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diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c3c6bb --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html @@ -0,0 +1,1597 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<!-- saved from url=(0047)ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm --> +<HTML><HEAD><META http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<TITLE>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5 (Continued): Verb Morphology</TITLE> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> + +<SCRIPT language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//--> +</SCRIPT> +</HEAD><BODY> +<DIV align="center"><FONT color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</STRONG></FONT><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Title-Script5.gif"><BR> + <BR> +</DIV> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<H2 align="center"> </H2> +<H2 align="center">Chapter 5 (continued): Verb Morphology </H2> +<DIV align="center"> + <TABLE width="18%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="134"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o5">5.5 Modality</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o6">5.6 Level</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7">5.7 Case-Frame</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + <BR> +</DIV> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5 MODALITY</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec5o5"></A></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>Modality</STRONG> corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., <EM>can, may, must, should</EM>, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as t<EM>o want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that</EM>, etc. However, + in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Sec. + 3.8</A>) and the Perspective (see <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3">Sec. + 3.3</A>) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the <FONT size="2">ACTIVATIVE</FONT> + case to mark the “subject” noun (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o9">Sec. + 4.3.9</A>). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows:</P> +<P align="justify">As we saw in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Sections + 3.8</A> and<FONT color="#FF0000"> </FONT><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o9">4.3.9</A>, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">1) <EM>You must <STRONG>come home at once</STRONG></EM>.<BR> + 2) <EM>That girl can <STRONG>sing better than anybody</STRONG></EM>.<BR> + 3) <EM>Our troops should <STRONG>attack at dawn</STRONG></EM>.<BR> + 4) <EM>Mother needs <STRONG>you to come with her</STRONG></EM>.<BR> + 5) <EM>The teacher requests that <STRONG>I dance for you</STRONG></EM>.<BR> + 6) <EM>The man believes <STRONG>clowns are dangerous</STRONG></EM>.<EM> </EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.</P> +<P align="justify">Because the clauses following the verbs <EM>must, can, should, + need, request, believe</EM>, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the <FONT size="2">ABSTRACT</FONT> perspective (see <FONT color="#FF0000"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o4">Sec. + 3.4</A></FONT>) and the <FONT size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</FONT> essence (see <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Sec. + 3.8</A>). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns + <EM>you, girl, troops, mother, teacher</EM>, and <EM>man</EM> in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the <FONT size="2">ACTIVATIVE</FONT> case (see <FONT color="#FF0000"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o9">Sec. + 4.3.9</A></FONT>). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence <EM>She + chose to move to Australia</EM>, the verb <EM>chose</EM> signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the <EM>move to Australia</EM> + clause would be marked in the <FONT size="2">ABSTRACT</FONT> perspective but + would <EM>not</EM> be marked in the <FONT size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</FONT> essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.</P> +<P align="justify">There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by a + word-final vocalic suffix to a conflational or valence adjunct (see <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o2">Secs. + 5.2</A><FONT color="#FF0000"> </FONT>and<FONT color="#FF0000"> <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">5.4</A></FONT>). + In the absence of a conflational or valence adjunct, this vocalic suffix can + stand alone as an autonomous word, functioning as a <STRONG>modality adjunct</STRONG>. + The thirty modalities and their respective suffixes are described below.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DES</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Desiderative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DESIDERATIVE</FONT> more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in <EM>The teacher wants the students to study hard</EM>. It is marked + by adding the suffix -<STRONG>a</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ASP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Aspirative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ASPIRATIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc. It is marked by adding the suffix -<STRONG>ü</STRONG> to a conflational + or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>EPC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Expectative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">EXPECTATIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in <EM>He expected her to be beautiful</EM>, + or <EM>I imagine he’s reached his destination</EM>. It is marked by adding + the suffix -<STRONG>ï </STRONG>to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CRD</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Credential</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CREDENTIAL</FONT> corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in <EM>I think she has two sons</EM>, or + <EM>We believe the earth to be round</EM>. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as <EM>I think she’s pretty</EM>. It is marked by adding + the suffix -<STRONG>u</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>REQ</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Requisitive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">REQUISITIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in <EM>I request his presence at the banquet</EM>, + or <EM>I’d like you to visit your father</EM>. It is marked by adding + the suffix -<STRONG>â</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.<BR> + <BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>EXH</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Exhortative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">EXHORTATIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in <EM>I demand you return my book</EM> + or <EM>Let the gates be opened!</EM> It is marked by adding the suffix -<STRONG>û</STRONG> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>OPR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Opportunitive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">OPPORTUNITIVE</FONT> corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in <EM>Can we pass by our old house when we visit town?</EM> or + <EM>Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all</EM>. It + is marked by adding the suffix -<STRONG>ai</STRONG> to a conflational or valence + adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CPC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Capacitative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CAPACITATIVE</FONT> corresponds to the English + modal verb <EM>can/could/be able</EM> where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in <EM>Can she sing opera?</EM> or <EM>He could run + like the wind</EM>. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in <EM>He speaks French like + a native</EM> [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. It is marked by adding the + suffix -<STRONG>ei</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PRM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Permissive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PERMISSIVE</FONT> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <EM>can/could/be able</EM> or <EM>may/might</EM> where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in <EM>Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert</EM>; or <EM>Could I talk to you?</EM> It is marked by adding the suffix + -<STRONG>oi</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.10</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PTN</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Potential</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">POTENTIAL</FONT> corresponds to the English + modal verb <EM>can/could/be</EM> able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in <EM>Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area</EM>, or <EM>That man could fly into rages for no reason</EM>. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in <EM>It rains unpredictably in the Northwest</EM>. It is marked by adding + the suffix -<STRONG>ëi</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.11</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CLS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Compulsory</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMPULSORY</FONT> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <EM>must</EM> or <EM>have to/had to</EM> in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in <EM>You must get up now</EM>, or<EM> I had to attend the ceremony</EM>. + It is marked by adding the suffix -<STRONG>ui</STRONG> to a conflational or + valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.12</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>OBG</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Obligative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">OBLIGATIVE</FONT> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <EM>should</EM>, <EM>ought to</EM>, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in <EM>You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel</EM>, or <EM>It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns</EM>. It is marked by adding the suffix -<STRONG>iu</STRONG> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.13</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>IMS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Impositive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">IMPOSITIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>be supposed to, be expected to</EM>, or <EM>be to</EM> + which impose an expectation upon a party, as in <EM>You’re supposed to + smile when introduced</EM>, or <EM>He is to give a speech at the banquet</EM>. + It is marked by adding the suffix -<STRONG>au</STRONG> to a conflational or + valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.14</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ADV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Advocative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ADVOCATIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>suggest tha</EM>t or <EM>propose that</EM> which advocate + a position, as in <EM>I suggest you study harder</EM> or <EM>They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere</EM>. It is marked by adding the + suffix -<STRONG>ia</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.15</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ITV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Intentive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INTENTIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>intend to</EM>, <EM>plan on</EM> or <EM>shall</EM> which + convey an intention, as in <EM>The girls plan on travelling to Europe</EM>, + or <EM>I shall see to it</EM>. It is marked by adding the suffix -<STRONG>ou</STRONG> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.16</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ANT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Anticipative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ANTICIPATIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>to look forward to</EM> or <EM>to eagerly await</EM> + which convey positive anticipation, as in <EM>We look forward to the clowns coming + to town</EM>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<STRONG>eu</STRONG> to a conflational + or valence adjunct. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.17</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DSP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Dispositive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DISPOSITIVE</FONT> corresponds to the English + expression <EM>to be willing to</EM>, conveying willingness as in <EM>He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns</EM>. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -<STRONG>äi</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct. +</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.18</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PRE</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Preparative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PREPARATIVE</FONT> corresponds to the English + expressions <EM>be ready to</EM> or <EM>be prepared to</EM>, indicating readiness, + as in <EM>She’s ready to host the party</EM>, or <EM>They are prepared + to endure harsh weather</EM>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<STRONG>öi</STRONG> + to a conflational or valence adjunct. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.19</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>NEC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Necessitative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">NECESSITATIVE</FONT> corresponds to the + English expressions <EM>need to</EM> or <EM>be necessary to</EM>, indicating + necessity, as in <EM>You need to do something about those clowns in the yard</EM>, + or <EM>It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities</EM>. It is marked + by addition of the suffix -<STRONG>ëu</STRONG> to a conflational or valence + adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="18%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.20</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DEC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="62%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Decisive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DECISIVE</FONT> corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in <EM>Peter decided to cook + breakfast</EM> or <EM>Colleen chose to visit the clowns</EM>. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -<STRONG>aï</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.21</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PTV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Proclivitive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROCLIVITIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>tend to, be apt to</EM>, or <EM>be prone to</EM>, indicating + tendency, as in <EM>The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs</EM>, or <EM>Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women</EM>. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -<STRONG>eï</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.22</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>VOL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Voluntative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">VOLUNTATIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering + as in <EM>The foreman offered to put poison in my beer</EM>, or <EM>Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event</EM>. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -<STRONG>iï</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.23</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ACC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Accordative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ACCORDATIVE</FONT> corresponds to the English + expression <EM>agree to</EM>, as in <EM>Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show</EM>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<STRONG>oï</STRONG> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.24</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>INC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Inclinative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INCLINATIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>to feel like</EM> or <EM>be up for</EM>, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in <EM>He’s up for going to the shindig</EM>, + or <EM>Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake</EM>. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -<STRONG>öu</STRONG> to a conflational or valence + adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.25</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CML</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Compulsive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMPULSIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>feel driven to</EM> or<EM> feel a need to</EM>, indicating + compulsion, as in <EM>Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines</EM>, or <EM>My hairdresser + feels a need to date bikers</EM>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<STRONG>uï</STRONG> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.26</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DVR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Divertive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DIVERTIVE</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>like to</EM>, or <EM>enjoy</EM>, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in <EM>Boys like to dream about cars</EM>, or <EM>My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump</EM>. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -<STRONG>äu</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.27</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DVT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Devotive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DEVOTIVE</FONT> corresponds to English expressions + such as <EM>be devoted to</EM> or <EM>be committed to</EM>, indicating devotion + as in <EM>Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town</EM>, + or <EM>They were devoted to rooting for the losing team</EM>. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -<STRONG>ëï</STRONG> to a conflational or valence + adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.28</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PFT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Preferential</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PREFERENTIAL</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>prefer</EM>, or <EM>would rather that</EM>, indicating + preference as in <EM>He’d rather work by himself</EM>, or <EM>Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food</EM>. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -<STRONG>ua</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.29</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>IPS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Impressional</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">IMPRESSIONAL</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>have an impression that, have a hunch that</EM>, or + <EM>feel that</EM>, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in <EM>I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic</EM>, or <EM>Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool</EM>. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -<STRONG>üa</STRONG> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.5.30</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PMS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Promissory</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROMISSORY</FONT> corresponds to English + expressions such as <EM>promise</EM>, or <EM>swear that</EM>, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in <EM>She promised that her son would visit my daughter</EM>, + or <EM>Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient</EM>. It + is marked by addition of the suffix -<STRONG>iù</STRONG> to a conflational + or valence adjunct.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 5.5.31 Examples of Modality in Use</H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <BLOCKQUOTE><IMG src="assets/5-5-31.gif" width="452" height="697"> <BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-6.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-6.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + </BLOCKQUOTE> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"> </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P> </P> + <TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + + <TD height="26"> +<P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.6 LEVEL</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec5o6"></A></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>Level</STRONG> corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -<EM>er</EM> and + -<EM>est</EM> seen in <EM>great-greater-greatest</EM>. Ithkuil incorporates + degrees of comparison morphologically into its valence scheme by means of tone + of the conflational adjunct (or valence or modality adjunct). Specifically, + the four tones are used to show four different comparisons, each of which is + termed a level of the verb. These levels are the <FONT size="2">INDETERMINATE</FONT>, + <FONT size="2">EQUATIVE</FONT>, <FONT size="2">SURPASSIVE</FONT> and <FONT size="2">DEFICIENT</FONT>, + and are explained below.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.6.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>IDT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Indeterminate</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by low or falling tone of the conflational, valence or + modality adjunct. The <FONT size="2">INDETERMINATE</FONT> is the default level + and indicates either 1) that no comparison is being made between the first party + and the second party, 2) that the degree of comparison between the first party + and the second party is unknown or irrelevant, or 3) that comparison is inapplicable + because the verb is monoactive (i.e., there is only one party participating).</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="14%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.6.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>EQU</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Equative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by high tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The <FONT size="2">EQUATIVE</FONT> level indicates that the first party + performs its “half” of the action equally well in comparison to + the second party. It corresponds to the English construction ‘as [well] + as’ as in <EM>She sings as well as I do</EM> or <EM>He reads as fast as + you do</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.6.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>SUR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Surpassive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by rising tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The <FONT size="2">SURPASSIVE</FONT> level indicates that the first + party manifests a state or performs an action to a greater degree or extent + than the second party. It functions equivalently to English -<EM>er</EM> as + in <EM>I ran farther than he</EM>. It also corresponds to the English verbal + prefix <EM>out</EM>- as in <EM>I out-sang him</EM> (i.e., I sang longer or better + than he), although the <FONT size="2">SURPASSIVE</FONT> is more flexible than + the English construction, as it can be used with any of the thirteen valences + of the verb. For example, when used with the <FONT size="2">NONRELATIONAL</FONT> + valence for a verb such as ‘laugh,’ it would translate something + like <EM>I laughed more/harder than anyone did anything else</EM>. It can even + be used with the <FONT size="2">MONOACTIVE</FONT> valence, indicating that the + party performed the action superlatively and no one else did. For example, the + sentence <EM>I laughed</EM> in the <FONT size="2">MONOACTIVE</FONT> valence + and <FONT size="2">SURPASSIVE</FONT> level would translate as something like + <EM>I was the only one laughing and my laughter was superlative</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">SURPASSIVE</FONT> can also be used to translate + the English -<EM>est</EM> superlative construction, as in <EM>She is the nicest + (of all)</EM> by simply naming a contextually universal second participant to + the verb, i.e., <EM>She “out-nices” everyone else</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.6.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DFT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Deficient</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by broken tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The <FONT size="2">DEFICIENT</FONT> level corresponds roughly to the + negative comparative <EM>less</EM> in English as in <EM>This test is less difficult</EM>, + as well as the verbal prefix <EM>under</EM>- as in <EM>He under-performed tonight</EM>. + Like the other levels, it can be used with any valence of the Ithkuil verb to + indicate that the performance or state of the first participant to a co-active + verb is worse or less than that of the second participant. It would thus render + sentences corresponding to <EM>She “under-danced” tonight</EM> (i.e., + she didn’t dance as well as she might have) or <EM>The boy “under-weighs” + the girl </EM>(i.e., he weighs less than her).</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 5.6.5 Examples of Level in Use</H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <BLOCKQUOTE><IMG src="assets/5-6-5.gif" width="432" height="403"><BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-7.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">__</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-7.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + </BLOCKQUOTE> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> </BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"></P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="26"> +<P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>5.7 CASE-FRAME</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec5o7"></A></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed <STRONG>subordination</STRONG>. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"> <EM>The dog <STRONG>that ate my hat</STRONG> belongs to + them.<BR> + I want <STRONG>him to stop shouting</STRONG>.<BR> + The committee voted <STRONG>to fire the superintendant</STRONG>.<BR> + We demand <STRONG>(that) you give us equal pay</STRONG>.<BR> + <STRONG>Although he’s a college graduate</STRONG>, he acts like a child.<BR> + This is the slot<STRONG> through which the letter is passed</STRONG>.<BR> + <STRONG>In case you’re unaware</STRONG>, I’ll be leaving next + month.<BR> + The boy <STRONG>walking toward us</STRONG> is my nephew.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a <STRONG>case-frame</STRONG>, or simply, <STRONG>frame</STRONG>. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:</P> + +<BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"><EM>She and I were working together. <BR> + The two nations were at war.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in <EM>She and I were working together while the two nations were at war</EM>. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in <EM>She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> + (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o9o1">Sec. 4.9.1</A>). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the + <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> case to create a sentence corresponding to:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"><EM>She and I were working together during the summer.<BR> + She and I were working together at the time of the famine.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> case, so an entire sentence + such as <EM>The two nations were at war</EM> can be placed in the <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> + case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 81 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 5.7.1 Placement of Frames<A name="Sec5o7o1"></A></H3> +<P align="justify">To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. Unlike the usual verb-final + word order of main sentences in Ithkuil, a case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame. This is to easily recognize the beginning + of the case frame. The actual case of the sentence is indicated in the verbal + formative in the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., by mutation of the + stem vowel and mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> radical consonant. Table + 17 below offers a review of these mutations for each of the 81 cases. If inserted + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should + be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o1">Sec. + 8.1</A>) and carries a special affix which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main + sentence. </P> +<P><BR> + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 17: Case-Frame Markers + (Mutation by Vowel Series and C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> Grade)</FONT></STRONG></P> +<TABLE width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="3"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="47%" valign="top"> + <TABLE width="86%" border="1" cellpadding="3"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="10%"><DIV align="center"></DIV></TD> + <TD width="16%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2">Label</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="47%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2">Case</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2">Series<BR> + & Grade</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">1</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OBL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Oblique</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">2</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Absolutive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">3</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DAT</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Dative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">4</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ERG</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Ergative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">5</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EFF</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Effectuative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">6</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IND</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Inducive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">7</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFF</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Affective</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">8</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Instrumental</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">9</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ACT</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Activative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J1</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">10</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DER</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Derivative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">11</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SIT</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Situative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">12</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Possessive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">13</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Proprietive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">14</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GEN</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Genitive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">15</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ATT</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Attributive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">16</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OGN</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Originative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">17</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PDC</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Productive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">18</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ITP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Interpretative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G2</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">19</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">APL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Applicative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">20</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PUR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Purposive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">21</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INH</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Inherent</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">22</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Conductive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">23</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MED</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Mediative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">24</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CRS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Contrastive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">25</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PAR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Partitive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">26</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CPS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Compositive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">27</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Correlative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">28</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IDP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Interdependent</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">29</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRD</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Predicative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">30</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ESS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Essive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">31</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASI</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Assimilative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">32</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FUN</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Functive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">33</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TFM</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Transformative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">34</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REF</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Referential</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">35</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSD</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Considerative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">36</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CLA</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Classificative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">37</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DFR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Deferential</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H4</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">38</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COM</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Comitative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">39</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNJ</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Conjunctive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">40</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">UTL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Utilitative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + </TD> + <TD width="53%" valign="top"> +<TABLE width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="3"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%"><DIV align="center"></DIV></TD> + <TD width="18%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2">Label</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="41%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2">Case</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="26%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2">Series<BR> + & Grade</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">41</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BEN</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Benefactive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">42</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TSP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Transpositive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">43</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CMM</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Commutative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">44</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABE</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Abessive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">45</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CVS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Conversive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">46</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CON</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Concessive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">47</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EXC</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Exceptive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">48</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AVS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Adversative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">49</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PVS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Provisional</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">50</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PTL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Postulative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">51</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SUP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Suppositive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H5</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">52</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Dependent</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">53</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CMP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Comparative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">54</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AVR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Aversive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J6</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">55</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LOC</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Locative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">56</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ORI</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Orientative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">57</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PSV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Procursive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">58</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Allative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">59</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Ablative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">60</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PLT</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Prolative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">61</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PEL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Perlative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">62</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Pervasive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">63</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRH</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Peripheral</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J7</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">64</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INT</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Integral</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">65</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PSN</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Positional</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">66</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Navigative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">67</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Concursive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">68</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ACS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Accessive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">69</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DFF</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Diffusive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">70</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PER</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Periodic</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">71</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRO</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Prolapsive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">72</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PCV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Precursive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">73</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PCR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Postcursive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">74</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ELP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Elapsive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">75</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Allapsive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J8</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">76</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Interpolative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">77</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EPS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Episodic</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">78</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Prolimitive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">79</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SML</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Simultaneitive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">80</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Assessive</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><DIV align="center">81</DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LIM</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD>Limitative</TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F9</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + <DIV align="right"></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"><STRONG></STRONG>In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the <FONT size="2">ABSTRACT</FONT>, which has the effect of + deferring all <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3">Perspective</A> + information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main + verb of the sentence.</P> +<P align="justify">Here is an example Ithkuil sentence containing a case frame:</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <BLOCKQUOTE><IMG src="assets/5-7-1.gif" width="534" height="131"><BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-8.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-8.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + </BLOCKQUOTE> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> </BLOCKQUOTE> +<H3 align="justify"> 5.7.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause</H3> +<P align="justify">There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English. </P> +<P align="justify">A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.</P> +<P align="justify">RESTRICTED CLAUSE<BR> + (1) <EM>Lions <STRONG>that like chasing their tails</STRONG> can be seen at + any circus.</EM><BR> + (2) <EM>That book <STRONG>(that) I just finished reading</STRONG> was written + by a priest.</EM></P> +<P align="justify">UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE<BR> + (3) <EM>Lions<STRONG>, which like chasing their tails,</STRONG> can be seen + at any circus.</EM><BR> + (4) <EM>That book<STRONG>, which I just finished reading,</STRONG> was written + by a priest.</EM></P> +<P align="justify">In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.</P> +<P align="justify"> Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.</P> +<P align="justify"><BR> + <STRONG>5.7.2.1 Restricted Clauses</STRONG>. Ithkuil treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)<BR> + I just finished reading that book.</EM></P> +<P align="justify"> In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 4</A>) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o2">Sec. + 4.1.2</A>), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the <FONT size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</FONT> + subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the <FONT size="2">OBLIQUE</FONT> + case (See <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o1">Section 4.3.1</A>). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-<FONT size="2">H</FONT>. + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">The ‘-<FONT size="2">H</FONT>’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o1">Sec. + 4.3.1</A>).</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">A priest wrote [<FONT size="2">OBL</FONT>]. I just finish + reading that book-<FONT size="2">H</FONT>. </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">As described in <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7o1">Sec. 5.7.1</A>, the verb + of the secondary sentence is moved to the beginning of the case-frame and takes + the relevant case marker (<FONT size="2">OBLIQUE</FONT>).</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">A priest wrote I just finished reading-<FONT size="2">OBL</FONT> + that book-<FONT size="2">H</FONT>.</P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: <EM>A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book</EM>. However, this is how Ithkuil translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’</P> +<P align="justify">Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.</P> +<P align="justify">Similarly, the other example sentence from above, <EM>Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus</EM> would become in + Ithkuil: <EM>At any circus one can see certain lions-</EM><FONT size="2">H</FONT><EM> + like to chase-</EM><FONT size="2">OBL</FONT><EM> their tails</EM>. A literal + translation into English would be: <EM>At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.</EM></P> +<P align="justify"><BR> + <STRONG>5.7.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses</STRONG>. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><EM>One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.<BR> + A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"><BR> + <STRONG>5.7.2.3 Use of the <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses</STRONG>. In <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5o3">Section + 4.5.3</A> we analyzed how <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT> or <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT> + nouns in the <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> case take on a special function + of existential identification corresponding to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ to render forms structured as “the my-wife woman,” + meaning ‘the woman who is my wife.” This construction allows a “short-cut” + way of rendering what in English would be simple relative clauses involving + descriptive identifications, eliminating the need in most cases to resort to + a case-frame. For example, the sentence <EM>The man who came to dinner is my + father</EM> is rendered as <EM>The “my-father” man came to dinne</EM>r, + where the noun father would be in the <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> plus <FONT size="2">POSITIVE + </FONT>focus<FONT size="2"> </FONT> (see <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Sec. + 3.5</A>) to indicate that it is the new information being conveyed by the speaker, + i.e., to distinguish it from the reversed focus of <EM>The man who is my father + came to dinner</EM>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 5.7.3 Examples of Case-Frames in Use<BR> + <BR> + <IMG src="assets/Clown7.GIF" width="74" height="91" border="0" align="top"></A><BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-9.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-9.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + <BR> +</H3> +<P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/5-7-3b.gif" width="591" height="442"></P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <DIV align="right"><STRONG><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed + to Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology >></FONT></A></STRONG></DIV> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P><FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website. </FONT></P> +<P align="justify"> </P> + + +</BODY></HTML>
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