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| author | uakci <uakci@uakci.pl> | 2022-03-15 19:13:44 +0100 |
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diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fc86cd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2154 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 1: Phonology</title> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<script language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +function changenav1() { +top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.htm"; +} +//-->onLoad="javascript:changenav1();" +</script> +</head> + +<body> +<div align="center"> + <p><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br> + <img src="Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br> + </p> +</div> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="center"> </p> +<h2 align="center">Chapter 1: Phonology</h2> +<div align="center"> + <table width="34%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="321" valign="top"> <p><font size="2"><a href="#Sec1o1">1.1 Note + On Orthography and Transliteration</a></font></p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> <p><font size="2"><a href="#Sec1o2">1.2 Phonemic Inventory</a></font></p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> <p><font size="2"><a href="#Sec1o3">1.3 Phonological Processes + and Rules</a></font></p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> <p><font size="2"><a href="#Sec1o4">1.4 Phonotaxis</a></font></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound + system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized + phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically + convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system + of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><strong><font size="4">1.1 NOTE ON + ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION<a name="Sec1o1"></a></font></strong></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and + complex (employing over 3600 characters). It is explained in <a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm" onClick="javascript:changenav11();">Chapter + 11</a>. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed + throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic + structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in + transliterating the large number of phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil, + the following diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system: the + acute, grave and circumflex accents, the umlaut or dieresis, the cedilla, a + superposed dot, and the apostrophe. The uses of these diacritics are explained + in the sections below. Additionally, digraphs with a superscript letter <em><strong>h</strong></em> + are employed to represent various aspirated consonants. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><strong><font size="4">1.2 PHONEMIC + INVENTORY</font><a name="Sec1o2"></a></strong></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the + language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have + a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated + by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized + orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has + many sounds alien to speakers of English or other Western languages. Consequently, + readers other than trained phoneticians (or perhaps speakers of such obscure + languages as Chechen or Abkhaz) will likely have difficulty pronouncing the + language accurately. <br> +</p> +<p align="justify"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Tables 1(a) + and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory</strong></font></p> +<p align="justify"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 1(a): Consonantal + Inventory</font></p> +<table width="68%" border="1" cellpadding="2"> + <tr> + <td width="10%"> </td> + <td colspan="4"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PLOSIVES</font></strong></div></td> + <td colspan="4"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFFRICATES</font></strong></div></td> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="2"> <div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fricatives</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="6%" rowspan="2"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Nasals</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="5%" rowspan="2"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Taps/<br> + Trills</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="6%" rowspan="2"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Liquids</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="14%" rowspan="2"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Approximants</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="2"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">plain</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">aspirated</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ejective</font></strong></div></td> + <td colspan="2"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">plain</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">aspirated</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ejective</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="30"> </td> + <td width="5%"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<br> + </font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</font></div></td> + <td width="5%"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"> + <p><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<br> + </font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</font></p> + </div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<br> + </font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</font></div></td> + <td width="5%"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<br> + </font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</font></div></td> + <td width="5%"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<br> + </font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<br> + </font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<br> + </font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BILABIAL</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>p</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>b</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/p-aspirated.gif" width="20" height="19"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>p</strong></font><strong>’</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">m</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LABIO-VELAR</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LABIO-DENTAL</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">f</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">v</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DENTAL</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-aspirated.gif" width="15" height="19"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>t</strong></font><strong>’</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/d-cedilla.gif" width="12" height="17"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALVEOLAR</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>c</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-bar.gif" width="9" height="11"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/c-aspirated.gif" width="18" height="17"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>c’</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">z</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot.gif" width="9" height="14"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-dot.gif" width="9" height="15"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot%20aspirated.gif" width="17" height="17"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"><strong>’</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-cedilla.gif" width="14" height="15"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">r</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POST-ALVEOLAR</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>j</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv%20aspirated.gif" width="16" height="16"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle"><strong>’</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Sv.gif" width="8" height="16"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Zv.gif" width="9" height="16"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PALATAL</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla%20aspirated.gif" width="18" height="20" align="absbottom"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"><strong>’</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ç’</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ç</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>y</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VELAR</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">g</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>k</strong></font><strong>’</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x’</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Gv.gif" width="12" height="21"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">UVULAR</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>q</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/q-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>q</strong></font><strong>’</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><strong>’</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PHARYNGAL</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/h-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="19"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GLOTTAL</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="4">’</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>h</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LATERAL</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-cedilla.gif" width="5" height="17"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>l</strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VELARIZED LATERAL</font></strong></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14"></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory</font></p> +<table width="423" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="81" height="26"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font></td> + <td colspan="2" valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FRONT</font></div></td> + <td colspan="2" valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CENTRAL</font></div></td> + <td colspan="2" valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BACK</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="middle"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</font></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="middle"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</font></div></td> + <td width="49" valign="middle"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">High</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>î</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ÿ</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ü</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ï</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>û</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid-High</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>i</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>u</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ê</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ø</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ë</strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ô</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid-Low</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>e</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ö</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + _ </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>o</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="27"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Low</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ä</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>a</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>â</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_ + </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br> + <strong>1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants </strong></p> +<p align="justify">The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal + sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol + of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well + as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these + phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ithkuil words have been + provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for + English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar + but distinct phonemes, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</font></strong> + versus <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></font>,<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </font>or<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong>c</strong> </font>vs.<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"> + </font>vs.<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle">, + etc.</p> +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="7%" height="21" valign="top"> <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">b</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="93%" valign="top"> <div align="justify">As in English. A voiced + bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>b</strong></font>].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="38" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>c</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"> <div align="justify"> + <p>As in English <em>bi<strong>ts</strong></em>. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ts</strong></font>]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> + t_s</strong></font> ]. Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-1a.gif" width="260" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF">____<a href="Sound_Files/cons-1b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-1b.gif" width="185" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + </font></p> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="134" valign="top"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot.gif" width="9" height="14"></div></td> + <td valign="top"> <div align="justify">No English equivalent. Similar to the + sound immediately above except that the <em>s</em>-component of the affricate + is made up of the Ithkuil alveolar retroflex <em>s</em>-sound <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"> + (see below). This sound occurs in most Chinese languages, as well as the + Basque language, where it is spelled <em>ts</em>. A voiceless unaspirated + apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA [<font color="#FF0000"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20ts.gif" width="14" height="16" align="absbottom"></font>]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> t_s`</strong></font> + ]. Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-2a.mp3"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-2a.gif" width="107" height="18" border="0" align="absbottom"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-2b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-2b.gif" width="217" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + <font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-2b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + <br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-2c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-2c.gif" width="365" height="14" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-2c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="114" valign="top"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15"></div></td> + <td valign="top"> <div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>ch</strong>in</em> + but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff + of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA + [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20ts-v.gif" width="13" height="18" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [ <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>t_S</strong></font> + ]. Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-3a.mp3"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-3a.gif" width="67" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-3a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-3b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-3b.gif" width="156" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-3b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + <br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-3c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-3c.gif" width="193" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-3c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + <br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="95" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ç</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"> <div align="justify">Like the initial sound in English <em><strong>h</strong>uman</em>, + <em><strong>h</strong>uge</em>, <em><strong>h</strong>ue</em>, or the + sound in German <em>i<strong>ch</strong></em>. A voiceless dorso-palatal + non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</font></strong>]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>C</strong></font>]. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-4a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-4a.gif" width="221" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-4a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-4b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-4b.gif" width="193" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-4b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-4c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-4c.gif" width="252" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-4c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></font></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="57" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>d</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar + ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated + voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20d-dental.gif" width="10" height="18" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>d_d</strong></font>]. + <br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/d-cedilla.gif" width="12" height="17"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>th</strong>is</em>, + <em>ba<strong>th</strong>e</em>, <em>wea<strong>th</strong>er</em>. A + voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [<font size="3"><strong>ð</strong></font>]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>D</strong></font>]. + <br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="19" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>f</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English. A voiceless labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>f</strong></font>]. + <br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="39" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>g</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Always as in English <em><strong>g</strong>a<strong>g</strong></em>; + never as in <em>ginger</em>. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>g</strong></font>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-5a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-5a.gif" width="156" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-5a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="132" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular + unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages + such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard <em>g</em>-sound above + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. + The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil <strong>q</strong> below; IPA [<strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20G-uvular.gif" width="10" height="9"></strong>]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>G\</strong></font>]. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-5b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-5b.gif" width="190" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-5b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-5c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-5c.gif" width="287" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-5c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="117" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Gv.gif" width="12" height="21"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of <strong>x</strong> below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue + in the position to pronounce English g as in <em><strong>g</strong>a<strong>g</strong></em> + then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. + A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20g-gamma.gif" width="12" height="13" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>G</strong></font>]. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-6a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-6a.gif" width="286" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-6a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"></font><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-6b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-6b.gif" width="288" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-6b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><br> + </a></font><a href="Sound_Files/cons-6c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-6c.gif" width="189" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-6c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="38" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>h</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>h</strong>all</em>. + Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable + in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>h</strong></font>]. + Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-7b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-7b.gif" width="212" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-7b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="92" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/h-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="19"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless + radico-pharyngal fricative found in Arabic and several Northeast Caucasian + languages. A deep raspy sound produced by pronouncing an <em>h</em>-sound + while constricting the pharynx and trying to press the root of the tongue + against the back wall of the pharynx. IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20h-bar.gif" width="11" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>X\</strong></font>]. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-8a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-8a.gif" width="199" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-8a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><a href="Sound_Files/cons-8b.mp3"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-8b.gif" width="354" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-8b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="73" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>j</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>j</strong>u<strong>dg</strong>e</em> + but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated + non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA + [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20dz-v.gif" width="16" height="17" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>d_Z</strong></font>]. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-9b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-9b.gif" width="259" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-9b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-9a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-9a.gif" width="172" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-9a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="111" valign="top"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20"></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + of Ithkuil <strong> <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></strong> + below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled <em>gy</em> and + <em>d´</em> respectively. Sort of like a <em>g</em>+<em>y</em> sound + as in English <em>bi<strong>g y</strong>ear</em> pronounced rapidly, with + the <em>g</em>-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate + as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive. + IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/j-bar.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>J\</strong></font>]. + Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-10b.gif" width="38" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><em>‘day + (24-hour period)’</em><a href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><br> + </a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-10a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-10a.gif" width="134" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-10a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="75" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>k</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English <strong><em>k</em></strong> + but without aspiration. Like the <em>k</em>-sound of the Romance languages, + e.g., Spanish or Italian <em><strong>c</strong>asa</em>. A voiceless unaspirated + dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>k</strong></font>]. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-11a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-11a.gif" width="108" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-11a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="118" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. Like a <em>k</em>-sound + but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced + farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate, + not the soft palate as with English <strong><em>k</em></strong>. The result + should sound somewhat like a <em>k</em>+<em>y</em> as in <em>ba<strong>cky</strong>ard</em> + when spoken rapidly. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive; IPA + [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20c-bar.gif" width="12" height="10">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>c</strong></font>]. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-12a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-12a.gif" width="212" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-12a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + </font><a href="Sound_Files/cons-12b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-12b.gif" width="251" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-12b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="93" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>l</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">The “light” <em>l</em>-sound + of the Romance languages, or as in British English <em><strong>l</strong>eader</em>; + not the “dark” (velarized) <em>l</em>-sound of American English + <em><strong>l</strong>u<strong>ll</strong></em>. A voiced apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>l</strong></font>]. + Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-13a.mp3"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-13a.gif" width="102" height="12" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-13a.mp3"> + <img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-13b.gif" width="208" height="14" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="96" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">The “dark” (velarized) <em>l</em>-sound + of American English <em><strong>l</strong>u<strong>ll</strong></em>, not + the “light” <em>l</em>-sound of the Romance languages or British + English <em><strong>l</strong>eader</em>. A voiced velarized apico-dental + dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20l-velarized.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>5</strong></font>]. + Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-14a.mp3"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-14a.gif" width="188" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-14a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-14b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-14b.gif" width="198" height="14" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-14b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="100" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-cedilla.gif" width="5" height="17"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh <em><strong>ll</strong>an</em>. + Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say + an <em>l</em>-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful <em>h</em>-sound + instead; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20l-loop%20welsh.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>K</strong></font>]. + Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-15a.mp3"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-15a.gif" width="336" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-15a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="18" border="0" align="absbottom"><br> + </a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"></font><a href="Sound_Files/cons-15a.wav"> + </a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-15b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-15b.gif" width="222" height="15" border="0"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-15b.mp3"> + <img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="19" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>m</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal + continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">m</font></strong>].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="38" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>n</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English, but made with the + tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages, + not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant + obstruent; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20n-dental.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n_d</font></strong>].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="41" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">The English <em>ng</em>-sound as in + <em>so<strong>ng</strong></em> or <em>ri<strong>ng</strong>er</em>; NEVER + as in <em>fi<strong>ng</strong>er</em>. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant + obstruent;. IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20n-eng.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">N</font></strong>].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="38" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>p</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English, but without aspiration. + As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive; + IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p</font></strong>].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="80" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>q</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless + dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American + Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated <em>k</em>-sound + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</font></strong>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-16a.gif" width="96" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="111" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">This sound is a combination of a heavily + aspirated and palatal Ithkuil <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">(see + above) released laterally (i.e., along the two sides of the tongue) into + a voiceless lateral fricative (IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20l-loop%20welsh.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">]). + This sound occurs in some North American Indian and North Caucasian languages. + An aspirated voiceless palatal-lateral affricate. IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20l%20lambda-bar%20plus%20h.gif" width="16" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">c_K_h</font></strong>]. + Example sound files: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-17b.mp3"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-17b.gif" width="165" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-17b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-17a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-17a.gif" width="122" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-17a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="97" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>r</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">This sound is a single flap of the tongue + tip as in Spanish <em>ca<strong>r</strong>o</em> or <em>pe<strong>r</strong>o</em>. + When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish <em>ca<strong>rr</strong>o</em> + or <em>pe<strong>rr</strong>o</em>. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex + flap/trill; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20r-flap.gif" width="6" height="10">], + [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">r</font></strong>]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4</font></strong>], + [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>r</strong></font>]. + Example sound files: <br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-18a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-18a.gif" width="308" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-18a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><br> + </a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-18b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-18b.gif" width="194" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-18b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="116" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Pronounced similarly to the English + retroflex <em>r</em>-sound except that there is no lip-rounding and the + tongue is in direct contact with the alveolar gum ridge behind the upper + teeth, giving the sound an <em>l</em>-coloring. A voiced apico-alveolar + retroflex liquid continuant; the closest IPA symbol is [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20r%20plus%20l.gif" width="6" height="18" align="absbottom">] + (a voiced rhoticized retroflex lateral approximant). (No X-SAMPA equivalent). + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-19a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-19a.gif" width="310" height="14" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-19a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-19b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-19b.gif" width="234" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-19b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="81" valign="top"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. Like the throaty + or “gargled” <em>r</em>-sound found in colloquial French and + German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20R-uvular%20approxmt.gif" width="8" height="10">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">R</font></strong>]. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-20a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-20a.gif" width="349" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-20a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-20b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-20b.gif" width="351" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-20b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="44" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>s</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>s</strong>i<strong>s</strong>ter</em>. + A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA + [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>s</strong></font>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-21a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-21a.gif" width="276" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-21a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="116" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The retroflex + <em>s</em>-sound heard in Castilian (but not Latin American) Spanish. + Also found in Basque, Catalan, and most Chinese languages. Similar to + an English <em>s</em>-sound, but with the blade of the tongue curved convexly + away from the roof of the mouth, as with an English <em>r</em>-sound, + so that the tongue curls back and touches the alveolar ridge. The result + should sound halfway between an English <em>s</em> and <em>sh</em>. A + voiceless apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20s-retroflex.gif" width="7" height="13" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> s`</strong></font>]. + Example sound file:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-22a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-22a.gif" width="400" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-22a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="59" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>š</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>sh</strong>oe<strong>sh</strong>ine</em> + but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized + lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20S-esh.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>S</strong></font>].Example + sound file: <br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-23a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-23a.gif" width="375" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-23a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="58" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>t</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similar to English but without aspiration + and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against + the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental + unaspirated plosive; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20t-dental.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t_d</font></strong>].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="22" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>th</strong>in</em>, + <em>ba<strong>th</strong></em>. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative; + IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20theta.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">T</font></strong>].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>v</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English. A voiced labio-dental + fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">v</font></strong>].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="42" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>w</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify"> + <p>As in English <em><strong>w</strong>ell</em>, <em><strong>w</strong>orry</em>. + A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>w</strong></font>].<br> + </p> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="80" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless + dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</font></strong> + in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish <strong>j</strong>. + Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce + a <em>k</em>-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing + an <em>h</em>-sound instead. Should be distinguished from <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></font> + below; IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</font></strong>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-24a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-24a.gif" width="74" height="14" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-24a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="61" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The rough voiceless + dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German <em>a<strong>ch</strong></em>. + Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration. + IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20x-chi.gif" width="15" height="14" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">X</font></strong>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-25a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-25a.gif" width="204" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-25a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="42" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>y</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>y</strong>et</em>, + <em><strong>y</strong>am</em>. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant); + IPA and X-SAMPA [ <strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">j + </font></strong>]. Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-26a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-26a.gif" width="293" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-26a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="78" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to <strong>ç</strong> above. This is the “intensive” + <em>y</em>-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties + of Spanish. Like the sound in English <em><strong>y</strong>et</em>, <em><strong>y</strong>am</em> + but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate, + so that audible friction occurs. A voiced dorso-palatal fricative; IPA + [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20j-curl.gif" width="10" height="16" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">j</font></strong>\]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-27a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-27a.gif" width="137" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-27a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="50" valign="top"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>z</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in English <em><strong>z</strong>oo</em>, + <em>wi<strong>z</strong>ard</em>. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative; + IPA and X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">z</font></strong>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-28a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-28a.gif" width="130" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-28a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="54" valign="top"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-cedilla.gif" width="14" height="15"></div></td> + <td valign="top"><p>No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></font> + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative. IPA + [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20z-retroflex.gif" width="11" height="12" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> z`</font></strong>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-29a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-29a.gif" width="157" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-29a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <br> + </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="49" valign="top"><div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Zv.gif" width="9" height="16"></div></td> + <td valign="top">The voiced counterpart of <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">š</font></strong> + above. Similar to the sound in English <em>plea<strong>s</strong>ure</em> + or <em>lei<strong>s</strong>ure</em>, but without lip-rounding. A voiced + lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20ezh.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Z</font></strong>]. + Example sound file:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-32a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-32a.gif" width="264" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-32a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="49" valign="top"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-bar.gif" width="9" height="11"></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Like an English <em>d</em>+<em>z</em> + sound, as in <em>roa<strong>ds</strong></em>, <em>a<strong>dz</strong>e</em>. + A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">dz</font></strong>]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d_z</font></strong>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-30a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-30a.gif" width="170" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-30a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="53" valign="top"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/z-dot.gif" width="9" height="15"></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart + to <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/C%20dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"> + above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20dz-retroflex.gif" width="21" height="17" align="absbottom">]. + X-SAMPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d_z`</font></strong>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-31a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-31a.gif" width="138" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-31a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="90" valign="top"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="4">’</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">This sound is the glottal stop heard + between the two vowels in English o<em>h-oh</em> or as the sound heard + in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word <em>fa<strong>tt</strong>ening</em>. + This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, + Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20glottal%20stop.gif" width="7" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + Example sound files: <br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-33a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-33a.gif" width="235" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-33a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-33b.gif" width="209" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> <strong>1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants</strong>: The consonants + <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-2-1-1a.gif" width="172" height="20" align="top">are + all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of + English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated + counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion + of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with + a following superscript <em><strong>h</strong></em>; thus: <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-2-1-1b.gif" width="205" height="17" align="top"> + Example sound files: </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-38a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-38a.gif" width="216" height="16" border="0"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-38a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-38b.gif" width="93" height="16" border="0"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-38c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-38c.gif" width="321" height="16" border="0"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-38c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-38d.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-38d.gif" width="201" height="16" border="0"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-38d.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><strong>1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants</strong>: The same eight + consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist + in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Armenian, + Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian + languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied + by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which + gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives + are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-2-1-2a.gif" width="245" height="21" align="absmiddle">. + Note: the lateral affricate <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Qv.gif" width="9" height="16" align="absbottom"> + has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound + files:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-39a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-39a.gif" width="185" height="14" border="0"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-39a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-39b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-39b.gif" width="296" height="15" border="0"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-39b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></a></font> + <br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-39c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-39c.gif" width="150" height="15" border="0"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-39c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-39d.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-39d.gif" width="152" height="16" border="0"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-39d.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional + ejective consonants, all of them affricates, <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç’</font></strong>, + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x’</strong></font>, + and <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><strong>’</strong></font>, + whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.</p> +<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="5%" height="94" align="center" valign="top"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç’</font></strong></td> + <td width="95%" valign="top"> +<div align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></font> + + Ithkuil <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</font></strong> + (the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20c-bar%20&%20c-cedilla.gif" width="20" height="13" align="absbottom"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>’</strong></font>]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>c_C_></strong></font>]. + Example sound file: <br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-40a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-40a.gif" width="234" height="14" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-40a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="96" align="center" valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x’</strong></font></td> + <td valign="top"> +<div align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <strong>k</strong> + + Ithkuil <strong>x</strong> (the voiceless velar fricative described + above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. + When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic <em>k</em>-sound, + accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally + imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kx’</font></strong>]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>k_x_></strong></font>]. + Example sound file: <a href="Sound_Files/cons-40b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-40b.gif" width="167" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-40b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="84" align="center" valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><strong>’</strong></font></td> + <td valign="top"> +<div align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</font></strong> + + Ithkuil <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"> + </font>(the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination + then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, + it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20x-chi.gif" width="15" height="14" align="absbottom"></font>’</strong>]. + X-SAMPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>q_X_></strong></font>]. + This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g., + Dido, Archi). Example sound file:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-40c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-40c.gif" width="322" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-40c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><strong>1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants</strong>. Six consonants, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-2-1-3a.gif" width="118" height="18" align="absbottom">, + can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of + syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions + such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ + (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants <em>n</em> + and <em>l</em> as in the second syllable of words like <em>button</em> and <em>little</em>. + Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words <em>nda</em> ‘no’, + and <em>ndíghílii</em> ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these + six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant + as in <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-2-1-3b.gif" width="152" height="23" align="absmiddle"> + However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where + the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate + syllable. Examples: <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-2-1-3c.gif" width="139" height="23" align="absbottom">.</p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<h3 align="justify">1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels</h3> +<p align="justify">There are 17 vowels, all of which are pure sounds, not glided + into diphthongs as in English. These include the five primary vowels <strong>a</strong>, + <strong>e</strong>,<strong> i</strong>, <strong>o</strong>, <strong>u</strong>. + The vowel <strong>a</strong> is phonetically an unrounded central low vowel, + IPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">a</font></strong>], + as in Spanish or Italian. The vowels <strong>e</strong> and <strong>o</strong> + are similar to the vowels in American English <em>l<strong>e</strong>t</em> + and <em>sh<strong>o</strong>rt</em>, phonetically IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20e-epsilon.gif" width="8" height="10" align="bottom">] + and [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20o-open.gif" width="8" height="10">], + although both sounds are actually somewhat higher, being between low-mid and + mid in height. The vowels <strong>i</strong> and <strong>u</strong> are lower + than in Romance languages: <strong>i</strong> is about halfway between the vowels + in English <em>p<strong>i</strong>t</em> and <em>mach<strong>i</strong>ne</em>; + <strong>u</strong> is halfway between English <em>c<strong>oo</strong>k</em> + and <em>k<strong>oo</strong>k</em>. Sound files: <strong><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><a href="Sound_Files/vowel-1.mp3">a + e i o u</a> </font></strong> <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-1.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a></p> +<p align="justify">The vowel <strong>â</strong> is pronounced as in Western + U.S. <em><strong>a</strong>ll</em>, IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20a-back.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absmiddle">]; + <strong>ê</strong> and <strong>ô</strong> are mid-height, IPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">e</font></strong>] + and [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">o</font></strong>] + as in Spanish <em><strong>e</strong>st<strong>o</strong>s</em> or in French + <em>p<strong>oé</strong>sie</em>; <strong>î</strong> and <strong>û</strong> + are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian <em>i</em> and <em>u</em>, + IPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>i</strong></font>] + and [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>u</strong></font>]. + Example sound files: <strong><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><a href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3">â + ê î ô û</a></font> </strong><a href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a></p> +<p align="justify">The vowel <strong>ä</strong> is slightly higher than the + vowel in American English <em>s<strong>a</strong>t </em>but not as high as in<em> + s<strong>e</strong>t</em>, IPA [<strong>æ^</strong>]. The vowel <strong>ö</strong> + is the rounded equivalent of <strong>e</strong>, that is, the vowel in French + <em>b<strong>oeu</strong>f</em> or German <em>k<strong>ö</strong>nnte</em>, + IPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>œ</strong></font>]. + The vowel <strong>ë</strong> is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American + English <em>c<strong>u</strong>t</em> or <em>n<strong>u</strong>t</em>, although, + more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel <strong>ô</strong> but without rounding + of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20o-unrounded.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle">]. + The vowel <strong>ï</strong> is pronounced as an unrounded <strong>û</strong>, + an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20u-unrounded.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absbottom">. + The vowel <strong>ü</strong> is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, + as found in Norwegian <em>h<strong>u</strong>s</em> or the Highland Scottish + pronunciation of English <em>b<strong>oo</strong>k</em> or <em>g<strong>oo</strong>d</em>, + IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20u-bar.gif" width="11" height="15" align="absmiddle">]. + The vowel <strong>ø</strong> is the rounded equivalent of <strong>ê</strong>, + as in French <em>f<strong>eu</strong></em> or German <em>sch<strong>ö</strong>n</em>, + IPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ø</font></strong>]; + the vowel <strong>ÿ</strong> represents the front rounded vowel of French + <em>d<strong>u</strong></em> and German <em><strong>ü</strong>ber</em>, + IPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>y</strong></font>]. + Example sound files:<a href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"> <strong><font color="#0000FF" size="+1">ä</font></strong><font color="#0000FF" size="+1"><strong> + ë ï ö ø ü ÿ</strong></font></a><strong> </strong><a href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> +</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions</h3> +<p align="justify">Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation + of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that + phoneme occurs. These variances, while audible to a trained linguist, are often + indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these + allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional + role in the language. As an example, compare the two <em>t</em>-sounds in the + English words <em><strong>t</strong>op</em> and <em>s<strong>t</strong>op</em>. + The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while + the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality. + However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English, + the difference in the two <em>t</em>-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers + of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages + where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other + Indic languages). </p> +<p align="justify">Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within + a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely + regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration + in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning + a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign + accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, + and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without + aspirating the initial <em>t</em>-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration + in Romance languages.)</p> +<p align="justify">The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are + known as allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil are + as follows:</p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="6%" height="90" valign="top"> <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="94%" valign="top"><div align="justify">This phoneme is a simple + (bi-)glottal fricative as in English head when in a syllable-initial position + and in word-final position. However, at the end of a syllable when preceded + by a vowel and followed by another consonant, this sound approaches a + voiceless bilabial fricative, similar to the bilabial sound of Japanese + <em>h</em> as pronounced before <em>u</em> (usually transliterated into + Roman orthography as <em>f</em>). IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20phi.gif" width="12" height="16" align="absbottom">]. + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="111" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hh</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">The geminated version of Ithkuil h is + pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is + completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along + their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre + to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English <em><strong>th</strong>in</em>) + as well as the English <em>f</em>-sound, however there is absolutely no + contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound. + No IPA equivalent. Example sound files: <br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-42a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-42a.gif" width="165" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-42a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-42b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-42b.gif" width="203" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-42b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><br> + <br> + </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="74" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">This aspirated lateral affricate is + in free variation with (i.e., may be alternately pronounced as) its non-aspirated + ejective counterpart (IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20l%20lambda-bar%20ejective.gif" width="14" height="15" align="absbottom">]); + in word-initial position it is more common to pronounce it ejectively. + Example sound files:<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-17c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-17b.gif" width="165" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-17c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-17d.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-17a.gif" width="122" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-17d.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + <br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="68" valign="top"> <div align="center"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced + as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar + to the throaty <em>r</em>-sound found in colloquial French and German, + IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20R-uvular%20approxmt.gif" width="8" height="10">]. + However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound + becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20R-uvular%20trill.gif" width="8" height="11">].<br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="70" valign="top"> <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar + approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet + (IPA [<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</font></strong>]), + when followed by the Ithkuil vowel <strong>û</strong>, this sound, + takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative + (i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20beta-labialized.gif" width="18" height="18" align="absbottom">]). + <br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="40" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w’</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">In this word-initial combination of + voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the + <em>w</em> is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, + Ithkuil <strong>ï</strong>, followed by the glottal stop (IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/w%20plus%20glottal.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absmiddle">]). + <br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="44" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Similarly to the combination above, + this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant + followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal + stop (IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/j%20plus%20glottal.gif" width="17" height="17" align="absbottom">]). + <br> + <br> + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td colspan="2"> + <blockquote> + <div align="justify"> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">bm, + dn, km, kn, pm, tn</font></strong></div> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="99"> </td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">When in word-initial position, the first + consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral + release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to + pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to + pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the + tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead. IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/prenasalized%20group.gif" width="119" height="17" align="absbottom">]. + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="23" colspan="2"> + <blockquote> + <div align="justify"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>hl, + hm, hn, h<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom">, hr, h<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + hw</strong></font> </div> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="110"> + <div align="center"></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Each of these consonant conjuncts, when + word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not + pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts + to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct, + i.e., IPA <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/voiceless%20liquids%20&%20nasals.gif" width="243" height="21" align="absmiddle"> + To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce + an Ithkuil <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">l</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">,<strong> + m</strong>,<strong> n</strong>,<strong> n, r</strong>,</font><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></strong></font>, + or <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>w</strong></font>, + and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear <em>h</em>-sound + instead. </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <strong><font size="4">1.3 PHONOLOGICAL + PROCESSES AND RULES<a name="Sec1o3"></a></font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages + have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are + combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes, + the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil + productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and + tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends. <br> +</p> +<h3 align="justify">1.3.1 Gemination</h3> +<p align="justify">Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in + length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination + does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological + grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ + versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based + gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, + Finnish).</p> +<p align="justify">In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy + is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and + word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination + in Ithkuil:</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination</strong>. All consonants + are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except + for <strong>y</strong> and <strong>w</strong>. </p> +<p align="justify"><strong>1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination</strong>. + The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination, + are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position: +</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-1-2a.gif" width="575" height="20"></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The consonant <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absbottom"> + can be geminated in word-initial position. </p> +<p align="justify"> <strong>1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants</strong>. + Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite + duration), specifically <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-1-3a.gif" width="432" height="20" align="absmiddle"></strong></font>are + simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <strong>r</strong></font> is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like + <em>rr</em> in Spanish or Italian. Example sound files: </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-34a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-34a.gif" width="322" height="16" border="0"> + </a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-34a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"></font><a href="Sound_Files/cons-35b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-35b.gif" width="270" height="15" border="0"></a> + <font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-35b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></a></font><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a> <font color="#FFFFFF"></font> <a href="Sound_Files/cons-35d.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-35d.gif" width="132" height="15" border="0"></a> + <font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-35d.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></a></font><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-35g.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-35g.gif" width="232" height="15" border="0"> + </a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-35g.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></a></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The non-aspirated plosive consonants <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">b</font></strong>, + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d</font></strong>, <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">g</font></strong>, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absmiddle">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20" align="absmiddle">, + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</font></strong>, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absmiddle">, + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p</font></strong>, <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</font></strong>, + and <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong>, when + geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two <em>d</em>-sounds + in the English phrase <em>ba<strong>d d</strong>og</em> when spoken rapidly. + Example sound file: </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-33a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-35a.gif" width="231" height="15" border="0"></a><a href="Sound_Files/cons-33a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></a> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The aspirated plosives <strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-1-3b.gif" width="135" height="17" align="absbottom"></strong> + are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon + release, much like the two <em>t</em>-sounds in the English phrase <em>ho<strong>t + t</strong>ar</em> when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>k’, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">’, + p’, q’, </strong></font>and<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> + t’</strong></font> are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic + ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-36a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-36a.gif" width="242" height="16" border="0"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-36a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The pronunciation of affricates (<img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-1-3c.gif" width="337" height="15" align="absbottom">) + when geminated depends on whether or not they are in word-final position. If + not in word-final position, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial + stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative + or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during + release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv-geminate.gif" width="18" height="15" align="absmiddle"> + is pronounced as IPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ttš</strong></font>]. + For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (<img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-1-3d.gif" width="137" height="16" align="absbottom">), + geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening + the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of + each affricate). Thus, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Cv-geminate.gif" width="18" height="15" align="absmiddle"> + in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tšš</strong></font>], + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Qv-geminated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absbottom"> + as IPA [<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/IPA%20l%20lambda-bar%20plus%20l-loop.gif" width="21" height="14" align="absmiddle">]. + Example sound files: </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-35c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-35c.gif" width="302" height="15" border="0"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-35c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-35e.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-35e.gif" width="315" height="15" border="0"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-35e.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></a><br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></a><font color="#FFFFFF"></font> <a href="Sound_Files/cons-35f.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-35f.gif" width="384" height="16" border="0"></a> + <font color="#FFFFFF"><a href="Sound_Files/cons-35f.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><strong>1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates</strong>. + Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., + <strong> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">bb, dd, nn, šš</font></strong>. + Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled + followed by a single superscript h, e.g., <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-1-4a.gif" width="118" height="17" align="absbottom"> + Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character + doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-1-4b.gif" width="87" height="18" align="absbottom"> + Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</font>’</strong>, + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</font>’</strong>, + and <strong><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom">’</strong>. + Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond + to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written + as <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-1-4c.gif" width="116" height="18" align="absbottom"></p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 1.3.2 Pitch and Tone</h3> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other + Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages + and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is + used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone + and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic + features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, + while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other + attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words + themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories). </p> +<p align="justify">There are five tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid-low + tone, is considered morpho-phonologically neutral. The other four tones are + falling, high, broken (i.e., mid to low to mid-low), and rising (i.e., mid-low + to mid-high) and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries + one significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously + carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed + syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid-low tone. Therefore, + the function of mid-low tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since + any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid-low. Like most tone languages, + the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual + speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:</p> +<table width="78%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" height="74"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-2a.gif" width="59" height="6" align="absbottom"></div></td> + <td width="22%"><div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-2b.gif" width="92" height="39"></div></td> + <td width="18%" valign="top"> <div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-2a.gif" width="59" height="6" align="absbottom"></div></td> + <td width="20%"><div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-2c.gif" width="59" height="37"></div></td> + <td width="24%"><div align="center"><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-2d.gif" width="96" height="36"></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(mid-low)</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">falling</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">high</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">broken</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rising</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The four significant tones are indicated in the Roman transliteration + by small superscript symbols at the end of each word, as follows: falling tone + is unmarked, high tone is marked by a superscript hyphen (or macron), broken + tone by a superscript backslash, and rising tone by a superscript forward slash. + This is illustrated in the example words/sound files below.</p> +<blockquote> + <p><a href="Sound_Files/cons-37a.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-37a.gif" width="212" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-37a.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + [falling tone]<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-37d.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-37d.gif" width="170" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-37d.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + [high tone]<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-37b.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-37b.gif" width="268" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-37b.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + [broken tone]<br> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-37c.mp3"><img src="Images/Ch%201/Phoneme_Examples/cons-37c.gif" width="308" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + <a href="Sound_Files/cons-37c.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a> + [rising tone]<br> + </p> +</blockquote> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 1.3.3 Syllabic Stress<a name="Sec1o3o3"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">Stress normally falls on the <strong>penultimate</strong> (next-to-last) + syllable but can shift to either the <strong>ultimate</strong> (last) syllable + of a word, to the <strong>antepenultimate</strong> (third-from-last) syllable, + and occasionally to the <strong>preantepenultimate</strong> (fourth-from-last) + syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations. </p> +<p align="justify">When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number + of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number + of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress + using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows: +</p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td width="4%" height="35">1)</td> + <td width="96%">All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.</td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="52">2)</td> + <td>The grave accent ( <strong><font size="4" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">`</font></strong> + ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, + e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as <strong>au</strong> + and <strong>ei</strong> from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts <strong>aù + </strong>and<strong> eì</strong>.</td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="70">3)</td> + <td><strong>Penultimate stress</strong>. Polysyllabic words having penultimate + stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic + phonemes <strong>ì</strong> or <strong>ù</strong> as the penultimate + syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>iskoùt</strong></font> + (stress on the <strong>o</strong>), if adding the syllable -<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ma</strong></font>, + becomes <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>iskoútma</strong></font> + (stress on the <strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u</font></strong>).</td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="19">4)</td> + <td><p><strong>Ultimate stress</strong>. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate + stress indicate this in one of the following ways:</p></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="184"> </td> + <td><ul> + <li>the unmarked vowels <strong>a</strong>, <strong>e</strong>, <strong>i</strong>, + <strong>o</strong>, <strong>u</strong>, and the marked disyllabic vowels + <strong>ì</strong> and <strong>ù</strong> take an acute + accent, e.g., <strong>á</strong>, <strong>é</strong>, + <strong>í</strong>, <strong>ó</strong>, <strong>ú</strong>.</li> + <li>if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other + than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid + or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate + syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., <strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ròihnäl</font></strong>.</li> + <li>If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs + in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over + the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress + (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate + stress), e.g. <strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">òspätlök</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</font></li> + <li>if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate + syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent) + then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ksûtpäär</strong></font>. + </li> + </ul></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td>5)</td> + <td><strong>Antepenultimate stress</strong>. To show antepenultimate stress + (third syllable from the end):</td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="162"> </td> + <td><ul> + <li>if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) + does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the + acute accent, e.g., áksiyor</li> + <li>if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave + accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on + the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate + stress, e.g., <strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëitlàrrun</font></strong>, + <strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ôrümzìl</font></strong>. + (Note that the use of the grave accent over the <strong>i</strong> in + <strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ôrümzìl</font></strong> + would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore + its presence implies antepenultimate stress). </li> + <li>if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, + then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>öömoläk</strong></font>.</li> + </ul></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td>6)</td> + <td><strong>Preantepenultimate stress</strong>. To show preantepenultimate + stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules as for + antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable.</td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> Note that the acute accent on the stressed second member of + the bi-syllabic geminate clusters <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-3a.gif" width="132" height="18" align="absmiddle"> + distinguishes them from their standard geminate counterparts <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-3-3b.gif" width="165" height="16" align="absbottom">. +</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><strong><font size="4">1.4 PHONOTAXIS<a name="Sec1o4"></a></font></strong></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting, + and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to + what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or + word. This concept is called <strong>phonotaxis</strong> and such rules are + known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain + why <em>sprelch</em> could be a hypothetical word in English, while <em>znatk</em> + could not be, even though <em>znatk</em> is as easily pronounced by a linguist + as <em>sprelch</em>. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation, + and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis</p> +<p align="justify">Equally important are the optional rules each language employs + to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics + or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly + responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” + of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are + described in the sections below.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + <a name="Sec1o4o1"></a>1.4.1 Syllable Structure</h3> +<p align="justify">The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable + forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable, + or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are + shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents + a mandatory vowel or diphthong. </p> +<p align="justify"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 2: + Syllabic Structure</strong></font></p> +<table width="97%" border="1" cellpadding="5"> + <tr> + <td width="15%" height="35"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Syllable + Type</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="37%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Structure</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="48%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Examples</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="48" valign="middle"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Consonantal + Word</font></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>C(C)(C)</strong> + <font size="2"><em>where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless + fricative continuant</em></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s, + h,<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + ll, mm, pçç</font></strong></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Monosyllabic</font></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)</strong></font></div></td> + <td><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">a, ui, öt, + isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršt</font></strong></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="30" valign="middle"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-initial</font></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>(C)(C)(C)V(C)-</strong> + <em><font size="2">or</font></em> <strong>l</strong>, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></font></div></td> + <td><font size="2"><strong><font color="#0000FF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ran, + <font color="#0000FF">ta</font>hin, <font color="#0000FF">ui’</font>wá, + <font color="#0000FF">pri</font>nu, <font color="#0000FF">klat</font>ma, + <font color="#0000FF">xmois</font>kra, <font color="#0000FF">kstol</font>lap, + <font color="#0000FF">ltuir</font>bis, <font color="#0000FF">mpeil</font>t’um</font></strong></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="middle"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-medial</font></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>-(C)(C)V(C)(C)-</strong> + <em><font size="2"> or</font></em> <strong>l</strong>, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ki<font color="#0000FF">a</font>lun, + ru<font color="#0000FF">en</font>tik, is<font color="#0000FF">teix</font>lam, + ïk<font color="#0000FF">spûz</font>qai, <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-4-1a.gif" width="68" height="16" align="texttop"></font></strong></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="middle"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-final</font></td> + <td valign="middle"> <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>-(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)-</strong> + <em><font size="2">or</font></em> <strong>l</strong>, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">, + <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></font></div></td> + <td><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">lu<font color="#0000FF">a</font>, + an<font color="#0000FF">toi</font>, ti<font color="#0000FF">al</font>, eif<font color="#0000FF">qés</font>, + pox<font color="#0000FF">šurn</font>, ul<font color="#0000FF">trönn</font>, + <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-4-1b.gif" width="25" height="16" align="baseline"> + </font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The following rules apply: </p> +<div align="justify"> + <ul> + <li>A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the + vowel following, not preceding. <br> + </li> + <li>An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e., + each consonant is part of a different syllable), even if the conjunct is + a geminate consonant. <br> + </li> + <li>If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first + consonant of the three must be in a separate syllable from the last consonant + of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever + of the two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or + word-final cluster. If it can form permissible clusters with either surrounding + consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically + associated. <a href="#Sec1o4o4">Section 1.4.4</a> below details which specific + consonants can form such clusters.<br> + </li> + </ul> +</div> +<h3 align="justify">1.4.2 Diphthongs</h3> +<p align="justify"> An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination + of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are + “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives + the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred + to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs + in Ithkuil, described as follows:</p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="10%" height="33" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ai + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-4.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td width="90%" valign="top"><div align="justify">Pronounced as in Spanish + or Italian; like English <em>i</em> in <em>white</em> or <em>ice</em>. + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="33" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">äi + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-5.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <strong>ä</strong> plus an English <em>y</em>-sound. + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="33" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ei + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-6.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; like English + <em>ai</em> in <em>rain</em> or <em>ei</em> in <em>rein</em>.</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="55" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëi + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-7.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English <em>rut</em> + an English <em>y</em>-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the <em>i</em> + in <em>ice</em>. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="33" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">oi + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-8.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; as in English + <em>boy</em> or <em>voice</em>.</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="55" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">öi + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-9.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <strong>ö</strong> plus an English <em>y</em>-sound. + Somewhat like the French word <em>oeil</em>. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="74" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ui + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-10.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” <em>u</em> + (i.e., without the glide into -<em>w</em> as in English <em>rude</em>) + + an English <em>y</em>-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this + diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the <em>u</em>-sound + is reduced to a <em>w</em>- (the result sounding like English <em>wee</em>). + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="31" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">au + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-11.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; like English + <em>ou</em> in <em>loud</em> or <em>ow</em> in <em>cow</em>. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="31" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">äu + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-12.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <strong>ä</strong> plus an English <em>w</em>-sound. + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="48" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eu + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-13.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English + equivalent. A combination of “pure” <em>e</em> (i.e., without + the glide into –y as in English <em>they</em>) + an English <em>w</em>-sound. + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="50" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëu + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-14.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination + of the vowel sound in American English <em>rut</em> + an English w-sound. + Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word <em>oh!</em>. + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">iu + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-15.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent; a combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <strong>i</strong> (which is more open than the Spanish + or Italian “pure” <em>i</em> (i.e., closer to English <em>i</em> + in <em>bit</em>) + an English <em>w</em>-sound. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="33" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ou<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-16.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Like the <em>o</em> + <em>w</em>-glide + of English <em>road</em> or <em>mode</em>. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese + <em>roupa</em>. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="52" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>öu<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-17.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination + of the Ithkuil vowel <strong>ö</strong> plus an English <em>w</em>-sound. + Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the + word <em>oh!</em>. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>aï, + eï, ëï, iï, oï, uï <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-18.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + </font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="132" valign="top"> + <div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">Each of these is a combination of a + vowel with the back central vowel <strong>ï</strong>. No English + equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the + first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” <em>l</em>-sound + of American English <em>lull</em> but without touching the tip of the + tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should + remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like + English <em>all</em>, <em>ell</em> (as in <em>bell</em>), <em>ull</em> + (as in <em>dull</em>), <em>eel</em>, <em>ole</em> (as in <em>pole</em>), + and <em>ool</em> (as in <em>tool</em>), as pronounced by someone speaking + in an indistinct, slurred voice. For those familiar with IPA, these diphthongs + may be represented as <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-4-2a.gif" width="251" height="19" align="absbottom"></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>äï, + öï, üï<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-19.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a></font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="56" valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong></strong></font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">As with the series of diphthongs immediately + above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels <strong>ä</strong>, + <strong>ö</strong>, and <strong>ü</strong> with the back central + vowel <strong>ï</strong>. IPA<img src="Images/Ch%201/1-4-2b.gif" width="129" height="18" align="absbottom"></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ae<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <a href="Sound_Files/vowel-20.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></a> + </font></strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="justify">No English equivalent. A combination + of Ithkuil <strong>a</strong> + <strong>ê</strong>. Sounds like + a more “open” version of Ithkuil <strong>ai</strong>. Tolkien’s + Sindarin language also has this diphthong.</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are + pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing + the many two-vowel combinations beginning with <strong>u</strong>- and <strong>i</strong>- + into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a <em>w</em>-sound or <em>y</em>-sound. + This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives + the syllabic stress. </p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 1.4.3 Constraints on Vowels</h3> +<p align="justify">All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts + previously mentioned can occur in any syllable in any position with the following + exceptions:</p> +<ul> + <li> + <div align="justify">In a word of two syllables or more, the only vowels, + diphthongs, or vowel conjuncts that may occur in word-final position are: + -<strong>a</strong>, -<strong>â</strong>, -<strong>ï</strong>, + -<strong>u</strong>, -<strong>ü</strong>, <strong>û</strong>, + -<strong>ia</strong>, -<strong>ua</strong> and diphthongs ending in <strong>i</strong>, + <strong>u</strong>, or <strong>ï</strong>. Note that this constraint + does not apply to monosyllabic words.<br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify">No more than two vowels may occur in conjunction within + a word, i.e., combinations of three vowels, even if two represent a diphthong, + are not permissible.</div> + </li> +</ul> +<p> </p> +<h3 align="justify"> 1.4.4 Constraints on Consonants<a name="Sec1o4o4"></a></h3> +<ul> + <li> + <div align="justify">The consonants <strong>w</strong>, <strong>y</strong>, + and <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absbottom">cannot + appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel, + or in the case of <strong>w</strong> and <strong>y</strong>, by a glottal + stop plus a vowel (e.g., <strong>w’</strong>+vowel).<br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify">The glottal stop (<strong>’</strong>) does not + occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate + words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the + next word begins with a vowel, Ithkuil phonetically separates the words + by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that + the word-final vowel of the first word does not combine with the word-initial + vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and distinct. + This glottal stop is unmarked in both the Roman transliteration and in the + Ithkuil script. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear following <strong>w</strong> + or <strong>y</strong> if preceding a vowel, or may follow a vowel.<br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify">No more than four consonants can occur in conjunction. + Such four-consonant conjuncts can only occur intervocalically (or across + word boundaries), and the first two and last two consonants must each form + permissible syllable-final and syllable initial pairs respectively, or alternately, + the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final + conjunct or the last three of the four consonants must form a permissible + syllable-initial conjunct. <br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify">For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the + first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a separate + syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic + from the other two, then those other two consonants must be a permissible + syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the + first two, then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct.<br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify">For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts, + these are generally permissible if the both the first two consonants are + permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the + conjunct are permissible as a conjunct by themselves.</div> + </li> +</ul> +<p align="justify">Table 3 below shows the permissible structures for word-initial + consonant conjuncts, while Table 4 shows the permissible structures for consonant + conjuncts in word-final position. Note that not all the possible conjuncts are + shown, merely examples of each type of combination. There are many combinations + of consonants permitted in Ithkuil which would never be allowed as conjuncts + in Western languages.</p> +<p align="justify"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br> + <strong>Table 3: Permissible Structure of Initial Consonant Conjuncts</strong><br> + <br> + <img src="Images/Ch%201/1-4-4a.gif" width="552" height="613"> </font></p> +<p align="justify"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br> + <strong>Table 4: Permissible Structure of Word-Final Consonant Conjuncts </strong></font></p> +<h3 align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%201/1-4-4b.gif" width="531" height="551"></h3> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + <a name="Sec1o4o5"></a>1.4.5 Phonaesthetic Rules</h3> +<p align="justify">Phonaesthetic rules refer to the generally applied rules and + preferences peculiar to each language for structuring the patterns of phonemes + for purposes of phonological euphony. The following such principles apply to + Ithkuil. </p> +<ul> + <li> + <div align="justify">While “open” syllables (syllables ending + in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, “closed” syllables + (i.e., ending in a consonant) are preferred, especially for the stressed + syllable of a word. Ithkuil morphology often allows for more than one way + to structure the various morphemes of a particular word, especially words + of three syllables or more. (Morphemes are the individual meaningful parts + of a word, e.g., the root, any affix, any mutation, or any other phonological + manifestation of a grammatical category.) It is common to restructure words + via morpho-phonological manipulation so that they contain closed syllables, + particularly in the stressed syllable. This rule is not often applied to + two-syllable words, which have fewer options in their structure. The rule + is inapplicable to monosyllabic words, where open syllables are common.<br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify">Words of six syllables or more are considered euphonically + undesirable, and it is common to morphologically restructure a word to reduce + the number of syllables to five or less. This morpho-phonological restructuring + is accomplished by alternating adjunct and suffix forms (as explained in + <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" onClick="javascript:changenav6();">Chapters + 7</a> and <a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8</a>).<br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"> In words having multiple affixes, it is common to use + one of the affixes in an adjunct form instead, if this will reduce the number + of syllables. </div> + </li> +</ul> +<p align="right"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm" onClick="javascript:changenav2();">Proceed + to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >></a></strong></font></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><font size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. 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