + +<p> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><a name="Sec6o5"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.5 MOOD</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., <em>Go now!, Sing it for + us!</em> ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., <em>She would travel + if she could</em>), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., + <em>I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here</em>), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., <em>May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!</em>).</p> +<p align="justify">We have already seen in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o1">Section + 5.1</a> above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ithkuil, + shown by stress and tone of the aspectual adjunct accompanying the verb.</p> +<p align="justify">The eight moods are <font size="2">FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE</font>, and <font size="2">ASCRIPTIVE</font>. + These are described in the sections below. <br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FAC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Factual</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FACTUAL</font> mood is shown by penultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described + above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the <font size="2">FACTUAL</font> + mood is subject to whatever specific nuances of attitude, perspective, and evidence + are imparted by the particular bias and validation associated with the verb. + Examples:</p> +<p align="justify"><em>His kids are ill.</em> [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]</p> +<p align="justify"><em>We’re taking a walk later on. </em>[i.e., it is our + intention and we have the opportunity to do so]<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>SUB</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Subjunctive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">SUBJUNCTIVE</font> mood is shown by ultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:</p> +<p align="justify"><em>Maybe his kids are ill.</em> [i.e., it is known that he + has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]</p> +<p align="justify"><em>We may take a walk later on. </em>[i.e., it is known that + the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose + to]<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Assumptive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood functions identically to the <font size="2">FACTUAL</font> + except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:</p> +<p align="justify"><em>His kids’ll be ill</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> + <em>If he has kids, they are ill.</em> [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, + but if he does, they are certainly ill.]</p> +<p align="justify"><em>We’ll take a walk later on</em> [i.e., if we can] + <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> <em>We intend to take a walk.</em> + [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>SPE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Speculative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:</p> +<p align="justify"><em>Maybe his kids are ill</em> [i.e., it is unknown if he + has kids but if he does, they may be ill].</p> +<p align="justify"><em>We may take a walk later on</em> [i.e., it is unknown whether + we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether + we will choose to].<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>COU</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Counterfactive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>His kids would be (would have been) ill</em> [i.e., if + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].</p> +<p align="justify"><em>We would take (would have taken) a walk later on</em> [i.e., + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>HYP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Hypothetical</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>His kids might’ve been ill</em> [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].</p> +<p align="justify"><em>We might’ve taken a walk later on</em> [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IPL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Implicative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below. </p> +<p align="justify"><em>His kids are (must be) ill</em> [i.e., as implied by some + other fact such as his staying home from work].</p> +<p align="justify"><em>If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> <em>She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on</em> [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Ascriptive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual adjunct. + The <font size="2">ASCRIPTIVE</font> mood functions identically to the <font size="2">IMPLICATIVE</font> + immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples: </p> +<p align="justify"><em>His kids may be ill</em> [i.e., as implied by some other + fact such as his staying home from work].</p> +<p align="justify"><em>If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later + on </em><strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> <em>She’s wearing a + blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on</em> [i.e., the + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use</h3> +<div align="justify">The following examples compare the seven non-<font size="2">FACTUAL</font> + moods applied to the same sentence: </div> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9a.gif" width="546" height="106"><br> + </p> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9b.gif" width="465" height="88"><br> + </p> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9c.gif" width="544" height="87"><br> + </p> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9d.gif" width="544" height="87"><br> + </p> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9e.gif" width="571" height="85"> + <br> + </p> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9f.gif" width="420" height="84"> + <br> + </p> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9g.gif" width="447" height="86"> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><a name="Sec6o6"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.6 BIAS</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in <a href="#Sec6o1">Sec. 6.1</a>), often triggering a + translation change as well.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage<a name="Sec6o6o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">Bias is shown in any one of four ways: </p> +<div align="justify"> + <ol> + <li>as a word-initial consonantal prefix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n’urs, + ss’illui</font></strong><br> + </li> + <li> as a word-final consonantal suffix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ursau’n, + illui’ss</font></strong><br> + </li> + <li> as a consonantal infix to an aspectual adjunct, which substitutes this + consonantal infix for the Cx consonantal infix of the adjunct; this infix + always ends in -w, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">utwa, + enkwoi</font></strong><br> + </li> + <li> as a word-initial consonantal prefix to formative if the formative begins + with a vowel; a glottal stop is infixed between the prefix and the formative, + e.g., <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>n’exalt, ss’imlatku</strong></font></li> + </ol> +</div> +<p align="justify">These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms + described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.</p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 20: Morpho-Phonological + Markers for Bias</font></strong><br> + <br> + <img src="Images/Ch%206/6-6-1.gif" width="363" height="677"> <br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ASU</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">ASSURATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">HPB</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">HYPERBOLIC</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in <em>I + so don’t care!</em> or <em>That is totally not what I wanted.</em> The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression <em>That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!</em><br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">COI</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">COINCIDENTAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in<em> I happened to run into Jane</em> or <em>It + just so happens that I’m busy</em>. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ACP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">ACCEPTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RAC</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REACTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">STU</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">STUPEFACTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in <em>It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall</em>. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CTV</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONTEMPLATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">DPV</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">DESPERATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%"><strong>6.6.1.9</strong></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RVL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REVELATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.10</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">GRA</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">GRATIFICATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.11</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SOL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SOLICITIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence <em>So dance already! + </em><br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.12</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SEL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SELECTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.13</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IRO</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">IRONIC</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.14</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EXA</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EXASPERATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.15</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">LTL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">LITERAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in <em>Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka</em> (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in <em>Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka</em> (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.16</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CRR</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CORRECTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.17</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EUP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EUPHEMISTIC</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.18</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SKP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SKEPTICAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.19</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CYN</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CYNICAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.20</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CTP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONTEMPTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.21</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">DSM</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">DISMISSIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.22</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IDG</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INDIGNATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.23</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SGS</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SUGGESTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’<br> + <br> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.24</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PPV</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROPOSITIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences <em>How about going for a stroll?</em>, <em>We + could meet behind the barn if you want</em>, or <em>You can sit on my lap</em>. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’ </div> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify">6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use<br> +</h3> +<blockquote> + <div align="justify"><strong><font color="#FF0000"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-6-2.gif" width="620" height="699"><br> + </font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-4.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">__</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-4.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + <font color="#FF0000"> </font></strong></div> +</blockquote> + +<p> </p> +<p align="right"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed + to Chapter 7: Using Affixes >></font></a></strong></p> +<p></p> +<p></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><font size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website. </font></p> +<p> </p> +</body> +</html> |