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diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_2.html b/2004-en/Chapter_2.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..79c07b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_2.html @@ -0,0 +1,2211 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title>Chapter 2</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +.style2 { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; + font-weight: bold; + color: #999999; +} +.style3 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; font-size: small; color: #0000FF; } +.style5 {color: #000000; font-weight: bold;} +.style7 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; } +.style9 {font-size: x-small} +.style10 { + color: #000000; + font-size: x-small; +} +.style11 {color: #000000} +.style12 { + color: #0000FF; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style13 {font-size: large} +.style18 {color: #000000; font-size: large; } +.style20 {color: #FF000} +.style21 {font-weight: bold; font-size: small; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;} +.style22 {font-size: small} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> +<h2 align="center" class="style2">Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</h2> +<table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="22%" rowspan="7"><div align="center"><span class="style2"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></span></div></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="24%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="31%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><span class="style21"><a href="http://www.ithkuil.net">Home</a></span></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style21">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style21">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><span class="style21"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></span></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style21">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style21">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style21">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style21">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style21">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style21">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style21">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style21">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style21">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style21">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style21">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<h2 align="center" class="style5">Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology </h2> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="28%"> </td> + <td width="25%"><a href="#Sec2o1">2.1 Grammatical Typology</a> </td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="38%"><a href="#Sec2o5">2.5 Vocalic Mutation</a> </td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec2o2">2.2 Root and Stem Formation</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec2o6">2.6 Parts of Speech</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec2o3">2.3 Consonantal Mutation</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec2o7">2.7 Affixes</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec2o4">2.4 Semantic Instantiation of Stems</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec2o8">2.8 Note On Terminology</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> + Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., +singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="19" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY<a name="Sec2o1" id="Sec2o1"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh morpho-phonology is primarily agglutinative and secondarily + synthetic. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily + via affixation and secondarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself. Specifically, Ilaksh morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different +kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.<br /> +<a name="Sec2o1o1" id="Sec2o1o1"></a></p> +<h3 align="justify"><strong>2.1.1 The Structure of Ilaksh Words</strong></h3> +<p align="justify">As will be discussed later in <a href="#Sec2o6">Section 2.6</a>, the part of speech in Ilaksh which corresponds to nouns and verbs in Western languages is called a <em>formative</em>. The morphological structure of the Ilaksh formative can be shown by the following formula:</p> +<p align="center"><strong><font color="#999999">((V<font size="-2">L</font> +) C<span class="style9">i</span> + V<span class="style9">c</span> (+ C<span class="style9">x</span> + V<span class="style9">p</span>) +) (C<span class="style9">m</span> +)</font> C<span class="style9">r</span> + V<span class="style10">r</span> + C<span class="style9">a</span> <font color="#999999">(+ V<span class="style9">x</span>C ) (+ V<span class="style9">F</span> (+ C<span class="style9">b</span>))</font> [+ tone] </strong><strong>[+ stress]</strong></p> +<p align="justify">The above terms, other than <strong>Vr</strong> and <strong>Ca</strong> refer to various consonantal and/or vocalic affixes. <strong>Cr</strong> and <strong>Vr</strong> correspond to the word-stem itself which is dicussed below in Section 2.2. All of the terms shown in gray are optional. However, as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the formula, the presence of certain terms requires the presence of others.. A brief, preliminary explanation of these terms is given in the following chart.</p> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="14%" height="35" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-2">L</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="86%" bordercolor="#999999">A word-initial vocalic prefix which shows a verbal category called Level, discussed in Section <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o8">Section 5.8</a><font color="#FF0000">. </font> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="38" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style9">i</span></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">A consonantal affix which indicates a verbal category called Illocution, discussed in Section <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o7">Section 5.7</a>. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="62" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style9">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">A vocalic "portmanteau" affix (i.e., conveying multiple types of morphological information), indicating the following morphological categories: Designation (discussed in <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o6">Section 3.6</a>), Essence (discussed in <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o6">Section 3.6</a>), and Format (discussed in <a href="Chapter_6.html#6o5o2">Section 6.5.2</a>). </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="48" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style9">x</span></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">A consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following three verbal categories: Phase, Sanction, and Version. These categories are discussed in <a href="Chapter_5.html">Chapter 5</a>. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="28" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style9">p</span></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">A vocalic affix indicating a verbal category called Aspect, discussed in <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o6">Section 5.6</a>. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="28" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style9">m</span></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">Indicates a verbal category called Function, discussed in <a href="Chapter_6.html#Sec6o4">Section 6.4</a>. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="47" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style9">r</span> + V<span class="style9">r</span> </strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">The basic root of the word, consisting ofthe structure consonant + vowel (+ tone), declined into a category called Case. The structure of the root and stem is discussed below in <a href="#Sec2o2">Section 2.2</a>. The category of Case is discussed in <a href="Chapter_4.html">Chapter 4</a>. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="48" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style9">a</span></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">A consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following four categories: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, and Extension. These are all discussed in <a href="Chapter_3.html">Chapter 3</a>. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="79" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style9">x</span>-C</strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">An optional derivational suffix of the form vowel + consonant(s) which conveys additional morpho-semantic information. There are over 1300 such suffixes which can be combined with a formative to expand the meaning of a word. These suffixes can also be multiply added to a stem, i.e., two or more such affixes can appear on a stem. The nature of these affixes are introduced below in <a href="#Sec2o7">Section 2.7</a> and analyzed at length in <a href="Chapter_7.html">Chapter 7</a>. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="37" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style9">F</span></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">A vocalic suffix which conveys the category of Context (discussed in <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o5">Section 3.5</a>) and verbal Mood (discussed in <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o1">Section 5.1</a>). </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="35" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong><font size="+1">’</font>C<span class="style9">b</span></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">A consonantal word-final suffix of the form glottal stop + consonant which indicates one of 48 Bias categories (discussed in <a href="Chapter_6.html#Sec6o6">Section 6.6</a>) </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="37" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">In conjunction with the <strong>C<span class="style22">r</span> + V<span class="style22">r</span></strong> elements above, signifies which of the 3600 roo<font color="#000000">ts of the language is the basis of the word. </font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="29" bordercolor="#999999"><div align="center"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999">Shows which of three particular stems derived from the root is indicated. The relationship between root and stem is discussed below in <a href="#Sec2o2">Section 2.2</a>. </td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<p align="justify">As an example of part of the above structure in actual use, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ilaksh word <font size="+1"><strong>uccuẹilšrokö’z </strong></font>(<a href="sound_files/2-1-1.mp3" target="_blank">listen </a><a href="sound_files/2-1-1.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="audio" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom" /></a> ). + The stem of this word, <font size="+1"><strong>cu</strong></font> + low tone meaning ‘<font color="#000000">sheep</font>,’ has been completely transformed + into + a word containing no less than <font color="#000000">16</font> morphemes (i.e., <font color="#000000">sixteen</font> semantically distinct + word-components). These morphemes and the mutation and affixation process +by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows: </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39"><div align="center"><strong>((V<sdivan class="style9">L</sdivan>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="59"><div align="center"><strong>C<sdivan class="style9">i</sdivan></strong></div></td> + <td width="80"><div align="center"><strong>V<sdivan class="style9">c</sdivan></strong> </div></td> + <td width="90"><div align="center"><strong>(C<sdivan class="style9">x</sdivan></strong></div></td> + <td width="80"><div align="center"><strong>V<sdivan class="style9">div</sdivan>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="64"><div align="center"><strong>(C<sdivan class="style9">m</sdivan>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="56"><div align="center"><strong>C<sdivan class="style9">r</sdivan></strong></div></td> + <td width="56"><div align="center"><strong>V<sdivan class="style9">r</sdivan></strong></div></td> + <td width="77"><div align="center"><strong>C<sdivan class="style9">a</sdivan></strong></div></td> + <td width="48"><div align="center"><strong>(V<sdivan class="style9">x</sdivan>C)</strong></div></td> + <td width="54"><div align="center"><strong>(V<sdivan class="style9">F</sdivan></strong><strong> </strong></div></td> + <td width="55"><div align="center"><strong>(C<sdivan class="style9">b</sdivan>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="99"><div align="center"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39"><div align="center" class="style7">18 Levels</div> + </td> + <td width="59"><div align="center" class="style7"><sdivan class="style7">7 </sdivan>I<sdivan class="style7">llocutions</sdivan></div> + </td> + <td width="80"><div align="center" class="style7">2 Designation X 2 Relations<br /> + X 2 Essences X 8 Formats</div></td> + <td width="90"><div align="center" class="style7">9 phases<br /> + X 9 Sanctions<br /> + X6 Versions +</div></td> + <td width="80"><div align="center" class="style7">32 aspects </div></td> + <td width="64"><div align="center" class="style7">8 functions<br /> + </div> + </td> + <td width="56"><div align="center" class="style7">120 C-root<br /> + X 3 patterns</div> + </td> + <td width="56"><div align="center" class="style7">5 V-root<br /> + X 6 tones<br /> + x 96 cases</div> + </td> + <td width="77"><div align="center" class="style7"> 9 configurations<br /> + x 4 affiliations<br /> + x 6 extensions<br /> + x 4 perspectives </div></td> + <td width="48"><div align="center" class="style7">VxC- suffix</div> + </td> + <td width="54"><div align="center" class="style7">4 contexts X 8 moods</div></td> + <td width="55"><div align="center"><sdivan class="style7">48 biases </sdivan></div></td> + <td width="99"><div align="center" class="style7">penultimate<br /> + = Stem 1<br /> + ultimate<br /> += Stem 2<br /> +antepenultimate<br /> += Stem 3 </div> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000">—</font></div></td> + <td width="59"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000">—</font></div></td> + <td width="80"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000"><strong><font size="+1">u</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="90"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000">—</font></div></td> + <td width="80"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000">—</font></div></td> + <td width="64"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000">—</font></div></td> + <td width="56"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000"><strong><font size="+1">cc</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="56"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000" size="+1"><strong>uẹi</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="77"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000" size="+1"><strong>lšr</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="48"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000" size="+1"><strong>ok</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="54"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000" size="+1"><strong>ö</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="55"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000" size="+1"><strong>’z</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="99"><div align="center"><font color="#FF0000">[antepen.]</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<br /> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="64" height="38"><div align="center"><strong>u</strong>-</div></td> + <td width="736">a synthetic infix indicating <font size="-1">FORMAL</font> Designation, <font size="-1">UNFRAMED</font> Relation, <font size="-1">NORMAL</font> Essence, and <font size="-1">SCHEMATIC</font> Format </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="31"><div align="center">-<strong>ccuei</strong>-</div></td> + <td>in conjunction with low tone, indicates the root <font size="+1"><strong>cu</strong></font> + low tone in Pattern 3 = ‘derived product of sheep’, declined into the <font size="-1">REFERENTIAL</font> Case </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="30"><div align="center">-<strong>lšr</strong>-</div></td> + <td>a synthetic infix indicating <font size="-1">COHERENT</font> Configuration, <font size="-1">COALESCENT</font> Affiliation, <font size="-1">DEPLETIVE</font> extension, and <font size="-1">ABSTRACT</font> Perspective </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="29"><div align="center">-<strong>ok</strong>-</div></td> + <td>a Type-1 sufix in 8th degree, indicating a specific derivation of the stem (in this case: ‘wool’)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="29"><div align="center">-<strong>ö</strong></div></td> + <td>a synthetic suffix indicating the <font size="-1">AMALGAMATIVE</font> Context and the <font size="-1">DESIDERATIVE</font> Modality </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="31"><div align="center"><strong>’z</strong></div></td> + <td>a suffix indicating <font size="-1">CONTEMPLATIVE</font> Bias </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">[stress]</div></td> + <td>antepenultimate stress indicates Stem 3 of the root = ‘derived product of ewe ’</td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="2"><strong>APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION:</strong></font> <em>‘<font color="#000000">concerning a hypothetically puzzling desire for an end to everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing’</font></em> +</font><br /> +</p> + +<h3 align="justify">2.2.2 Disambiguation of Specific Affixes Within Words</h3> +<p align="justify">Because many of the terms in the above morphological formula are optional, the reader might easily wonder how a speaker/reader of Ilaksh, when looking at or hearing an Ilaksh word, can possibly know which terms are actually shown in any given word, i.e., how to interpret from the given consonants and vowels in a particular word which of the optional morphological categories is being displayed or spoken. In fact, such interpretation is indeed possible and is unambiguous due to the specific allowable consonant or vowel combinations allowed for each term, i.e., the specific consonantal or vocalic values allowed for one term are distinct from those allowed for another term which might occupy the same sequential position in a specific word. Also, as previously stated in <a href="#Sec2o1o1">Section 2.1.1</a> above and as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the <span class="style11"><strong>((V<font size="-2">L</font> +) C<span class="style9">i</span> + V<span class="style9">c</span> (+ C<span class="style9">x</span> + V<span class="style9">p</span>) +) (C<span class="style9">m</span> +) C<span class="style9">r</span> + V<span class="style9">r</span> + C<span class="style9">a</span> (+ V<span class="style9">x</span>C ) (+ V<span class="style9">F</span> (+ C<span class="style9">b</span>)) [+ tone][+ stress]</strong></span> morphological formula, the presence of certain terms e.g., <span class="style11"><strong>V<font size="-2">L</font></strong></span>, requires the presence of other terms (<strong>C<span class="style22">i</span> + V<span class="style22">c</span></strong>), in order to maintain a discernible sequence which can be unambiguously differentiated. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION</strong></font><a name="Sec2o2" id="Sec2o2"></a></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">All words in Ilaksh which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic <strong>stem</strong>, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract <strong>root</strong>. This process + is explained in the sections below.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 2.2.1 The Root <a name="Sec2o2o1" id="Sec2o2o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">The <strong>root</strong> in Ilaksh forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of a consonantal form, <strong>C<font size="-2">r</font></strong>, plus one of five vowels <strong>V<font size="-2">r</font></strong>, plus one of six tones. The <strong>C<font size="1">r</font> </strong>consonantal form can consist of a single consonant or a consonant cluster. There are 120 possible <strong>C<font size="-2">r</font> </strong>consonantal forms. Combined with the five <strong>V<font size="-2">r</font></strong> vowels and six tones, this renders 3600 possible roots. Example roots are <strong><font size="+1">tâ-</font></strong> or <strong><font size="+1">ksù-</font></strong>.</p> +<p align="justify">The root is the basic semantic unit in Ilaksh. For example, <span class="style13"><strong>dá</strong></span><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">- </font>is a root whose semantic referent is <font size="2">NAME/DESIGNATION</font>. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply <strong>stems</strong>) from the + roots, the <strong>C<font size="1">R</font> </strong>consonantal form can be mutated and the syllabic stress of the word containing the root can be shifted. Such consonant mutation and stress shifting is described below.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 2.2.2 The Stem </h3> +<p align="justify">There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ilaksh roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate <strong>Patterns</strong>. Pattern is shown by mutation of the <strong>C<font size="1">R</font> </strong>consonantal form (i.e., modifying the consonant or consonant cluster into another consonant or consonant cluster). The three stems are shown by the syllabic stress of the word containing the root, either ultimate (stress on the last syllable of the word), penultimate (stress on the second-to-last syllable), or antepenultimate (third-from-last syllable). </p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <a name="Sec2o2o3" id="Sec2o2o3"></a>2.2.3 Pattern</h3> +<p align="justify">The three patterns are labeled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a <strong>holistic</strong> stem and two <strong>complementary</strong> sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem <em>spouse</em>, with its two complementary + sub-stems <em>husband</em> and <em>wife</em>. This holistic versus complementary distinction is discussed at length below in Section 2.4. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ilaksh systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ilaksh + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while +having such a small number of semantic word roots.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>2.3 CONSONANTAL MUTATION</strong></font><a name="Sec2o3" id="Sec2o3"></a></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">As stated earlier, there are 120 distinct <strong>C<font size="2">r</font></strong> + consonantal forms. Each of these can mutate into two other forms, giving a total of three possible manifestations + of each <strong>C<font size="2">r</font></strong> form. These are labelled +Grade A, Grade B, and Grade C. The three grades of all 120 <strong>C<font size="2">r</font></strong> forms are shown in Table No. 3 below. </p> +<p><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table No. <span class="style20">3</span>: C<font size="2">r</font> Mutation Patterns by Grade </strong></font></p> +<table width="859" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="26" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">A</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">B</font></div></td> + <td width="50" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">C</font></div></td> + <td width="37" rowspan="25" valign="top"> </td> + <td width="43" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">A</font></div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">B</font></div></td> + <td width="67" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">C</font></div></td> + <td width="37" rowspan="25" valign="top"> </td> + <td width="35" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">A</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">B</font></div></td> + <td width="44" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">C</font></div></td> + <td width="37" rowspan="25" valign="top"> </td> + <td width="44" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">A</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">B</font></div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">C</font></div></td> + <td width="37" rowspan="25" valign="top"> </td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">A</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">B</font></div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">C</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>p</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">pt</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">pp</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>py</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧ<span class="style13">p</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ppy</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>pl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">spl</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">špl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">pr</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">spr</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">špr</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"><font size="+1">př</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">fř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ftr</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>t</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">tk</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">tt</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>ty</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧ<span class="style13">t</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">tty</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>tl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">stl</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">štl</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">tr</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">str</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">štr</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"><font size="+1">tř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧ<font size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧ<span class="style13">kr</span></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>k</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">kt</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">kk</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>ky</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧ<span class="style13">k</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">kky</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>kl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">skl</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">škl</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">kr</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">skr</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">škr</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"><font size="+1">kř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">bg</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">xtr</span></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>b</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">pk</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">bb</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>by</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">db</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">bby</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>bl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">zbl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>bl</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>br</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">zbr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>br</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"><font size="+1">bř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"></font><font size="+1">vř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">pt</span><font size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>d</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">tp</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">dd</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>dy</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">bd</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ddy</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>dl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">zdl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>dl</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>dr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">zdr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>dr</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"><font size="+1">dř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">đ</font><font size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13"></span><font size="+1">tkř</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>g</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">kp</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">gg</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>gy</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">dg</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ggy</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>gl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">zgl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>gl</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>gr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">zgr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>gr</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"><font size="+1">gř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">gd</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ktř</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">f</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ft</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ff</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>fy</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">fp</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ffy</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>fl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">sfl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">šfl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>fr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">sfr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">šfr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>ps</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">psr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">psl</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#0000FF">ŧ</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">đ</font><span class="style13">g</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧŧ</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF"><strong>ŧ</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong></strong></font><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>y</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">f</span>ŧ</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧŧ<font size="+1">y</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF"><strong>ŧ</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong></strong></font><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>l</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">s</span>ŧ<span class="style13">l</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">š</span>ŧ<span class="style13">l</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF"><strong>ŧ</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong></strong></font><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>r</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">s</span>ŧ<span class="style13">r</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">š</span>ŧ<span class="style13">r</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>pš</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">pšr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">pšl</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>x</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">xt</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">xx</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>vy</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">b</span><font size="+1">đ</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">vvy</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>xl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">sk<font color="#000000">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">šk<font color="#000000">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>xr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">zg</span><font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>g<font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>ks</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ksr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ksl</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">v</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">fk</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">vv</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>đy</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">g</span><font size="+1">đ</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">đđy</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>vl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">sp<font color="#000000">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">šp<font color="#000000">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>vr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">zb</span><font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>b<font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>kš</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">kšr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">kšl</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">đ</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">đ</font><span class="style13">b</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">đđ</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>my</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">vm</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">mmy</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>đl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">st<font color="#000000">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">št<font color="#000000">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>đr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">zd</span><font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><font size="+1">ž</font>d<font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>bz</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">pst</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">psk</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">s</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ç</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ss</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>ny</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">vn</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">nny</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>ml</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">fsl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">fsr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>mr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1">ňl</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"></font><font size="+1">mř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>bž</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">pšt</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">pšk</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">š</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">çç</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">šš</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>ly</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">đ</font><span class="style13">m</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lly</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>nl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13"><span class="style13"></span></span>ŧ<span class="style13">kl</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">ftl</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">nr</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ňr</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"></font><font size="+1">nř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>gz</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">kst</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ksp</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">z</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">pç</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">z</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>ry</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">đn</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rry</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>sl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">cl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">c<font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>sr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">cr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">sř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>gž</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">kšt</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">kšp</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">ž</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">kç</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">žž</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>pf</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">spf</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">spy</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>šl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><font color="#000000">č</font>l</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><font color="#000000">č</font><font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>šr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><font color="#000000">č</font>r</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">šř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>sf</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">zv</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">cp</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>m</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">çm</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">mm</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>tf</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">stf</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">sty</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>zl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">żl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ż<font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>zr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">żr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"></font><font size="+1">zř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>šf</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">žv</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1">čp</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>n</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">çn</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">nn</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>kf</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">skf</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">sky</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>žl</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">jl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">j<font color="#000000" size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>žr</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">jr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"></font><font color="#000000" size="+1">ž</font><font size="+1">ř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>s</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong>ŧ</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">z<font size="+1">đ</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ct</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">ň</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ç</font><font size="+1">ň</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"> + <div><font size="+1">ňň</font></div> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>bv</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">špf</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">špy</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>sp</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style18">zb</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">gzb</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"> + <div align="center"><font size="+1">pm</font></div> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">fm</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">bm</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>š</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong>ŧ</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">žđ</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1">čt</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>c</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ck</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">cc</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>dv</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">štf</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">šty</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>st</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">zd</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">gzd</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"> + <div align="center"><font size="+1">pn</font></div> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">fn</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">bn</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>sx</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">xf</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">xtl</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>č</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1">čk</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1">čč</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>gv</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">škf</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">šky</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>sk</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">zg</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">bzg</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"> + <div align="center"><font size="+1">km</font></div> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">xm</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">gm</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>šx</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">x</span>ŧ</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">xtř</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">ż</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">żg</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">żż</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style12"><font size="+1">ç</font><span class="style13">p</span></span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ptl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ptr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>šp</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">žb</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">g<font size="+1">ž</font>b</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"> + <div align="center"><font size="+1">kn</font></div> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">xn</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">gn</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>sm</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">zm</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">cm</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>j</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">jg</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">jj</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style12"><font size="+1">çt</font></span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">tkl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">tkr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>št</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">žd</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">g<font size="+1">ž</font>d</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"> + <div align="center"><font size="+1">tm</font></div> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧ<font size="+1">m</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">dm</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>šm</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style11"><font size="+1">zn</font></span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1">čm</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>l</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">çl</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ll</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"><font size="+1">çk</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ktl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ktr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>šk</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">žg</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style13">b<font size="+1">ž</font>g</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style12"> + <div align="center"><font size="+1">tn</font></div> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ŧ<font size="+1">n</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">dn</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>sn</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">žm</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">cn</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>r</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">çr</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rr</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#0000FF">ř</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">xp</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1">řř</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>p</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong>ŧ</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong></strong></font> </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style11"><font size="+1">p</font>ŧ</span><span class="style13">l</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">p</font>ŧ<span class="style13">r</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>k</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong>ŧ</strong></font><font color="#0000FF"><strong></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style11"><font size="+1">k</font>ŧ</span><span class="style13">l</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">k</font>ŧ<span class="style13">r</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong>šn</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><font size="+1">žn</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1">čn</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><a name="Sec2o4" id="Sec2o4"></a><font size="4"><strong>2.4 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. We will start with the three stems associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 2.4.1 Holistic Stems</h3> +<p align="justify">The three stems for Pattern 1 are designated by Grade 1 mutation, plus penultimate, ultimate, and antepenultimate stress respectively, as previously stated in Sec. 2.2.2 above. Thus, + the previously mentioned root <strong><font color="#000000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>dá-</strong></font></strong> generates the following stems:</p> +<blockquote> + <p> 1. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>dá-</strong></font> <em>‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’</em><br /> + 2. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>adá</strong></font></strong>- <em>‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’</em><br /> + 3. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>áda(la)*-</strong></font> <em>‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’</em></p> + <p>* The <strong>-la-</strong> syllable shown here (and in subsequent examples below) is not part of the stem but merely indicates that this stem, when used as an actual word, would bear antepenultimate stress, thus requiring the addition of an additional syllable, acccomplished by adding any of numerous required suffixes which we will begin to explore in Chapter 3. </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>dá</strong></font></strong> above with that of the Form I root <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xá</strong></font></strong> (<font size="2">‘VISION/SIGHT’</font>) below.</p> +<blockquote> + <p> 1. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xá-</strong></font><em>‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’</em><br /> + 2. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>axá</strong></font></strong>-</font> <em>‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’</em><br /> + 3. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>áxa(la)-</strong></font></strong> <em>‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology. </p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <a name="Sec2o4o2" id="Sec2o4o2"></a>2.4.2 Complementary Stems</h3> +<p align="justify">Any Ilaksh stem is capable of being further broken down into + two <strong>complementary</strong> stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ilaksh stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems. </p> +<p align="justify">By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ilaksh, + for example, words such as <em>male</em>, <em>night</em>, <em>speech</em>, <em>sit</em>, + and <em>happen</em> are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole. </p> +<p align="justify">Thus, Ilaksh lexical structure recognizes that the word <em>male</em> has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, <em>female</em>, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as <em>living being</em>. Similarly, + the word <em>night(time)</em> derives along with its complement <em>day(time)</em> from the underlying concept translatable as <em>day</em> (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of <em>speak(ing)</em> divides into complementary concepts + of <em>talking</em> (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus <em>saying/telling</em> (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). </p> +<p align="justify">Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between <em>sit</em> and <em>seat</em>; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word <em>happen</em> or <em>occur</em>, which Ilaksh recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of <em>consequence</em> or <em>result</em>, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as <em>event</em> or <em>situation</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> <strong>2.4.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems</strong>. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem consonant from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong>k → kt </strong></font>, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> → kk </font></strong>. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:</p> +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="42%"><table width="94%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="61%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>akà-</strong></font>: + human being, person</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>aktà-</strong></font>: + male person </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>akkà-</strong></font></strong>: + female person</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="56%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ùklo-</font></strong>: + a river </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ùsklo-</font></strong>: + the water in a river </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ùzglo-</font></strong>: + a riverbed</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="50%"><table width="95%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="31%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="69%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>áta(la)</strong></font>: + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>átka(la)</strong></font>: + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </font></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>átta(la)</strong></font>: + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + <td width="47%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="72%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>àxa-</strong></font>: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>àxta-</strong></font>: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>àxxa-</strong></font>: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> + <br /> + <strong>2.4.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation</strong>. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ilaksh holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is +counterintuitive to Western semantic notions. </p> +<p align="justify">For example, let us analyze the root<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> kmè </font></strong>‘<font size="2">NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER</font>’. While most languages + would consider the concept <em>parent</em> as fundamentally opposite from the + concept <em>child</em> and assign separate word-roots to each, Ilaksh recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kmè</font></strong>. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kmè</font></strong> is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ilaksh root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> kmè</font></strong>.</p> +<table width="75%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Complementary Stem</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Complementary Stem</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="7%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 1</td> + <td width="32%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kmè-</font></strong> + nuclear family member </td> + <td width="27%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xmè</font></strong>-: + parent</td> + <td width="34%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">gmè-</font></strong>: + child</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 2</td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">akmè</font></strong>-: + male nuclear family member </td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">axmè-</font></strong>: + father </td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">agmè-</font></strong>: + son</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 3</td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">àkme(la)</font></strong>: + female nuclear family member </td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">àxme(la)</font></strong>: + mother </td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">àgme(la)</font></strong>: + daughter</td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ilaksh lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:</p> +<table width="72%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="33%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Concept</font></div></td> + <td colspan="2"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Complementary + Concepts </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>eating</strong></td> + <td width="32%">food</td> + <td width="35%">ingestion</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>think, act of thinking</strong></td> + <td>a thought (thing considered)</td> + <td>process of consideration</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>liquid</strong></td> + <td>fluid (= ontological nature)</td> + <td>wet[ness] (=defining attribute) </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>measuring </strong></td> + <td>a measurement</td> + <td>process of measuring</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>transference of possession</strong></td> + <td>giving</td> + <td>taking</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>traversal between points</strong></td> + <td>coming, arrival </td> + <td> going, departure</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>commercial transaction </strong></td> + <td>buying</td> + <td>selling</td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3><br /> +</h3> +<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><a name="Sec2o5" id="Sec2o5"></a><strong>2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">In addition to the mutation of the 120 <strong>C<font size="1">r</font></strong> consonantal forms, each of the five vowels used to form roots can in turn mutate into 95 + variations for a total of 96 mutations, termed Series 1, Series 2, Series + 3, etc., all the way to Series 96. This mutation of the root vowel is used to show a morphological category called Case which will be analyzed in <a href="Chapter_4.html">Chapter 4</a>. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 4(a) through (f) below.</p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Tables 4(a)-(f): Vocalic +Mutation Series </strong></font></p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td width="38" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">3</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">4</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">5</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">6</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">7</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">8</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">9</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">10</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">11</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">12</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">13</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">14</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">15</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">16</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">17</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">18</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">a</font></div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">→</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">ä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ai</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">au</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">äi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ia</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ea</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oa</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">öa</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ä-i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a-ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ua</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üa</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’e</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’i</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">a’u</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">e</font></div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">→</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">ë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">äu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ie</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ae</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">öe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e-ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ue</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’e</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’i</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">e’u</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">i</font></div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">→</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">ï</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ië</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e-i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a-i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o-i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö-i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë-i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö-ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u-i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’e</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’i</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">i’u</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">o</font></div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">→</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">ö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">öi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">io</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ao</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">öä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë-u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o-ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’e</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’i</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">o’u</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">u</font></div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">→</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">öu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i-u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e-u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a-u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o-u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö-u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ä-u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë-ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’e</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’i</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">u’u</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">19</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">20</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">21</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">22</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">23</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">24</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">25</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">26</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">27</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">28</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">29</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">30</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">31</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">32</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">33</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">34</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">35</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">36</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">a →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’a</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">a’o</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ä’ä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ä’ë </div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’a</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’a</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ä’ö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">aoi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">aou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">aei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">aeu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a-ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a-iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iai</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">iau</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">e →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’a</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">e’o</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’ë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’e</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’e</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eoi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">eou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e-ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e-iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eai</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">eau</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">i →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’a</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">i’o</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’ä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’i</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’ü </div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ioi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">iou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ieu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i-ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u-iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iëi</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">iëu</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">o →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’a</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">o’o</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’ö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’ë </div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’o</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oëi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">oëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oeu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o-ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o-iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oai</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">oau</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">u →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’a</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">u’o</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’u</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uoi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">uou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ueu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uai</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">uau</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">37</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">38</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">39</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">40</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">41</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">42</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">43</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">44</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">45</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">46</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">47</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">48</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">49</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">50</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">51</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">52</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">53</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">54</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">a →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ai</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">a’au</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’eu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’oi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’öi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">a’öu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’ai</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’au</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ai</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’au</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’ai</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’au</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">e →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ai</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">e’au</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">a’ei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’eu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’oi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’ëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">e’öi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">e’öu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’ei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’eu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’eu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’ei</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’eu</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">i →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ai</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">i’au</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’eu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’oi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’ëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">i’öi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">i’öu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’ëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’ëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’ëi</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’iu</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">o →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ai</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">o’au</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’eu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’oi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’ëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">o’öi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">o’öu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’oi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’ou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’oi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’öi</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’öu</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">u →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ai</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">u’au</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’eu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’oi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ëi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’ëu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’öi</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">u’öu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’ui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ë’iu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’öi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">u’öu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ö’ui</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">ü’ëu</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">55</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">56</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">57</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">58</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">59</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">60</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">61</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">62</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">63</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">64</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">65</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">66</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">67</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">68</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">69</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">70</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">71</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">72</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">a →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">awa</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">awe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">awi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">awo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">awu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">awö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">aya</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">aye</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ayi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ayo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ayu</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">ayö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">äwä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">awü </div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">äyä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üwa</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üya</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">ayü </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">e →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewa</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">ewe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eya</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eye</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eyi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eyo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eyu</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">eyö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewü </div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eyä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üwe </div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üye </div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">eyü </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">i →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwa</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">iwe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iya</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iye</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iyi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iyo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iyu</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">iyö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwü </div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iyä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üwi </div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üyi </div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">iyü </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">o →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owa</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">owe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oya</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oye</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oyi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oyo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oyu</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">oyö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oyä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üwo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üyo</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">oyü</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">u →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwa</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">uwe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uya</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uye</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uyi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uyo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uyu</div></td> + <td width="38" valign="top"><div align="center">uyö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">öwü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uyä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üwü</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">üyü</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">öyü</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">73</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">74</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">75</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">76</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">77</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">78</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">79</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">80</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">81</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">82</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">83</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">84</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">85</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">86</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">87</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">88</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">89</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">90</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">a →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">awai</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">awei</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">awoi</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">awui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ayau</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ayeu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ayou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ayiu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">aiwa</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">aiwe</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">aiwi</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">aiwo</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">aiwu</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">aiwë</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">aiwö</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">aiwä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">auya</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">auye</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">e →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewai</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewoi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">ewui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eyau</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eyeu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eyou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eyiu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eiwa</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eiwe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eiwi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eiwo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eiwu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eiwë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eiwö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">eiwä</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">euya</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">euye</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">i →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwai</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwoi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iwui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iyau</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iyeu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iyou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">iyiu</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëiwa</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëiwe</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëiwi</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëiwo</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëiwu</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëiwë</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëiwö</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëiwä</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">iuya</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">iuye</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">o →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owai</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owoi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">owui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oyau</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oyeu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oyou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oyiu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oiwa</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oiwe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oiwi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oiwo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oiwu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oiwë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oiwö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">oiwä</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ouya</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ouye</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">u →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwai</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwei</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwoi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uwui</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uyau</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uyeu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uyou</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uyiu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uiwa</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uiwe</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uiwi</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uiwo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uiwu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uiwë</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uiwö</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">uiwä</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëuya</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëuye</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">91</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">92</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">93</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">94</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">95</div></td> + <td width="49" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">96</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">a →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">auyi</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">auyo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">auyu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">auyë</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">auyö</div></td> + <td width="49" valign="top"><div align="center">auyä</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">e →</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">euyi</div></td> + <td width="40" valign="top"><div align="center">euyo</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">euyu</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">euyë</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">euyö</div></td> + <td width="49" valign="top"><div align="center">euyä</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">i →</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">iuyi</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">iuyo</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">iuyu</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">iuyë</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">iuyö</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">iuyä</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">o →</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ouyi</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ouyo</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ouyu</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ouyë</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ouyö</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ouyä</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#0000FF">u →</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëuyi</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëuyo</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëuyu</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëuyë</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëuyö</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">ëuyä</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH<a name="Sec2o6" id="Sec2o6"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh has only two parts of speech: <em>formatives</em> and <em>adjuncts</em>. While there are words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term <em>formative</em>. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ilaksh, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.</p> +<p align="justify">Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <a name="Sec2o6o1" id="Sec2o6o1"></a> 2.6.1 Formatives </h3> +<p align="justify">The stem formed as per the discussion in <a href="#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3</a> above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the <em>formative</em>. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative <strong><font color="#000000" size="+1">ùklo-</font> </strong>illustrated above in <a href="#Sec2o4o2">Section 2.4.2</a> means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ilaksh to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ilaksh formative exclusively into a noun or verb form +is arbitrary. </p> +<p align="justify"> The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ilaksh morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ilaksh instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either <em>spatially “reify”</em> this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to<em> temporally “activize”</em> it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="center"> <br /> + <img src="images/2-6-1.gif" width="493" height="116" /> </p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<h3>2.6.2 Adjuncts <a name="Sec2o6o2" id="Sec2o6o2"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). </p> +<p align="justify">Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in <a href="Chapter_8.html">Chapter + 8: Adjuncts</a>. These include:</p> +<ul> + <li><strong align="justify">Personal Reference Adjuncts</strong>: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship.<br /> + <br /> + </li> + <li><strong>Valence Adjuncts and Modality Adjuncts</strong>: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in <a href="Chapter_5.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology</a>.<br /> + </li> +</ul> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>2.7 AFFIXES</strong></font><a name="Sec2o7" id="Sec2o7"></a></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. Ilaksh makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants), affixes which are based on a consonant + only, and consonant-based affixes which contain vowels. The former two are simple static affixes, while the rules governing the formation of these vowel+consonant affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals of these vowel+consonant affixes are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in <a href="Chapter_7.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 7: Suffixes</a>. <br /> +</p> +<h3>2.7.1 Consonant-based Suffixes<a name="Sec2o7o1" id="Sec2o7o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify"> In this section we will explore those consonant-based + affixes which also contain a vowel. Such affixes always appear as suffixes in Ilaksh (i.e., they are appended to the end of a formative stem, rather than preceding the stem). </p> +<p align="justify">Every consonant-based suffix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The form of a consonant-based suffix is of the + form <strong>V+C</strong> (i.e., vowel + consonant). While the consonantal portion of the suffix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as <strong>degree</strong> and <strong>suffix-type</strong>. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for suffix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C suffix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three suffix-types are labelled <strong>V<font size="1">1</font></strong>, <strong>V<font size="1">2</font></strong>, and <strong>V<font size="1">3</font></strong>, + in reference to the vowel portion of the suffix.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting<a name="Sec2o7o2" id="Sec2o7o2"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">In addition to the three suffix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three suffix-types. + Table 5 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each suffix-type. </p> +<p align="justify">Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>), + Ilaksh permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.</p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<p align="justify"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 5: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Suffix Type </font></strong></p> +<table width="80%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="12%" height="29"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix + Type 1: -V<font size="1">1</font>C</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix + Type 2: -V<font size="1">2</font>C</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix + Type 3: -V<font size="1">3</font>C</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 1</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-iC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-ëC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-iuC</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 2</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-eC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-ëuC /-ioC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong> -eiC</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 3</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-äC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-ieC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-auC /-eaC</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 4</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-öC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-ueC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-euC</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 5</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-(a)C</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-iaC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-aiC </strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 6</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-üC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-uëC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong> -uoC</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 7</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-ïC </strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-iëC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-ëiC</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 8</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-oC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-oaC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-oiC</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 9</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-uC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-uaC / </strong></font><font size="+1"><strong>-uiC</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>-ouC</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 6 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem <font size="+1"><strong>ri-</strong></font>, which must first take a suffix such as <font size="+1"><strong>-t</strong></font> indicating various morphological categories which will be explained in Chapter 3, thus giving the form <font size="+1"><strong>rit-</strong></font>:</p> +<p align="justify"><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong>TABLE 6: Example of Application of Suffixes to a Stem </strong></font></p> +<table width="80%" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="3"> + <tr> + <td width="11%"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix: + -V<font size="1">1</font>k</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix + Type 2: -V<font size="1">2</font>k</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix + Type 3: -V<font size="1">3</font>k</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 1</font></td> + <td width="27%"><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong> ritik</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="34%"><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritëk</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="28%"><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritiuk</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 2</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritek</strong></font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritëuk / ritiok</strong></font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>riteik</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 3</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritäk</strong></font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritiek</strong></font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritauk / riteak</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 4</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritök</strong></font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>rituek</strong></font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>riteuk</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 5</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritak</strong></font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritiak</strong></font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritaik</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 6</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritük</strong></font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>rituëk</strong></font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong> rituok</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 7</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong> ritïk </strong></font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritiëk</strong></font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritëik</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 8</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritok</strong></font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritoak</strong></font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritoik</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 9</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>rituk</strong></font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>rituak/rituik</strong></font></td> + <td><div align="left"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ritouk</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ilaksh to create a gradient system for all consonantal suffixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + suffix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in <a href="Chapter_7.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 7: Suffixes</a> how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated +with the nine degrees for the suffix -<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<font size="1">1</font>d</font></strong>.</p> +<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> + <tr> + <td width="5%"> </td> + <td width="12%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Meaning</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 1</font></div></td> + <td width="21%"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>-id </strong></font></td> + <td width="62%">wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2</font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>-ed</strong></font></td> + <td>way too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 3</font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>-äd </strong></font></td> + <td>not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 4</font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>-öd</strong></font></td> + <td>not quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 5</font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong> -ad</strong></font></td> + <td>enough (of) / sufficient(ly)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 6</font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>-üd</strong></font></td> + <td>a little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 7</font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>-ïd</strong></font></td> + <td>too / too much / over-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 8</font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>-od</strong></font></td> + <td>way too much / totally over-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> 9</font></div></td> + <td><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>-ud</strong></font></td> + <td>nothing but / to the exclusion of all else</td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify"><font color="#FF0000"><br /> +</font></h3> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY<a name="Sec2o8" id="Sec2o8"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with <a href="Chapter_3.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology</a>, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ilaksh, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.</p> +<p align="left"><strong><a href="Ch-3%20Morphology%20of%20Formatives.htm" onclick="javascript:changenavhome();"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></a></strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p align="right"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="Chapter_3.html">Proceed to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >></a></strong></p> + <table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="24%" rowspan="7"><div align="left"><span class="style2"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></span></div></td> + <td width="26%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="28%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="22%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><span class="style21"><a href="http://www.ithkuil.net">Home</a></span></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style21">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style21">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><span class="style21"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></span></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style21">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style21">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style21">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style21">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style21">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style21">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style21">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style21">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style21">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style21">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style21">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p align="justify">©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. </p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote> + <p> </p> + <p></p> +</blockquote> +</body> +</html> |