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diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ccb88cc --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1445 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics</title> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<script language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//-->onLoad="javascript:changenav10();" +</script> +</head> + +<body> +<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br> + <img src="Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br> + <br> +</div> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h2 align="center"> </h2> +<h2 align="center">Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics</h2> +<div align="center"> + <table width="78%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td width="300"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec10o1">10.1 Systemic Morphological + Derivation</a></font></td> + <td width="291"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec10o5">10.5 Lexical Generalization</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec10o2">10.2 Phonological Classification of + Roots </a></font></td> + <td width="291"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec10o6">10.6 Lexical Differentiation</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec10o3">10.3 Dimensional and Descriptive Oppositions</a></font></td> + <td width="291"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec10o7">10.7 Comparison to Western + Categorization</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="21"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec10o4">10.4 Spatial Position + and Orientation</a></font></td> + <td width="291"> </td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The term <strong>lexico-semantics</strong> refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions <em>what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these + categories internally organized?</em></p> +<p align="justify">Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ithkuil for two + related reasons:</p> +<p align="justify">1) Ithkuil morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.</p> +<p align="justify">2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.</p> +<p align="justify">In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.” </p> +<p align="justify">We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages. </p> +<p align="justify">The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ithkuil lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.</p> +<p> </p> + +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><font size="4"><strong>10.1 SYSTEMIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION<a name="Sec10o1"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ithkuil word-roots.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots<a name="Sec10o1o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3</a> et seq. regarding the use of three different sets of vocalic infixes + to a root to generate a trinary array of interrelated stems, as well as varying + the mutation patterns of those trinary sets to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of vowel patterns and mutation, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>h-f</strong></font> + ‘<font size="2">TRANSLATIVE MOTION</font>’. </p> +<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-1a.gif" width="726" height="349"></p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<p align="justify">As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>h-f + </strong></font>demonstrates how concepts such <em>come</em> versus <em>go</em> + are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept <font size="2">TRANSLATIVE + MOTION</font>. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective + are similarly patterned, e.g., <em>lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take</em>, etc.</p> +<p align="justify">Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated + below:</p> +<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-1b.gif" width="725" height="349"></p> +<p align="justify">Using the nine degrees of the <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#SSDaffix">Stem + Specific Derivative <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-1c.gif" width="34" height="18" border="0" align="absmiddle"> + affix</a> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>-V<font size="1">1</font>t’</strong></font> + from Sec. 7.7.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#MATaffix">Degree + of Maturity</a> <a href="Ch-7%20Using%20Affixes%20Contd.htm#MATaffix"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-1d.gif" width="36" height="18" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#MATaffix">affix</a> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>-V<font size="1">0</font>k</strong></font> + from Sec. 7.7.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the + animal.</p> +<p align="justify">A different pattern applies to individual animal species, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem. The <a href="Ch-7%20Using%20Affixes%20Contd.htm#SSDaffix"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-1c.gif" width="34" height="18" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + affix is again used to specify parts or products of the animal, while the <a href="Ch-7%20Using%20Affixes%20Contd.htm#MATaffix"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-1d.gif" width="36" height="18" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + affix distinguishes the developmental stages, providing derived equivalents + to words such as <em>foal</em>, <em>fawn, lamb</em> or <em>cub</em>, from <em>horse, + deer, goat,</em> or <em>lion</em>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.1.2 The Use of Affixes<a name="Sec10o1o2"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., <em><strong>xäl</strong></em> + ‘hill’ + V<font size="1">1</font><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</font></strong>/7 + ‘very large’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + <strong><em>xälïx</em></strong> ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., <em><strong>xäl</strong></em> + ‘hill’ + V<font size="1">2</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x</strong></font>/7 + ‘very large’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + <strong><em>xälëx</em></strong> ‘mountain’). As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem <em><strong>köl</strong></em> ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:</p> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote> </blockquote> +</div> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2a.gif" width="538" height="254"></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><br> + Similarly the use of the Consent <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2b.gif" width="33" height="24" align="absmiddle">, + Reason <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2c.gif" width="32" height="24" align="absmiddle">, + Expectation <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2d.gif" width="32" height="24" align="absmiddle">, + Deliberateness <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2e.gif" width="33" height="24" align="absmiddle">, + Enablement <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2f.gif" width="34" height="24" align="absmiddle">, + Agency/Intent <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2g.gif" width="36" height="24" align="absmiddle"> + and Impact <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2h.gif" width="31" height="24" align="absmiddle">affixes + from <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o12">Section 7.7.12</a> + in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (<a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3">Sec. + 4.3</a>), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as <em>The singer stopped the boys from playing around</em> can be translated + into Ithkuil in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates + the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:<br> +</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2l.gif" width="287" height="33"><br> + <em><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2k.gif" width="488" height="46"><br> + Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house.<font color="#FFFFFF"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_________</font></font></em><font color="#FFFFFF"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <a href="Sound_Files/Intro-4.mp3">Listen:</a></font><em> <a href="Sound_Files/Intro-4.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><br> + The <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2i.gif" width="34" height="23" align="absmiddle"> + affix from <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o9">Sec. 7.7.9</a>, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ithkuil this affix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + categories (<a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o5">Sec. 5.5</a>) and Modality + affixes (<a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o11">Sec. 7.7.11</a>) + to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:</p> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote><em>promise to + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2j.gif" width="45" height="22" align="absmiddle">= + foreswear, vow never to<br> + can (know how to) + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2j.gif" width="45" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + = be ignorant of<br> + decide to + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2j.gif" width="45" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + = avoid<br> + offer to + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2j.gif" width="45" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + = refuse to<br> + agree upon/to + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2j.gif" width="45" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + = decline to/abstain from<br> + like to + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2j.gif" width="45" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + = loathe<br> + fear to + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2j.gif" width="45" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + = love to<br> + need to + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-2j.gif" width="45" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with</em></blockquote> +</div> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify">10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context +</h3> +<p align="justify">Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>10.1.3.1 Configuration</strong>: In <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o1">Sec. + 3.1</a> we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>bone <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + skeleton <br> + strut/girder <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> frame <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> + framework <br> + component <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> structure <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> + system <br> + ingredient <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> compound <br> + food <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> dish <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> + meal <br> + tool <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> toolset <br> + do/perform <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> coordinate <br> + vehicle <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> convoy <br> + person <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> group <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> + crowd <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> masses <br> + activity <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> process</em>.</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><strong>10.1.3.2 Affiliation</strong>: In <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o2">Sec. + 3.2</a> we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include: </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>group <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> team, + <br> + grove <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> orchard<br> + assortment <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> collection <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> + junk<br> + process <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> plan</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><strong>10.1.3.3 Context</strong>: In <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o6o4">Sec. + 3.6.4</a> we encountered the <font size="2">AMALGAMATE</font> context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>demeanor <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> + personality<br> + craftsmanship <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> artistry<br> + career <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> livelihood<br> + (one’s) past <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> (one’s) + life<br> + to look after/tend <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif"> nurture</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"></p> +<h3 align="justify">10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version</h3> +<p align="justify">In <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o7">Section + 3.7</a> on Designation as well as <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o3">Sec. + 5.3</a> on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="65%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="50%"><em>(the) past <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + history</em></td> + <td width="50%"><em>see <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + observe</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>writings <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + literature</em></td> + <td><em>one <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + single/singular</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>wordplay <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + rhetoric</em></td> + <td><em>hear <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + listen</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>behavior <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + demeanor</em></td> + <td><em>desire <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + request</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>wander <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + travel</em></td> + <td><em>query <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + research</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>eat <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + dine</em></td> + <td><em>ponder <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + analyze</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>containment <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + storage</em></td> + <td><em>path <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + route</em></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><em> </em> Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions + in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ithkuil lexicon.</p> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote> </blockquote> +</div> + +<h3 align="justify">10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension</h3> +<p align="justify">The use of the nine Phases, as explained in <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o2">Sec. + 6.2</a>, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (<a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o4">Sec. + 3.4</a>) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative affixes from <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o7">Sec. + 7.7.7</a>, the Iteration <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-5a.gif" width="27" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + and Repetition <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-5b.gif" width="30" height="22" align="absbottom"> + affixes from <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#ITNaffix">Sec. 7.7.5</a> + and the Intensity <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-5c.gif" width="26" height="22" align="absmiddle"> + affix from <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#ITYaffix">Sec. 7.7.10</a>, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to + a single stem <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-1-5d.gif" width="27" height="19" align="absmiddle"> + ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="71%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td width="25%"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">acoustic<br> + audible<br> + auditory<br> + bang<br> + blast<br> + boom<br> + buzz<br> + cacophony<br> + calm<br> + click<br> + clickety-clack<br> + clink<br> + crack<br> + crackle<br> + crash<br> + din<br> + discord<br> + dissonance<br> + drone<br> + echo<br> + explosion</font></td> + <td width="25%"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">faint + sound<br> + fizz<br> + gag<br> + grate<br> + hiss<br> + howl<br> + hullabaloo<br> + hum<br> + hush<br> + jangle<br> + kerplunk<br> + knock<br> + loud(ness)<br> + lull<br> + moan<br> + muffle<br> + murmur<br> + mute<br> + noise<br> + pandemonium<br> + peal<br> + </font></td> + <td width="28%"><p><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">pit-a-pat<br> + plink<br> + pop<br> + quaver<br> + quiet<br> + racket<br> + rap<br> + rat-a-tat<br> + rattle<br> + raucous<br> + resonant<br> + reverberate<br> + ring<br> + roar<br> + rumble<br> + rush of sound<br> + rustle<br> + screech<br> + shrill<br> + silence<br> + snap</font></p></td> + <td width="22%"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">sonorous<br> + sound<br> + staccato<br> + stifle<br> + strident<br> + stutter<br> + swirl<br> + swish<br> + tap<br> + thump<br> + tick<br> + toot<br> + twang<br> + uproar<br> + vibration<br> + whir<br> + whistle<br> + whiz<br> + whoosh</font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="4">10.2 PHONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS<a name="Sec10o2"></a></font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Many languages have class systems for both nouns and verbs, + in which a specific pattern of morpho-phonological markers are assigned to a + specified set of roots. Often, class membership is quite arbitrary as in the + three conjugational classes of Spanish, Italian, or French verbs. In other cases, + class membership roughly corresponds to an underlying semantic category, as + seen in the masculine versus feminine versus neuter class system of many languages. + Non-Western languages often delineate a greater number of classes determined + by categories of shape, purpose, socio-cultural factors, and other objective + or subjective semantic factors.</p> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil displays a pattern of 17 morpho-semantic classes for + its 3600 roots. In Ithkuil, class is delineated by the <strong>C</strong><font size="1"><strong>2</strong></font> + consonantal radical (see <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o1">Sec. + 2.2.1</a>), i.e., the <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> radical indicates + to which of the 17 classes a root belongs. In this manner, the consonant pattern + of an Ithkuil root always provides a clue as to general meaning of the root. + The seventeen Ithkuil classes with their corresponding C2 radicals are shown + in the table below. </p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br> + Table 34: Ithkuil Morpho-Semantic Classes</strong></font></p> +<table width="75%" border="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="8%"><div align="center"><font size="2"><strong>CLASS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="24%"><div align="center"><font size="2"><strong>C2 MARKERS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><div align="center"><font size="2"><strong>SIGNIFICATION</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>s, s </strong></font>or + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>š</strong></font></td> + <td>numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>p, t, k</strong></font> + or <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>q</strong></font> </td> + <td>intellectual concepts, thought, ideas, propositions</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">3</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">c, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"></font></strong> + or <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle"></td> + <td>concepts relating to change and causation</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">4</div></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>m, n </strong></font>or + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"> + </td> + <td>concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic matter</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">5</div></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>l, r </strong></font>or + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"> + </td> + <td>concepts relating to communication, learning and language</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">6</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">b, d, g</font></strong> + or <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absbottom"></td> + <td>concepts relating to the physical attributes of inorganic matter</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">7</div></td> + <td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>f, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">, + ç </strong></font>or <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-cedilla.gif" width="5" height="17" align="absbottom"></td> + <td>spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">8</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17">, + t<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif">, k<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif"></font></strong> + or <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>q<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif"></strong></font> + </td> + <td> taxonomies of organic life</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">9</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p’, t’, + k’ </font></strong>or <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q’</font></strong></td> + <td>taxonomies of physical substances</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">10</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">c’, </font></strong><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"></font></strong><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">’</font></strong> + or <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">’</font></strong></td> + <td> relational concepts, identity, associations</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">11</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">c<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"></font></strong><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17"></font></strong> + or <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17"></font></strong></td> + <td>concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">12</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18" align="absbottom">, + ç’, x’ </font></strong>or <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">’ + </font></strong></td> + <td>socially or externally-induced affectations</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">13</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">v, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/d-cedilla.gif" width="12" height="17" align="absbottom">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Gv.gif" width="12" height="21" align="absmiddle"> + </font></strong>or <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absmiddle"></td> + <td>personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">14</div></td> + <td> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">z, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-cedilla.gif" width="14" height="15" align="absbottom"></font></strong>or + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ž </strong> </font></td> + <td>concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">15</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-bar.gif" width="9" height="11" align="absmiddle">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-dot.gif" width="9" height="15"> </font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </font>or<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong>j</strong></font> + </td> + <td>concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">16</div></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom">, + h</font></strong> or <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/h-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="19" align="absbottom"></td> + <td>concepts relating to individual volition and choice</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">17</div></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absmiddle">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20" align="absmiddle">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absmiddle">’ + </strong></font>or <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla%20aspirated.gif" width="18" height="20" align="absmiddle"></td> + <td>temporal concepts</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><font size="4"><strong>10.3 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS<a name="Sec10o3"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as <em>near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold</em>, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ithkuil lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ithkuil delineates these qualities as <em>varying + points along a continuous range</em>. In other words, in Ithkuil you do not + say <em>X is cold</em> and <em>Y is hot</em>, but rather <em>X has less temperature</em> + and <em>Y has greater temperature</em>. Similarly, one does not say <em>A is + near to me</em> and <em>B is far from me</em>, but rather <em>the distance from + me to A </em>(or proximity of A to me)<em> is less than the distance from me + to B</em> (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.</p> + +<p> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><font size="4"><strong>10.4 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION<a name="Sec10o4"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ithkuil as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.</p> +<p align="justify">1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.</p> +<p align="justify">2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ithkuil sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question <em>Where’s Billy?</em> + an English speaker might give answers such as (a) <em>He’s standing right + next to Sam</em>, or (b) <em>He’s in bed</em>, or (c) <em>He’s in + the bathtub</em>. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question <em>Where’s + Billy?</em> is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of <em>What’s + Billy doing?</em> or <em>What’s happening with Billy?</em> to which a + Ithkuil speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.</p> +<p align="justify">3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as <em>He’s standing to the left + of the desk</em>. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ithkuil + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective. </p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions</h3> +<p align="justify">Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ithkuil + has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.” + The dynamics of such formatives become very apparent when combined with the + numerous verbal Conflation/Derivation + Format combinations which Ithkuil offers + the speaker (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Sec. 5.4</a>).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify"> 10.4.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance</h3> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ithkuil grammar is more interested in answering the question <em>How + do X and Y function relative to each other</em>, rather than <em>How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?</em> </p> +<p align="justify">For example: in uttering the English sentence <em>The vase + is on the table</em>, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as <em>The table is supporting + the vase</em>. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ithkuil are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.</p> +<table width="85%" border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="3"> + <tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <td> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ENGLISH + SENTENCE </font></strong></div></td> + <td> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)' </font></strong></div></td> + <td> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO ITHKUIL EQUIVALENT</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">The man works in(side) that building.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidental</font></td> + <td><font size="2"><em>The man works at that building.</em></font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">The book is in that box.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">physical containment + only with no specific purpose</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2"> That box contains the book.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravity</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">The small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">I poured soup in(to) the bowl.</font></em></td> + <td>same as above</td> + <td><em><font size="2">I enabled the bowl to hold soup</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">We stayed in(side) due to the rain.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">shelter, containment + for purpose of protection</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">We shelter ourselves from the rain.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protection</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">He sheathed the sword.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">He stayed in(side) his room.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">containment for purpose + of privacy</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">He shuttered himself.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">containment to prevent + escape</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">The tiger remained captured.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ingredient, composite + substance </font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">That pottery contains much lead.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">inherent or integral + component</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">These days, any machine incorporates microchips.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">I put fuel in the gas tank.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">integral component + having function to hold or contain other component</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">I (re-)fueled the gas tank.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">intangible containment</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">We’ll never know her thoughts.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2"> He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding medium</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">His pancreas “harbors” a tumor.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="23"><em><font size="2">He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">fastening/connecting</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">He fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">fitting together one + object to another</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">The child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.</font></em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br> + </font> This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ithkuil is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates<a name="Sec10o4o3"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., <em>My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N</em>), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).</p> +<p align="justify">In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?</p> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ithkuil utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:</p> +<p align="justify">1) <strong>Solar-based system</strong>. This is the standard + Ithkuil system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the <em>direction</em> of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below). </p> +<p align="justify">Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).</p> +<p align="justify">2) <strong>Length vs. width of enclosed space or room</strong>. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.</p> +<p align="justify">3) <strong>Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons</strong>. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ithkuil + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the <font size="2">NAVIGATIVE</font> + case (see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o8o12">Sec. 4.8.12</a>). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.</p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <strong>10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects</strong>. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight. (I know, I know, technically, I should use the term "octant", but considering the latter term refers to a seafaring navigational instrument, I will stick to the term "quadrant.")</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"> +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant + 1 = Root: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>pl - f</strong></font><br> + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom">- + f</strong></font><br> + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root:<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> + r - f</strong></font><br> + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">- + f</strong></font><br> + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-cedilla.gif" width="5" height="17" align="absmiddle"> + - f</strong></font><br> + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ps + - f</strong></font><br> + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ks + - f</strong></font><br> + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>p<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom"> + - f</strong></font></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + indicated in the illustrations below.</p> +<p align="justify">Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different quadrants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).<br> + <br> + <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-5-3-1a.gif" width="593" height="354"> </p> +<blockquote> + <p> <img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-5-3-1b.gif" width="361" height="402"></p> + <p> </p> + <p><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-5-3-1c.gif" width="354" height="394"></p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<blockquote> + <p><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-5-3-1d.gif" width="352" height="369"></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><br> + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.) </p> +<p align="justify">Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between 2 objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ithkuil speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.</p> +<p align="justify">To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.</p> +<p align="justify">Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ithkuil sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.<br> +</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-5-3-1e.gif" width="464" height="31"><img src="Images/Ch%2010/10-5-3-1f.gif" width="612" height="104"><font color="#FFFFFF"></font><br> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">There is no way to translate this Ithkuil sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: <em>The woman stood still + as something made the boy run from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below</em>. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows: </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>As the woman held still, something made the boy run from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.</em><br> + </p> +</blockquote> + +<strong>10.4.3.2 Object-Internal Shape and Orientation</strong>. Note that, in +addition the above concepts of a positional grid for locating objects in space +and in positional relation to each other, Ithkuil also employs a whole set of +vocabulary to describe the physical topology, shape and internal self-orientation +of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, +front, sides, top, bottom, appendage, tail, arm, etc., although it should be noted +that the equivalent Ithkuil terms are wholly autonomous and bear no metaphorical +relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” +of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” +in Ithkuil, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a +word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” +or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase +cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”). +<p> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><font size="4"><strong>10.5 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION <a name="Sec10o5"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ithkuil lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ithkuil. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ithkuil, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ithkuil truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.5.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions</h3> +<div align="justify">As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: <em>meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray</em>, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning <em>vocal sound/vocalize</em> + – from the same root which gives the stem for <em>(human) voice</em>), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in <em>The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon</em>, or <em>The baby squealed in + delight.</em> Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the <font size="2"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o6o1">ESSIVE</a></font> + and <font size="2"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o6o2">ASSIMILATIVE</a></font> + cases, as in <em>He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog</em>, or <em>The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight,</em> or + via the manipulation of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Sec. + 5.4</a>). </div> +<p align="justify">Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ithkuil would be (1) <em>herd, flock, pride, gaggle</em>, etc.; (2) <em>hair, + fur, fleece, coat</em>, etc.; (3) <em>skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument</em>, etc.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify"> 10.5.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories</h3> +<p align="justify">By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as <em>to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run</em>, or <em>pass</em> a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can <em>fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither</em>, or <em>jump</em> its way there.</p> +<p align="justify">As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="65%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="55%"><blockquote> + <p><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">I tossed it into + the basket.</font></font></em></p> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="45%"><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">It sailed + into the basket.</font></font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><blockquote> + <p><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">I flung it into the + basket.</font></font></em></p> + </blockquote></td> + <td><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">It flew into the basket.</font></font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><blockquote> + <p><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">I hurled it into + the basket.</font></font></em></p> + </blockquote></td> + <td><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">It arced its way into + the basket.</font></font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><blockquote> + <p><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">I pitched it into + the basket.</font></font></em></p> + </blockquote></td> + <td><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">It fell into the basket.</font></font></em></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><font color="#000000">The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ithkuil the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as <em>I made it + end up inside the basket</em>, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the <font size="2"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o4">ERGATIVE</a></font> + personal referent <em>I</em>, thus: <em>It ended up inside the basket</em>.</font></p> +<p align="justify">So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ithkuil speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ithkuil grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ithkuil views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.</p> +<p align="justify">Before the reader begins to think that Ithkuil is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can + augment the sentence <em>I made it end up inside the basket</em> to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as <em>Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ithkuil language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify"> 10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes</h3> +<p align="justify">In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, + an example would be <em>limp</em>, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition <em>per se</em> that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English <em>limp</em> + to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ithkuil speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of <em>He has a limp because of his war wound,</em> a Ithkuil speaker would + say <em>He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound</em>. </p> +<p align="justify">To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence <em>She spreggles to rock music</em>. Yet, from the Ithkuil standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’</p> +<p align="justify">Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says <em>He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move</em>, or alternately <em>His faculty of sight </em>(or other sense or innate + faculty)<em> doesn’t function/no longer functions</em>. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]</p> + +<p> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><font size="4"><strong>10.6 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION<a name="Sec10o6"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ithkuil grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ithkuil provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena. </p> +<p align="justify">Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ithkuil + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages. </p> + +<p> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><p><font size="4"><strong>10.7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION<a name="Sec10o7"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”</h3> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).</p> +<p align="justify">So, an Ithkuil speaker does not say <em>I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill,</em> or <em>Murder is wrong,</em> but + rather <em>One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease],</em> and <em>Murder + controverts morality</em>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’</h3> +<p align="justify">In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.7.3 Translating Questions</h3> +<p align="justify">As was discussed earlier in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o1o6">Sec. + 5.1.6</a> on the <font size="2">INTERROGATIVE</font> illocution, the Ithkuil + language does not have a way of forming questions. Instead, Ithkuil grammar + treats an interrogative as reflecting an underlying cognitive demand for information + and/or a validation of the truth or factuality of a statement. Therefore, a + specific kind of imperative command is employed, telling the addressee to provide + the required validation or information. In some instances, questions in Western + languages are rhetorical and in fact represent a request or command. As might + be expected, Ithkuil translates such rhetorical questions as the commands they + truly are. The following examples illustrate how questions are handled in Ithkuil.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>Do you know the way to San Jose?<br> + [= Validate whether you know the way to San Jose.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>Will you please leave me alone?<br> + [= I request that you leave me alone.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>Will you sing us a song?<br> + [= We request that you sing us a song.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>What is the square root of 400?<br> + [= State the square root of 400.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>Do you speak Ithkuil?<br> + [= Demonstrate that you can speak in Ithkuil.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>Which bird is the one that was injured?<br> + [= Indicate which bird was injured.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>How old are you?<br> + [= State the amount/number of years you have lived.]</em></p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections</h3> +<p align="justify">As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, + there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands + for validation that substitute for questions in Ithkuil. The closest approximations + are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”</p> +<p align="justify">Observe how this operates in the following examples.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>“Do you want to dance?” “No.”<br> + [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”</em></p> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of bias affixes (see + <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o6">Sec. 6.6</a>) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in <a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o6o2">Section 8.6.2</a>. + Additionally, <a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o4">Section + 8.4</a> described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 10.7.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases </h3> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in <em><strong>The ham-and-cheese</strong> wants fries with + his order</em> or <em><strong>The White House</strong> has its nose in our business</em>). + Ithkuil allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o6o3"><font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font></a> + context, <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Conflation and Derivation</a>, + the <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#METaffix">metonymic</a> affix + -V<font size="1">0</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>qt</strong></font>, + and the two <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#PTFaffix">part-whole + affixes</a> -V<font size="1">0</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></font> + and -V<font size="1">0</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>š</strong></font>.</p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<p align="right"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">Proceed + to Chapter 11: The Script > ></a></strong></font></p> +<p></p> +<p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><font size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website. </font></p> +</body> +</html> |