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diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aabc14d --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html @@ -0,0 +1,2137 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<!-- saved from url=(0050)ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm --> +<HTML><HEAD><META http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<TITLE>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology</TITLE> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> + +<SCRIPT language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//-->onLoad="javascript:changenav2();" +</SCRIPT> +</HEAD><BODY> +<DIV align="center"><FONT color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</STRONG></FONT><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Title-Script5.gif"><BR> + <BR> +</DIV> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<H2 align="center"> </H2> +<H2 align="center">Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology </H2> +<DIV align="center"> + <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="223"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o1">2.1 Grammatical Typology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="178"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o5">2.5 Vocalic Mutation</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2">2.2 Root and Stem Formation</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="178"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o6">2.6 Parts of Speech</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o3">2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="178"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o7">2.7 Affixes</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o4">2.4 Consonantal Mutation</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="178"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o8">2.8 Note On Terminology</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + <P align="justify">Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., + singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.</P> +</DIV> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="19" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY<A name="Sec2o1"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The general method in which a language structures its morpho-phonology + determines what is known as its grammatical type. There are generally four distinct + grammatical types: <EM>analytic, agglutinative, synthetic, </EM>and<EM> polysynthetic</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>Analytic</EM> languages (also called isolating languages) + rely on separate individual function words such as prepositions, determiners + and auxiliaries to morphologically manipulate root nouns and verbs. Example + languages are Chinese and Vietnamese.</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>Agglutinative</EM> languages rely upon affixes (e.g., prefixes, + suffixes) added one-by-one onto roots to morphologically manipulate words. Example + languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>Synthetic</EM> languages (also called fusional, flexional, + or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation + and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” + affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>Polysynthetic</EM> (sometimes called incorporating) languages + generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative + elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting + a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit + (Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several + Paleo-Siberian languages.</P> +<P align="justify">Many languages rely upon a mixture of the above in their morpho-phonology. + For example, the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, etc.) are primarily + analytic, secondarily synthetic, and occasionally agglutinative. On the other + hand, English is primarily analytic, secondarily agglutinative, and occasionally + synthetic.</P> +<P align="justify">Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily synthetic and secondarily + agglutinative. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself and secondarily + via affixation. Specifically, Ithkuil morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different + kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.</P> +<P align="justify">For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ithkuil word <IMG src="assets/2-1a.gif" width="122" height="18" align="absbottom">(<FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-1.mp3">Listen:</A> + </FONT><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-1.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>). + The stem of this word, <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ciùk</STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"></FONT>, + meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed + into the nearly unrecognizable form <IMG src="assets/2-1c.gif" width="73" height="18" align="absbottom">, + all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem, + are then added the prefix <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>eu</STRONG></FONT>-, + an infix -<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>-, + and the affix -[V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>]<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT>’</STRONG>, + where [V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>] represents a vowel increment to be determined + by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into + a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct + word-components). These eleven morphemes and the mutation and affixation process + by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:</P> +<P><IMG src="assets/2-1a.gif" width="122" height="18" align="top"> + =</P> +<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Morphological + Category<BR> + <BR> + </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Specific + morpheme</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Shown + by:</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD width="15%" height="53"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM:</FONT></TD> + <TD width="33%"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ciùk</STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"> + <IMG src="assets/2-1f.gif" width="31" height="23" align="top"> < + root: </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c </STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + k</STRONG></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17"></FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + “sheep”<BR> + = “derived product of ewe” </FONT></TD> + <TD width="52%"><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="25"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Perspective:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABSTRACT</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(preantepenultimate + stress)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="25"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affiliation:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COALESCENT</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(prefix <STRONG>eu</STRONG>- + in conjunction with TERMINATIVE extension)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="25"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Extension: + </FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TERMINATIVE</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(prefix <STRONG>eu</STRONG>- + in conjunction with COALESCENT affiliation)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="25"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Configuration:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COHERENT</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Grade 7 mutation of + C<FONT size="1">1</FONT> radical)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="25"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Focus:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POSITIVE FOCUS</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(-<STRONG>w</STRONG>- + infix immediately following C<FONT size="1">1</FONT> radical)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="24"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Designation:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FORMAL</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Form II of root-vowel + mutation)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="26"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Essence:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REPRESENTATIVE</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Secondary Mode of + root-vowel mutation)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="26"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Case:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REFERENTIAL</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Series E root-vowel + mutation + Grade 4 mutation of C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> radical)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="27"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Context:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AMALGAMATE</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(high tone)</FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix:</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>t</FONT><FONT size="2">’</FONT><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">- + (8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool")</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<PRE><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT size="2"><STRONG>APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION:</STRONG></FONT> <EM>“concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”</EM> +</FONT></PRE> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec2o2"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic or disyllabic <STRONG>stem</STRONG>, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract <STRONG>root</STRONG>. This process + is explained in the sections below.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 2.2.1 The Root <A name="Sec2o2o1"></A></H3> +<P align="justify">The <STRONG>root</STRONG> in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of two consonantal forms, <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> and <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG>, + each of which we will call a <EM>radical</EM>. Together they create an <EM>interfix</EM>, + that is, an affix consisting of two parts, between which some other morpho-phonological + element is <EM>infixed</EM> (i.e., inserted). We will see that it is vowels + that will be infixed between the two radicals, . These radicals can consist + of a single consonant or a biconsonantal conjunct (i.e., made up of two consonants). + There are 60 possible forms for <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> and + 60 possible forms for <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG>, giving a total + of 3600 possible roots. Examples of these <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> + + <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG> radical interfixes are shown below.</P> +<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="26"> +<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p + + x </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tr + + c’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ks + + <IMG src="assets/q-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absbottom"></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xl + +<IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom"></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, + the radical interfix <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT> + is a root whose semantic referent is <FONT size="2">NAME/DESIGNATION</FONT>. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply <STRONG>stems</STRONG>) from the + roots, vowels are infixed into the <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG>+<STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + </STRONG> radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>a</STRONG></FONT> + would be infixed into the radical interfix <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT> + to give the stem <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tar</STRONG></FONT>, + an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are + infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite + complex. It is described in the next several sections.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 2.2.2 The Stem </H3> +<P align="justify">The Ithkuil semantic root described in the previous section, + in turn diversifies into stems which are the actual bases of words in Ithkuil. + Furthermore, the stems of each root in turn divide into different Forms, Modes + and Patterns, all of which change the actual vowels infixed into the root. These + different vowel patternings for each stem are used to help differentiate the + complex array of morphological categories available to any stem. The specifics + of how Form, Mode, and Pattern operate for each stem are discussed below.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + <A name="Sec2o2o3"></A>2.2.3 Pattern, Form, and Mode</H3> +<P align="justify">There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate <STRONG>Patterns</STRONG>, + which in turn come in two <STRONG>Forms</STRONG>. Furthermore, this array of + Pattern and Form is duplicated within a two-fold framework called <STRONG>Mode</STRONG>. + Thus, each stem has twelve different vowel patternings associated with it, as + shown in Table 5 below.</P> +<P><STRONG><BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 5: Vocalic Infixes for Stems + by Mode, Pattern and Form</FONT></STRONG></P> +<TABLE width="49%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </TD> + <TD colspan="3" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Primary + Mode</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="3" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT color="#FF0000" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Secondary + Mode</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 1</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 2</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 3</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="13%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 1</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="12%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 2</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="20%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 3</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="10%" rowspan="3"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form + I</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 1</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aî</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eì</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aì</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 2</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">u</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">o</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ö</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">uî</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">oi</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">uì</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 3</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">i</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ü</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eî</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">oì</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ëì</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD rowspan="3"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form + II</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 1</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">â</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ê</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ae</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">aû</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">aè</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">aù</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 2 </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">û</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ô</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ø</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">oû</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">où</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ëù</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 3 </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">î</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">ÿ</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">iu</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">eû</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">eù</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><FONT color="#009900">iù</FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"> The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a <STRONG>holistic</STRONG> stem and two <STRONG>complementary</STRONG> sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem <EM>spouse</EM>, with its two complementary + sub-stems <EM>husband</EM> and <EM>wife</EM>. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while + having such a small number of semantic word roots.</P> +<P align="justify">The two forms are labelled Form I and Form II. In <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o7">Section + 3.7</A> we will see how Form is used to indicate a morphological category called + <STRONG>Designation</STRONG>. Designation is an important concept, in that, + like Pattern above, it operates to make morphological distinctions within a + stem that, in languages like English, often entail lexical differences, e.g., + the difference between English <EM>tool</EM> versus <EM>utensil</EM>. </P> +<P align="justify">Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary. + Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence, + detailed in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Section + 3.8</A>. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within + hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise + be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ + in the sentence <EM>The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes</EM> (e.g., in the newspaper + account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <P><A name="Sec2o3"></A><FONT size="4"><STRONG>2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS</STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological + category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it + will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three + for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 2.3.1 Holistic Stems</H3> +<P align="justify">The three stems for Form I, Pattern 1, have the designated + vowels <STRONG>a</STRONG>, <STRONG>u</STRONG>, and <STRONG>i</STRONG>. Thus, + the previously mentioned root <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT> + generates the following stems:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P> 1. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tar</STRONG></FONT> + <EM>‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’</EM><BR> + 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tur</FONT></STRONG> <EM>‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’</EM><BR> + 3. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tir</STRONG></FONT> <EM>‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT> + above with that of the Form I root <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT>+<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>n</STRONG></FONT> + (<FONT size="2">‘VISION/SIGHT’</FONT>) below.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P> 1. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xan</STRONG></FONT> + <EM>‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’</EM><BR> + 2. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xun</STRONG></FONT> <EM>‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’</EM><BR> + 3. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xin</FONT></STRONG> <EM>‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology. It should also be noted that the meanings given for the verb forms + above are approximate and incomplete, as we will see later that the exact meaning + of a verb form in Ithkuil is determined by the important morphological categories + of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Section + 5.4</A>).</P> +<P align="justify">Looking at the Form II counterparts of the above two roots + below shows a difference in meaning from the Form I stems as determined by the + morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a + temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative + interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the + vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are <STRONG>â</STRONG>, + <STRONG>û</STRONG>, and <STRONG>î</STRONG>, as shown above in <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Table + 5</A>.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P> 1. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">târ</FONT></STRONG> + ‘title; to (be) title(d)’<BR> + 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tûr</FONT></STRONG> + ‘formal designation, label; to label’<BR> + 3. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tîr</FONT></STRONG> + ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’ </P> + <P>1. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xân</FONT></STRONG> + ‘visual observation; to visually observe’<BR> + 2. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xûn</FONT></STRONG> + ‘optical device; to use an optical device’<BR> + 3. <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xîn</STRONG></FONT> + ‘a rendered image; to render an image’</P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 2.3.2 Complementary Stems</H3> +<P align="justify">Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two <STRONG>complementary</STRONG> stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems. </P> +<P align="justify">By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as <EM>male</EM>, <EM>night</EM>, <EM>speech</EM>, <EM>sit</EM>, + and <EM>happen</EM> are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole. </P> +<P align="justify">Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word <EM>male</EM> + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, <EM>female</EM>, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as <EM>living being</EM>. Similarly, + the word <EM>night(time)</EM> derives along with its complement <EM>day(time)</EM> + from the underlying concept translatable as <EM>day</EM> (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of <EM>speak(ing)</EM> divides into complementary concepts + of <EM>talking</EM> (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus + <EM>saying/telling</EM> (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). +</P> +<P align="justify">Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between <EM>sit</EM> and <EM>seat</EM>; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word <EM>happen</EM> + or <EM>occur</EM>, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of <EM>consequence</EM> or <EM>result</EM>, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as + <EM>event</EM> or <EM>situation</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> <STRONG>2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems</STRONG>. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem vowel from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <STRONG>tal <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + tel</STRONG></FONT>, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tal + <STRONG><IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></STRONG> + täl</FONT></STRONG>. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:</P> +<P align="justify"> Form I examples:</P> +<TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="42%"><TABLE width="94%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="39%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD width="61%"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>qum</STRONG></FONT>: + human being, person</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>qom</STRONG></FONT>: + male person </TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </FONT></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qöm</FONT></STRONG>: + female person</TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE></TD> + <TD width="2%"> </TD> + <TD width="56%"><TABLE width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD width="72%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klad</FONT></STRONG>: + flow of water </TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kled</FONT></STRONG>: + the water component of a flow of water </TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kläd</STRONG></FONT>: + the channel or course of a flow of water</TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<BR> +<TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="50%"><TABLE width="95%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="31%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>til</STRONG></FONT>: + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tël</STRONG></FONT>: + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </FONT></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tül</STRONG></FONT></STRONG>: + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content</TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE></TD> + <TD width="3%"> </TD> + <TD width="47%"><TABLE width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD width="72%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xan</FONT></STRONG>: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xen</FONT></STRONG>: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>xän</STRONG></FONT>: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image</TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P><BR> + Form II examples:</P> +<TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="42%"><TABLE width="94%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="38%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD width="62%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qûm</FONT></STRONG>: + an official </TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qôm</FONT></STRONG>: + male official </TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </FONT></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qøm</FONT></STRONG>: + female official </TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE></TD> + <TD width="2%"> </TD> + <TD width="56%"><TABLE width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD width="72%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klâd</FONT></STRONG>: + a river </TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klêd</FONT></STRONG>: + the water in a river </TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>klaed</STRONG></FONT>: + a riverbed</TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<BR> +<TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="47%"><TABLE width="98%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="31%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD width="69%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tîl</FONT></STRONG>: + an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tÿl</FONT></STRONG>: + physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write + a work</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </FONT></TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tiul</STRONG></FONT></STRONG>: + the content(s) of a formal written work; to create the content of + a writing</TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE></TD> + <TD width="4%"> </TD> + <TD width="49%"><TABLE width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD width="72%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kâl</FONT></STRONG>: + an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production + + the communicative element)</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kêl</STRONG></FONT>: + an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e., + vocally emit words)</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</FONT></TD> + <TD> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>kael</STRONG></FONT>: + spoken message; to say/tell (i.e., communicate via spoken words)</TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"><BR> + <STRONG>2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation</STRONG>. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is + counterintuitive to Western semantic notions. </P> +<P align="justify">For example, let us analyze the root <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>n</STRONG></FONT> + ‘<FONT size="2">NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER</FONT>’. While most languages + would consider the concept <EM>parent</EM> as fundamentally opposite from the + concept <EM>child</EM> and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</FONT></STRONG>. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</FONT></STRONG> + is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<STRONG>n</STRONG></FONT> + in Form I.</P> +<TABLE width="75%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Complementary Stem</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Complementary Stem</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="7%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 1</TD> + <TD width="25%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</FONT></STRONG>: + nuclear family member </TD> + <TD width="34%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hen</FONT></STRONG>: + parent</TD> + <TD width="34%"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h<STRONG>ä</STRONG>n</FONT></STRONG>: + child</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 2</TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hun</FONT></STRONG>: + male nuclear family member </TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hon</FONT></STRONG>: + father </TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hön</FONT></STRONG>: + son</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 3</TD> + <TD><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>hin</STRONG></FONT>: + female nuclear family member </TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hën</FONT></STRONG>: + mother </TD> + <TD><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hün</FONT></STRONG>: + daughter</TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P> Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:</P> +<TABLE width="72%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="33%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Concept</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="2"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Complementary + Concepts </FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><STRONG>eating</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="32%">food</TD> + <TD width="35%">ingestion</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><STRONG>think, act of thinking</STRONG></TD> + <TD>a thought (thing considered)</TD> + <TD>process of consideration</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><STRONG>liquid</STRONG></TD> + <TD>fluid (= ontological nature)</TD> + <TD>wet[ness] (=defining attribute) </TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><STRONG>measuring </STRONG></TD> + <TD>a measurement</TD> + <TD>process of measuring</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><STRONG>transference of possession</STRONG></TD> + <TD>giving</TD> + <TD>taking</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><STRONG>traversal between points</STRONG></TD> + <TD>coming, arrival </TD> + <TD> going, departure</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><STRONG>commercial transaction </STRONG></TD> + <TD>buying</TD> + <TD>selling</TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<H3><BR> + <BR> + 2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems</H3> +<P align="justify">As each of the 3600 roots has six holistic stems (three in + each Form) and twelve complementary stems (six in each Form), there are a total + of 64,800 possible stems. We have begun to see how the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology + and morpho-semantics allow this limited number to permutate into a myriad of + imaginative and dynamic forms for application to any semantic context.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>2.4 CONSONANTAL MUTATION</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec2o4"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">Both of the consonantal radicals from <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3.1</A> above, <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> and <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG>, + are capable of undergoing mutation, that is, shifting to a different consonantal + form. The specific rules governing such mutation, however, are quite distinct + for <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> radicals as compared to <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG> + radicals.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 2.4.1 C1 Mutation </H3> +<P align="justify">As stated earlier, there are 60 forms for radical <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG>. + Each can mutate into eight other forms, giving a total of nine possible manifestations + of each <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> radical. These are labelled + Grade 1, Grade 2, etc., up to Grade 9. The nine grades of all 60 <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> + radicals are shown in Table No. 6 below. As examples, we can examine the nine + grades of the <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> radicals <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT> and <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">pl</FONT></STRONG>:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + g <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> k’ + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + kf <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> km + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + çk/<IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> çk’/<IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k’</FONT></STRONG></P> + <P><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> pl <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + bl <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> pr + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + p<IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle"> + <IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle"> + <IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"> + <IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"> + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> bw/by</FONT></STRONG></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P><BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table No. 6: C<FONT size="1">1</FONT> + Mutation Patterns by Grade </STRONG></FONT></P> +<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="49%"><IMG src="assets/2-4-2a.gif" width="340" height="552"></TD> + <TD width="51%"><IMG src="assets/2-4-2b.gif" width="369" height="551"></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><IMG src="assets/2-4-2c.gif" width="340" height="221"></TD> + <TD><IMG src="assets/2-4-2d.gif" width="367" height="223"></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P> </P> +<H3> 2.4.2 <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG> Mutation </H3> +<P align="justify">As with <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG>, there are + 60 forms of the second radical, <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG>. These + in turn can mutate into eight other forms, for a total of nine possible forms + for each <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG> radical. These are shown + in Table No. 7 below. As an example, note the mutations of the <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG> + radical <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t</STRONG></FONT>: +</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + tt <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> rt + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + lt <IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">t + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> št + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + sst</FONT></STRONG></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">By combining the above mutational patterns for <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> + and <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG>, along with the various vocalic + mutational patterns we will explore in the next section, we can see that any + given stem can easily mutate into myriad forms which, on the surface, bear scant + visual (or phonetic) resemblance to the original stem. <BR> +</P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table No. 7: C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + Mutation Patterns by Grade </STRONG></FONT></P> +<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="49%"><IMG src="assets/2-4-2e.gif" width="339" height="550"></TD> + <TD width="51%"><IMG src="assets/2-4-2f.gif" width="370" height="548"></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><IMG src="assets/2-4-2g.gif" width="339" height="221"></TD> + <TD><IMG src="assets/2-4-2h.gif" width="371" height="221"></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <P><FONT size="4"><A name="Sec2o5"></A><STRONG>2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION</STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> + +<P align="justify">In <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Section 2.2.3</A> above we saw how the + morpho-phonological distinctions of Mode, Form and Pattern are accomplished + by stem-specific vocalic infixes as illustrated in <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Table + 5</A>. Like the consonantal <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> and <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG> + radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight + variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series + C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I, + in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman + numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes + depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating + a different combination of Mode and Pattern.</P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Tables 8(a)-(f): Vocalic + Mutation by Stem, Mode, Pattern, Form and Series</STRONG></FONT><BR> + <BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(a): Primary Mode, Pattern + 1 </FONT></P> +<TABLE width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="36" colspan="2"> </TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<BR> + A</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + I</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a<BR> + u<BR> + i</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai<BR> + ui<BR> + ei</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’(ï)<BR> + u’(ï)<BR> + i’(ï)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wï<BR> + u’wï<BR> + i’wï</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wa<BR> + u’wa<BR> + i’wa </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’we<BR> + u’we<BR> + i’we</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wi<BR> + u’wi<BR> + i’wi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wë<BR> + u’wë<BR> + i’wë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’wo<BR> + u’wo<BR> + i’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + II</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â<BR> + û<BR> + î</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au<BR> + ou<BR> + eu </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’(ï)<BR> + û’(ï)<BR> + î ’(ï) </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’yï<BR> + u’yï<BR> + i’yï</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’ya<BR> + u’ya<BR> + i’ya</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’ye<BR> + u’ye<BR> + i’ye </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’yu<BR> + u’yu<BR> + i’yu </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’yë<BR> + u’yë<BR> + i’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’yo<BR> + u’yo<BR> + i’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P><BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(b): Primary Mode, Pattern + 2</FONT></P> +<TABLE width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="36" colspan="2"> </TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<BR> + A</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + I</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e<BR> + o<BR> + ë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ia<BR> + io<BR> + ie</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’(ï)<BR> + o’(ï)<BR> + ë’(ï)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wï<BR> + o’wï<BR> + ë’wï</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wa<BR> + o’wa<BR> + ë’wa</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’we<BR> + o’we<BR> + ë’we </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wi<BR> + o’wi<BR> + ë’wi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wë<BR> + o’wë<BR> + ë’wë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’wo<BR> + o’wo<BR> + ë’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + II</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ê<BR> + ô<BR> + ÿ </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ua<BR> + uo<BR> + ue</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ê’(ï)<BR> + ô’(ï)<BR> + ÿ’(ï)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’yï<BR> + o’yï<BR> + ë’yï</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’ya<BR> + o’ya<BR> + ë’ya</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’ye<BR> + o’ye<BR> + ë’ye</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’yu<BR> + o’yu<BR> + ë’yu</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’yë<BR> + o’yë<BR> + ë’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’yo<BR> + o’yo<BR> + ë’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P> <BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(c): Primary Mode, Pattern + 3</FONT></P> +<TABLE width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="36" colspan="2"> </TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<BR> + A</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + I</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä<BR> + ö<BR> + ü</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ea<BR> + ië<BR> + ëi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’(ï)<BR> + ö’(ï)<BR> + ü’(ï)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wï<BR> + ö’wï<BR> + ü’wï</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wa<BR> + ö’wa<BR> + ü’wa</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’we<BR> + ö’we<BR> + ü’we </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wi<BR> + ö’wi<BR> + ü’wi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wë<BR> + ö’wë<BR> + ü’wë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’wo<BR> + ö’wo<BR> + ü’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + II</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ae <BR> + ø<BR> + iu</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">oa<BR> + ëu<BR> + uë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ae’(ï)<BR> + ø’(ï)<BR> + iu’(ï)</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’yï<BR> + ö’yï<BR> + ü’yï </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’ya<BR> + ö’ya<BR> + ü’ya</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’ye<BR> + ö’ye<BR> + ü’ye </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’yu<BR> + ö’yu<BR> + ü’yu </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’yë<BR> + ö’yë<BR> + ü’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ä’yo<BR> + ö’yo<BR> + ü’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P> <BR> + <BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(d): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 1</FONT></P> +<TABLE width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="36" colspan="2"> </TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<BR> + A</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + I</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aî <BR> + uî<BR> + eî</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’i <BR> + u’i<BR> + e’i </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">âì<BR> + ûì<BR> + êì </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wï<BR> + ui’wï<BR> + ei’wï</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wa<BR> + ui’wa<BR> + ei’wa</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’we<BR> + ui’we<BR> + ei’we</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wi<BR> + ui’wi<BR> + ei’wi</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wë<BR> + ui’wë<BR> + ei’wë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ai’wo<BR> + ui’wo<BR> + ei’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + II</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aû<BR> + oû<BR> + eû</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">a’u<BR> + o’u<BR> + e’u</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">âù<BR> + oî<BR> + êù</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’yï<BR> + ou’yï<BR> + eu’yï</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’ya<BR> + ou’ya<BR> + eu’ya</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’ye<BR> + ou’ye<BR> + eu’ye</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’yu<BR> + ou’yu<BR> + eu’yu</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’yë<BR> + ou’yë<BR> + eu’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">au’yo<BR> + ou’yo<BR> + eu’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P> <BR> + <BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(e): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 2</FONT></P> +<TABLE width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="36" colspan="2"> </TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<BR> + A</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + I</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">eì<BR> + oi<BR> + oì</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">i’a<BR> + i’e<BR> + i’o</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">îa<BR> + îo<BR> + îe</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wï<BR> + ê’wï<BR> + ô’wï</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wa<BR> + ê’wa<BR> + ô’wa</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’we<BR> + ê’we<BR> + ô’we</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wi<BR> + ê’wi<BR> + ô’wi</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wë<BR> + ê’wë<BR> + ô’wë </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’wo<BR> + ê’wo<BR> + ô’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + II</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aè<BR> + où<BR> + eù </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">u’a<BR> + u’e<BR> + u’o</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">ûa<BR> + ûo<BR> + ûe</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’yï<BR> + ê’yï<BR> + ô’yï </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’ya<BR> + ê’ya<BR> + ô’ya </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’ye<BR> + ê’ye<BR> + ô’ye</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’yu<BR> + ê’yu<BR> + ô’yu </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’yë<BR> + ê’yë<BR> + ô’yë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">â’yo<BR> + ê’yo<BR> + ô’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P> <BR> + <BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(f): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 3</FONT></P> +<TABLE width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="36" colspan="2"> </TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<BR> + A</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + I</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aì<BR> + uì<BR> + ëì</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">e’a<BR> + i’ë<BR> + ë’i </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">iê<BR> + îù<BR> + üa </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’wï<BR> + ø’wï<BR> + î’wï </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’wa<BR> + ø’wa<BR> + î’wa </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’we<BR> + ø’we<BR> + î’we </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’wi<BR> + ø’wi<BR> + î’wi </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’wë<BR> + ø’wë<BR> + î’wë </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’wo<BR> + ø’wo<BR> + î’wo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<BR> + II</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>stem 1<BR> + stem 2<BR> + stem 3</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aù<BR> + ëù<BR> + iù</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">o’a<BR> + ë’u<BR> + u’ë</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">aê<BR> + üe<BR> + iû </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’yï<BR> + ø’yï<BR> + î’yï </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’ya<BR> + ø’ya<BR> + î’ya </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’ye<BR> + ø’ye<BR> + î’ye</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’yu<BR> + ø’yu<BR> + î’yu</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’yë<BR> + ø’yë<BR> + î’yë </FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4">û’yo<BR> + ø’yo<BR> + î’yo</FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH<A name="Sec2o6"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: <EM>formatives</EM> and + <EM>adjuncts</EM>. While Ithkuil does employ words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term <EM>formative</EM>. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.</P> +<P align="justify">Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + <A name="Sec2o6o1"></A> 2.6.1 Formatives </H3> +<P align="justify">The stem formed as per the discussion in <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3</A> above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the <EM>formative</EM>. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative + <STRONG>klâd</STRONG> illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form + is arbitrary. For example, the following Ithkuil phrases can be translated using + either verbal predicates or purely nominal phrases:<BR> +</P> +<P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/2-6-1a.gif" width="190" height="25"><FONT color="#FFFFFF"> + ______</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-2.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-2-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> + <EM>‘by the time of his death’</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> + <EM>‘by the time he dies’</EM></P> +<P align="justify"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/2-6-1b.gif" width="194" height="24"><BR> + <EM>‘the awful-smelling woman’</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> + <EM>‘the woman smells awful’</EM></P> +<P align="justify"><BR> + <IMG src="assets/2-6-1d.gif" width="208" height="23"><FONT color="#FFFFFF"> + ______</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> + <EM>‘what the eagle sees’</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> + <EM>‘the eagle’s seeing something’</EM></P> +<P align="justify"><BR> + The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either <EM>spatially “reify”</EM> this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to<EM> temporally “activize”</EM> it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"> <BR> + <IMG src="assets/2-6-1.gif" width="493" height="116"> </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P> </P> +<H3>2.6.2 Adjuncts <A name="Sec2o6o2"></A></H3> +<P align="justify">Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). +</P> +<P align="justify">Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 8: Adjuncts</A>. These include:</P> +<UL> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify"><STRONG>Personal Reference Adjuncts</STRONG>: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship. <BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify"><STRONG>Valence Adjuncts and Conflation Adjuncts</STRONG>: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology</A>.<BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify"><STRONG>Aspectual Adjuncts</STRONG>: These are used in + conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information on the morphological + categories of Aspect, Mood, Validation, Phase, Sanction, and Bias. Each + of these categories is discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 6: Additional Verb Morphology</A>.<BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify"><STRONG>Affixual Adjuncts</STRONG>: These function as + whole-word substitutes for the consonantal affixes usually added to formatives. + Their use is governed primarily by phonaesthetic principles (see<FONT color="#FF0000"> + </FONT><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o5">Section 1.4.5</A>). <BR> + </DIV> + </LI> + <LI> + <DIV align="justify"><STRONG>Combination Adjuncts</STRONG>: A blanket category + covering several types of complex adjuncts which combine several distinct + morphological categories into a single adjunct. Used primarily for euphonic + and phonaesthetic purposes. </DIV> + </LI> +</UL> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>2.7 AFFIXES</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec2o7"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<DIV align="justify"><BR> + Ithkuil, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. The rules governing the formation of these affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 7: Using Affixes</A>. </DIV> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 2.7.1 Consonant-based Affixes<A name="Sec2o7o1"></A></H3> +<P align="justify">Ithkuil makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants) and affixes which are based on a consonant + (which may or may not contain vowels). In this section we will explore consonant-based + affixes.</P> +<P align="justify">Every consonant-based affix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The suffix form of a consonant-based affix is of the + form <STRONG>V+C</STRONG> (i.e., vowel + consonant), with an optional alternate + form of <STRONG>C+V</STRONG> when in word-final position and in certain other + circumstances. This word-final alternate form is explained in more detail in + <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter 7</A>. As for + the optional prefix form of consonantal affixes, this will also be discussed + in Chapter 7; the discussion below applies only to the suffix form of affixes.</P> +<P align="justify">While the consonantal portion of the affix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as + <STRONG>degree</STRONG> and <STRONG>affix-type</STRONG>. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for affix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C (or C+V) affix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three affix-types are labelled <STRONG>V<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG>, + <STRONG>V<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG>, and <STRONG>V<FONT size="1">3</FONT></STRONG>, + in reference to the vowel portion of the affix.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting<A name="Sec2o7o2"></A></H3> +<P align="justify">In addition to the three affix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three affix-types. + Table 9 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each affix-type. </P> +<P align="justify">Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG>), + Ithkuil permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.</P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 9: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type </FONT></STRONG></P> +<TABLE width="80%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="12%" rowspan="2"> </TD> + <TD colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 1: -V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 2: -V<FONT size="1">2</FONT>C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 3: -V<FONT size="1">3</FONT>C</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD width="18%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard + form </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional + reversed form</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="21%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard + form </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional + reversed form</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="13%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard + form </FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional + reversed form</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 1</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cai</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-îC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cëi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ieC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Caï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 2</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-eC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cei</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-êC / -eiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ceu </STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iëC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ceï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 3</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-äC / -aeC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cia</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-âC /-aiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Câ</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iuC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ciï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 4</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-öC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cua</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-øC / -euC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ciu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ioC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Coï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 5</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-(a)C</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Ca</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cui</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-iäC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cuï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 6</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-üC / -ëuC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cü</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ÿC / -auC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cau</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uäC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cäi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 7</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ïC / -ëiC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ëC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cëu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uoC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cöi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 8</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-oC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Coi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ôC / -oiC / -ouC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cou</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uëC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cäu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 9</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-uC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ûC</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cû</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG>-ueC </STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG>-Cöu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 10 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>rit</STRONG></FONT>:</P> +<P align="justify"><BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <STRONG>TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATION + OF VOWEL POSITION IN SUFFIXES</STRONG></FONT></P> +<TABLE width="80%" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="3"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="11%"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix: + -V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>k</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 2: -V<FONT size="1">2</FONT>k</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 3: -V<FONT size="1">3</FONT>k</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 1</FONT></TD> + <TD width="27%"><DIV align="left"><STRONG> ritik / ritkai</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="34%"><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritîk / ritkëi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="28%"><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiek / ritkaï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 2</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritek / ritkei </STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritêk / riteik / ritkeu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiëk / ritkeï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 3</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritäk / ritaek / ritkia</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD> <DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiuk /ritkiï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 4</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritök / ritkua</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritøk / riteuk / ritkiu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiok / ritkoï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 5</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritk / ritak / ritka</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituik / ritkui</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritiäk / ritkuï</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 6</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritük / ritëuk / ritkü</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritÿk / ritauk / ritkau</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituäk / ritkäi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 7</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritïk / ritëik / ritkï </STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritëk / ritkëu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituok / ritköi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 8</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritok /ritkoi</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituëk / ritkäu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 9</FONT></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituk / ritku</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>ritûk / ritkû</STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD><DIV align="left"><STRONG>rituek / ritköu</STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"> Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix + reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such + reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (<A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o5">see + Sec. 1.4.5</A>).</P> +<P align="justify">As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal affixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + affix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 7: Using Affixes</A> how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated + with the nine degrees for the affix -<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<FONT size="1">1</FONT>d</FONT></STRONG>.</P> +<TABLE width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="5%"> </TD> + <TD width="12%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> <DIV align="left"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> <DIV align="left"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Meaning</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 1</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="21%"><STRONG>-id / -dai</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="62%">wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-ed / -dei</STRONG></TD> + <TD>way too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 3</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-äd / -aed / -dia</STRONG></TD> + <TD>not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 4</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-öd / -dua</STRONG></TD> + <TD>not quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 5</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-d / -ad / -da</STRONG></TD> + <TD>enough (of) / sufficient(ly)</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 6</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-üd / -ëud / -dü</STRONG></TD> + <TD>a little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 7</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-ïd / -ëid / -dï</STRONG></TD> + <TD>too / too much / over-[+verb]</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 8</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-od /-doi</STRONG></TD> + <TD>way too much / totally over-[+verb]</TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </TD> + <TD bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 9</FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD><STRONG>-ud / -du</STRONG></TD> + <TD>nothing but / to the exclusion of all else</TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes</H3> +<P align="justify">Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3</A> et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather + than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes + to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic + affixes -<STRONG>ï</STRONG>-, and -<STRONG>a</STRONG>. Each of these contexts + is discussed below:</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes</STRONG>. Vocalic prefixes + are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels + or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., <STRONG>a</STRONG>-, <STRONG>ui</STRONG>-, + <STRONG>ae</STRONG>-, <STRONG>ia</STRONG>-, <STRONG>ö</STRONG>-, <STRONG>eu</STRONG>-, + etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial <STRONG>w</STRONG>- + or <STRONG>y</STRONG>- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic + morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical + categories), they do not mutate. A word can take only one such prefix. The usage + and function of these vocalic prefixes will be discussed as they are encountered + in the chapters on morphology which follow.</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>2.7.3.2 Vocalic Suffixes</STRONG>. Purely vocalic suffixes + (other than the anaptyctic vowels discussed below) occur only in adjuncts, not + formatives. Like vocalic prefixes described immediately above, they can be highly + synthetic morphologically but do not mutate. Unlike vocalic prefixes, there + can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e., + added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG><A name="Sec2o7o3o3"></A>2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels + -ï- and -a</STRONG>. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require + a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix, + suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 7: Using Affixes</A>, an anaptyctic infix, -<STRONG>ï</STRONG>-, is used + in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> + stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to + prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the + <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> radical. For example, while the prefix + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s</FONT></STRONG>- is phonotactically + permissible before the stem <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kaf</FONT></STRONG>, + the resulting word must be <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>sïkaf</STRONG></FONT>, + not <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">skaf</FONT></STRONG>, + as the latter is a completely different stem employing a <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">1</FONT></STRONG> + radical <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>sk</STRONG></FONT>-.</P> +<P align="justify">An anaptyctic vowel is also sometimes required in Ithkuil when + grammatical rules call for antepenultimate stress on a word (i.e., the third-from-last + syllable is stressed), but the word in question has only one or two syllables. + In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes + this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have, + but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the + anaptyctic vowel <STRONG>ï</STRONG>- can be prefixed to a word beginning + with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -<STRONG>a</STRONG> + can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kfuil + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> ïkfùila</FONT></STRONG>. + This anaptyctic suffix -<STRONG>a</STRONG> is also required for phonotactical + euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">2</FONT></STRONG> + to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> tt</FONT></STRONG> + as in <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>reit <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></FONT> + reitta</STRONG></FONT>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY<A name="Sec2o8"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology</A>, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Ibero-Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.</P> +<P align="right"><STRONG><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html" onclick="javascript:changenavhome();"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed + to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >></FONT></A></STRONG></P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify"><FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. 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