diff options
| author | uakci <uakci@uakci.pl> | 2022-03-15 19:13:44 +0100 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | uakci <uakci@uakci.pl> | 2022-03-15 19:13:44 +0100 |
| commit | ddbbfedf15e970c02e128294890adbeb97c4a5ae (patch) | |
| tree | 06fa6f3efc124b2a9a5000c0c02dee36fd4c2d33 /2004-en/Chapter_6.html | |
| download | mirror-ddbbfedf15e970c02e128294890adbeb97c4a5ae.tar.gz mirror-ddbbfedf15e970c02e128294890adbeb97c4a5ae.zip | |
Diffstat (limited to '2004-en/Chapter_6.html')
| -rw-r--r-- | 2004-en/Chapter_6.html | 3349 |
1 files changed, 3349 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_6.html b/2004-en/Chapter_6.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a96286e --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_6.html @@ -0,0 +1,3349 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title>Chapter 6</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +.style2 { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; + font-weight: bold; + color: #999999; +} +.style3 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; font-size: small; color: #0000FF; } +.style11 {font-size: large} +.style6 {color: #FF0000} +.style7 {color: #000000} +.style9 { font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style12 {font-size: x-small} +.style13 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif} +.style14 {font-size: small} +.style15 {font-size: larger} +.style17 {font-size: large; font-weight: bold; } +.style19 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; } +.style20 {color: #999999} +.style24 {font-size: xx-small} +.style26 {color: #FF0000; font-weight: bold; } +.style28 { + font-size: small; + font-weight: bold; + color: #FF0000; +} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> +<h2 align="center" class="style2">Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</h2> +<table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="22%" rowspan="7"><div align="center" class="style2"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></div></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="24%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="31%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18" class="style3"><a href="http://www.ithkuil.net">Home</a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style3">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style3">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18" class="style3"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style3">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style3">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style3">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style3">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style3">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style3">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style3">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style3">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style3">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style3">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style3">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<h2 align="center"><strong>Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology </strong></h2> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="29%"> </td> + <td width="18%"><a href="#Sec6o1">6.1 Modality</a> </td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="44%"><a href="#Sec6o5">6.5 Incorporation and Format </a> </td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec6o2">6.2 Valence</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec6o6">6.6 Bias </a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec6o3">6.3 Validation</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec6o7">6.7 Aspect Alternative </a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec6o4">6.4 Function</a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec2o8"></a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">In this chapter, we examine eight additional morphological categories and processes +which apply to verbal formatives: <strong> Modality, Valence</strong>, <strong>Validation</strong>, <strong>Bias, Function, Incorporation </strong>and<strong> Format</strong>. These categories (with the exception of Function and Format) are shown within the morpho-phonological structure of a <strong>valence adjunct</strong> (also called a <strong>modality adjunct</strong>). </p> +<p align="justify">The structure of a valence/modality adjunct is as follows:</p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="112" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>((C<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong>V<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="137" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#999999"><strong>(C<font size="-1">d</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="143" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#999999"><strong>V<font size="-1">d</font>)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#999999"><strong>(V<font size="-1">p</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#999999"><strong>(C<font size="-1">b</font>))</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="112" height="118" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + 7 validations (in conj. w/ V<span class="style14">v</span>)<br /> + </div> </td> + <td width="114" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + 14 valences<br /> + x 3 validations (in conj. w/ C<span class="style14">v</span>)</div> </td> + <td width="137" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + 120 C-root<br /> + x 3 patterns<br /> + =incorporated root</div> </td> + <td width="143" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + 5 V-root<br /> + x 6 tones <br /> + x 3 stems<br /> + x 2 designations <br /> + </div> </td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + 30 cc-affix = <br /> + 29 modalities + 1 default (= no modality) </div> </td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + 32 aspects</div> </td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + 48 biases</div> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> +Example: <span class="style11"><em><strong>hoixmial-lùiss</strong></em></span></p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>h</strong></div></td> + <td width="145" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>oi</strong></div></td> + <td width="107" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>xm</strong></div></td> + <td width="116" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ia</strong></div></td> + <td width="153" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-l`</strong></div></td> + <td width="101" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ui</strong></div></td> + <td width="103" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ss</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style19"><span class="style12">PURPORTIVE</span> validation<br /> + (<span class="style12">COROLLARY</span> valence) </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style19"><span class="style12">COROLLARY</span> valence<br /> + (<span class="style12">PURPORTIVE</span> validation) +</div></td> + <td colspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style19">incorporated stem: <em>xmìa</em> </div> <div align="center" class="style19"></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style19"><span class="style12">ASPIRATIVE</span> modality </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style19"><span class="style12">REGRESSIVE</span><br /> + aspect </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style19"><span class="style12">STUPEFACTIVE</span> bias </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The valence/modality adjunct appears in an Ilaksh sentence immediately before a verbal formative, or when within a case-frame, immediately after the verbal formative.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>6.1 MODALITY</strong></font><a name="Sec6o1" id="Sec6o1"></a></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><strong>Modality</strong> corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., <em>can, may, must, should</em>, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as t<em>o want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that</em>, etc. However, + in Ilaksh, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o8">Sec. + 3.8</a>) and the Perspective (see <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o3">Sec. + 3.3</a>) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> case to mark the “subject” noun (see <a href="Chapter_4.html#Sec4o3o9">Sec. + 4.3.9</a>). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As we saw in <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o8">Sections + 3.8</a> and <a href="Chapter_4.html#Sec4o3o9">4.3.9</a>, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">1) <em>You must <strong>come home at once</strong></em>.<br /> + 2) <em>That girl can <strong>sing better than anybody</strong></em>.<br /> + 3) <em>Our troops should <strong>attack at dawn</strong></em>.<br /> + 4) <em>Mother needs <strong>you to come with her</strong></em>.<br /> + 5) <em>The teacher requests that <strong>I dance for you</strong></em>.<br /> + 6) <em>The man believes <strong>clowns are dangerous</strong></em>. </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the verbs <em>must, can, should, + need, request, believe</em>, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> perspective (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o3">Sec. + 3.3</a></font>) and the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font> essence (see <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o7">Sec. + 3.7</a>). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns <em>you, girl, troops, mother, teacher</em>, and <em>man</em> in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> case (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="Chapter_4.html#Sec4o3o9">Sec. + 4.3.9</a></font>). It should be noted that not all Ilaksh modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence <em>She + chose to move to Australia</em>, the verb <em>chose</em> signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the <em>move to Australia</em> clause would be marked in the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> perspective but + would <em>not</em> be marked in the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font> essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ilaksh modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.</p> +<p align="justify">There are 29 modalities in Ilaksh. (This is one less than in Ithkuil; Ithkuil's <font size="-1">COMPULSIVE</font> modality has been eliminated in Ilaksh, its function merged with the <font size="-1">NECESSITATIVE</font>.) Modality is marked by the <strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong> consonantal affix to a valence adjunct. the <strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong> affix is always a dissyllabic geminate consonant as earlier described in <a href="Chapter_1.html#Sec1o2o1o1">Section 1.2.1.1</a>, in which the second member of the geminate conjunct carries the word stress and tone. This is the only circumstance in which such dissyllabic stressed consonantal geminates occur in Ilaskh; thus, it is by this means that Valence/Modality adjuncts can be easily distinguished from formatives. Because some browsers and/or text displays do not allow a consonant to carry a tone-stress diacritic mark, the tone-stress diacritic is written on the vowel following the <strong>C<span class="style14">M</span></strong> affix, e.g., <font size="+1"><strong>in-nù</strong></font>, a three-syllable word pronounced (using X-SAMPA) as [In."n=.u] with falling tone beginning on the stressed second <em>n</em>-sound. In cases where there is no vowel following the <strong>C<span class="style14">M</span></strong> affix, the tone-stress diacritic is written on a neutral anaptyptic vowel -<strong>a</strong> following the <strong>C<span class="style14">M</span></strong> affix which the speaker may pronounce or not at his/her choosing, e.g., <font size="+1"><strong>in-ná</strong></font>, pronounced (using X-SAMPA) either as [In."n= ] or as [In."n=.a] with rising tone beginning on the stressed second <em>n</em>-sound. </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="112" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>((C<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="137" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">d</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="143" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">d</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#FF0000">C<span class="style12">M</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<font size="-1">p</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">b</font>))</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Note that the tone of a valence adjunct is always determined by the tone of any incorporated stem associated with the adjunct (the<strong> C<span class="style12">d</span>+V<span class="style12">d</span></strong> optional element in the above formula) as described in <a href="#Sec6o5">Section 6.5</a> below. Where the adjunct has no such incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling. The tone always appears in conjunction with the stressed syllable, the syllabic consonant as described in the above paragraph. As with all Ilaksh words, the tone of the word prior to the stressed syllable is neutral mid tone (see <a href="Chapter_1.html#Sec1o3o2">Section 1.3.2</a>). </p> +<p align="justify">Where the value of the <strong>Cv</strong> and <strong>Vv</strong> terms of such an adjunct are null (i.e., there is no Valence or Validation values marked), then the adjunct may be termed a <strong>modality adjunct</strong>. + The 29 modalities and their respective suffixes are shown in Table 15 below. The function of each modality is described in the sub-sections following the table.</p> +<p class="style13"><strong>Table 15: C<span class="style12">M</span> Modality Affixes </strong></p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>Label</strong> </div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>Name</strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">M</span>-affix</strong></div></td> + <td width="32" rowspan="16" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong> </strong></div> <div> </div> </td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>Label</strong></div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>Name</strong></div></td> + <td width="82" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">M</span>-affix</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">--</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">(no modality)</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>n-n</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ITV</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Intentive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>n-nr</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">DES</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Desiderative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>m-m</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ANT</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Anticipative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>m-mr</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ASP</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Aspirative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-l</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">DSP</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Dispositive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-lr</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">EXV</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Expectative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ň-ň</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">PRE</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Preparative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ň-ňr</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">CRD</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Credential</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>n-nw</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">NEC</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Necessitative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>n-nř</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">REQ</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Requisitive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>m-mw</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">DEC</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Decisive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>m-mř</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">EXH</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Exhortative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-lw</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">PTV</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Proclivitive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-lř</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">OPR</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Opportunitive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ň-ňw</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">VOL</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Voluntative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ň-ňř</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">CPC</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Capacitative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>n-ny</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ACC</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Accordative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>n-nm</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">PRM</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Permissive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>m-my</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">INC</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Inclinative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-lm</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">PTN</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Potential</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-ly</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">DVR</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Divertive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ň-ňm</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">CLS</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Compulsory</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ň-ňy</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">DVT</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Devotive</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>m-mn</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">OBG</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Obligative</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>m-ml</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">PFT</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Preferential</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-ln</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">IMS</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Impositive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>n-nl</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">IPS</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Impressional</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ň-ňn</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="21" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">ADV</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div class="style13">Advocative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ň-ňl</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">PMS</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div class="style13">Promissory</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>l-lň</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DES</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Desiderative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DESIDERATIVE</font> more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in <em>The teacher wants the students to study hard</em>. It is marked + by adding the suffix -<strong>a</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Aspirative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASPIRATIVE</font> corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EPC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Expectative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXPECTATIVE</font> corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in <em>He expected her to be beautiful</em>, + or <em>I imagine he’s reached his destination</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CRD</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Credential</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CREDENTIAL</font> corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in <em>I think she has two sons</em>, or <em>We believe the earth to be round</em>. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as <em>I think she’s pretty</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>REQ</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Requisitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REQUISITIVE</font> corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in <em>I request his presence at the banquet</em>, +or <em>I’d like you to visit your father.</em></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EXH</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Exhortative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXHORTATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in <em>I demand you return my book</em> or <em>Let the gates be opened!</em></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OPR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Opportunitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">OPPORTUNITIVE</font> corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in <em>Can we pass by our old house when we visit town?</em> or <em>Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CPC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Capacitative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CAPACITATIVE</font> corresponds to the English + modal verb <em>can/could/be able</em> where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in <em>Can she sing opera?</em> or <em>He could run + like the wind</em>. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in <em>He speaks French like + a native</em> [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Permissive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PERMISSIVE</font> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>can/could/be able</em> or <em>may/might</em> where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in <em>Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert</em>; or <em>Could I talk to you?</em></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.10</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PTN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Potential</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">POTENTIAL</font> corresponds to the English + modal verb <em>can/could/be</em> able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in <em>Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area</em>, or <em>That man could fly into rages for no reason</em>. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in <em>It rains unpredictably in the Northwest</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.11</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CLS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Compulsory</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPULSORY</font> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>must</em> or <em>have to/had to</em> in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in <em>You must get up now</em>, or<em> I had to attend the ceremony</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.12</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OBG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Obligative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">OBLIGATIVE</font> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>should</em>, <em>ought to</em>, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in <em>You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel</em>, or <em>It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.13</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IMS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Impositive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMPOSITIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>be supposed to, be expected to</em>, or <em>be to</em> which impose an expectation upon a party, as in <em>You’re supposed to + smile when introduced</em>, or <em>He is to give a speech at the banquet</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.14</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ADV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Advocative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ADVOCATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>suggest tha</em>t or <em>propose that</em> which advocate + a position, as in <em>I suggest you study harder</em> or <em>They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.15</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Intentive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTENTIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>intend to</em>, <em>plan on</em> or <em>shall</em> which + convey an intention, as in <em>The girls plan on travelling to Europe</em>, + or <em>I shall see to it</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.16</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ANT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Anticipative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ANTICIPATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>to look forward to</em> or <em>to eagerly await</em> which convey positive anticipation, as in <em>We look forward to the clowns coming + to town</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.17</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DSP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Dispositive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DISPOSITIVE</font> corresponds to the English + expression <em>to be willing to</em>, conveying willingness as in <em>He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.18</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Preparative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PREPARATIVE</font> corresponds to the English + expressions <em>be ready to</em> or <em>be prepared to</em>, indicating readiness, + as in <em>She’s ready to host the party</em>, or <em>They are prepared + to endure harsh weather</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.19</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>NEC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Necessitative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NECESSITATIVE</font> corresponds to the + English expressions <em>need to</em> or <em>be necessary to</em>, indicating + necessity, as in <em>You need to do something about those clowns in the yard</em>, + or <em>It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.20</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DEC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Decisive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DECISIVE</font> corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in <em>Peter decided to cook + breakfast</em> or <em>Colleen chose to visit the clowns</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.21</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PTV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Proclivitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROCLIVITIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>tend to, be apt to</em>, or <em>be prone to</em>, indicating + tendency, as in <em>The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs</em>, or <em>Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.22</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>VOL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Voluntative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">VOLUNTATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as “offer to” or “volunteer to,” indicating an act of offering + as in <em>The foreman offered to put poison in my beer</em>, or <em>Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.23</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ACC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Accordative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ACCORDATIVE</font> corresponds to the English + expression <em>agree to</em>, as in <em>Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.24</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>INC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inclinative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INCLINATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>to feel like</em> or <em>be up for</em>, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in <em>He’s up for going to the shindig</em>, + or <em>Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.25</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DVR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Divertive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DIVERTIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>like to</em>, or <em>enjoy</em>, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in <em>Boys like to dream about cars</em>, or <em>My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.26</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DVT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Devotive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEVOTIVE</font> corresponds to English expressions + such as <em>be devoted to</em> or <em>be committed to</em>, indicating devotion + as in <em>Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town</em>, + or <em>They were devoted to rooting for the losing team</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.27</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PFT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Preferential</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PREFERENTIAL</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>prefer</em>, or <em>would rather that</em>, indicating + preference as in <em>He’d rather work by himself</em>, or <em>Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.28</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IPS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Impressional</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMPRESSIONAL</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>have an impression that, have a hunch that</em>, or <em>feel that</em>, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in <em>I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic</em>, or <em>Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.29</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PMS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Promissory</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROMISSORY</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>promise</em>, or <em>swear that</em>, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in <em>She promised that her son would visit my daughter</em>, + or <em>Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.</strong></font>30 Examples of Modality in Use</h3> +<blockquote> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Rü n-nwà aktlàc utputānukt.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ma/ACT</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font color="#FF0000" size="-1"><strong>CRD</strong></font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font size="-1">MNF</font>-‘woman’-<font size="-1">DEL/A/CSL/UNI</font> <font size="-1">FML</font>-‘travel’-<font size="-1">DEL/U/CSL/UNI</font>-<font size="-1">AGC<font size="-2">1</font>/5</font>-<font size="-1">DEF<font size="-2">1</font>/9</font></font><br /> + <em>She thinks the travelers are women.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Äđü iň-ňmà atác.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSL/DPX</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">ua</font>-<font size="-1">ACT</font> <font size="-1">RCP</font>-<font color="#FF0000" size="-1"><strong>DVR</strong></font> <font size="-1">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font></font>-‘write message’-<font size="-1">DEL/A/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>The two of them like writing to each other.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">El-lnà alairàpt àxmoel gmèh.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1"><strong><font color="#FF0000">PFT</font></strong> IFL</font>-<span class="style14">PRC/CTX/PPS</span>-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSS</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘eat/drink food’-<font size="-1">PRX/A/CSL/UNI</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘mother’-<font size="-1">ACT</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘child’-<font size="-1">IND</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/AGG</font> <em><br /> + </em></font><em>Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.</em></p> + <p align="justify"> </p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><a name="Sec6o2" id="Sec6o2"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.2 VALENCE</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">In Ilaksh, the term <strong>Valence</strong> is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ilaksh explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:</p> +<table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="23%">1a) <em>I found an old man.</em></td> + <td width="5%"><font size="+2"><strong>→</strong></font></td> + <td width="72%">1b) <em>I found an empty can.</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2a) <em>I threw the ball at Sam.</em></td> + <td><font size="+2"><strong>→</strong></font></td> + <td>2b) <em>I threw the ball at the window.</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3a) <em>I performed in front of her.</em></td> + <td><font size="+2"><strong>→</strong></font></td> + <td>3b) <em>I performed in front of the wall.</em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (<em>an old man, Sam, </em>and<em> her</em>), while the second +member of each pair has an inanimate object (<em>an empty can, the window, </em>and<em> the wall</em>). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below: </p> +<table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="23%">1c) <em>I met an old man.</em></td> + <td width="5%"><font size="+2"><strong>→</strong></font></td> + <td width="72%">1d) <em>* I met an empty can.</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2c) <em>I threw Sam the ball.</em></td> + <td><font size="+2"><strong>→</strong></font></td> + <td>2d) <em>* I threw the window the ball.</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3c) <em>I entertained her.</em></td> + <td><font size="+2"><strong>→</strong></font></td> + <td>3d) <em>* I entertained the wall.</em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs <em>find</em>, <em>throw at</em>, and <em>perform</em> have been + replaced by the semantically similar <em>meet</em>, <em>throw</em>, and <em>entertain</em>. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can <em>find</em> an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot <em>meet</em> an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can <em>throw a ball at Sam</em> without Sam noticing, but if + I <em>throw Sam a ball</em> it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can <em>perform</em> in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t <em>entertain</em> them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in <em>He and I jog together</em>, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence <em>I met the old man</em> (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in <em>We + love each other</em>. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in <em>I + played along with him</em> (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in <em>I threw Sam the ball</em> (i.e., and so he caught it).Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ilaksh into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in <em>out-perform</em> are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as <em>find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain</em>, etc. In Ilaksh, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively +as well as co-actively.</p> +<p align="justify">There are fourteen valences in Ilaksh: the <font size="2">MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE</font>, + and <font size="2">MUTUAL</font>. Valence is shown by the vocalic <strong>V<span class="style12">v</span></strong> valence prefix to a valence/modality adjunct. There are two variations for each <strong>V<span class="style12">v</span></strong> value; the choice of which of the two varations to use is dependent on the value of the <strong>C<span class="style12">v</span></strong> Validation prefix explained later in <a href="#Sec6o3">Section 6.3</a>. </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="112" valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style20"></span><strong>((C<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong><span class="style20"><br /> + </span></div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style20"><strong><span class="style6">V<font size="-1">v</font>)</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="137" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">d</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="143" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">d</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<font size="-1">p</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">b</font>))</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a name="Table12" id="Table12"></a>Table + 16: V<font size="-1">v</font> Valence Prefixes</strong></font><br /> + (The two variations work in conjunction with <strong>C<font size="-1">v</font></strong> Validation prefix explained later in <a href="#Sec6o3">Section 6.3</a>)</p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td width="23" valign="top"><div align="center"> </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>Label</strong></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top"><div><strong>Valence name</strong></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>Var 1 </strong></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><strong>Var 2 </strong></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" valign="top"><div align="left">1</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MNO</font></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Monoactive</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">a</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ai</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" valign="top"><div align="left">2</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRL</font></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Parallel</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">e</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ei</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" valign="top"><div align="left">3</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CRO</font></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Corollary</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">o</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">oi</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" valign="top"><div align="left">4</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">RCP</font></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Reciprocal</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">i</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">iu</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" valign="top"><div align="left">5</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CPL</font></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Complementary</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">u</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ui</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" valign="top"><div align="left">6</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NNR</font></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Nonrelational</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ä</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">au</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" valign="top"><div align="left">7</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DUP</font></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Duplicative</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ë</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">eu</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="left">8</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEM</font></div></td> + <td width="128" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Demonstrative</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ö</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ou</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="left">9</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">RES</font></div></td> + <td width="128" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Resistive</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ü</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ëu</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="left">10</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IMT</font></div></td> + <td width="128" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Imitative</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ia</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ua</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="left">11</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNG</font></div></td> + <td width="128" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Contingent</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ie</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ue</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="left">12</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PTI</font></div></td> + <td width="128" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Participative</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">io</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">uo</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="left">13</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IDC</font></div></td> + <td width="128" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Indicative</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">iö</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">uö</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="left">14</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MUT</font></div></td> + <td width="128" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mutual</font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">ea</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong><font color="#000000">oa</font></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br /> + The fourteen valences are explained as follows:<br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>MNO</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Monoactive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MONOACTIVE</font> valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Parallel</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PARALLEL</font> valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as <em>The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CRO</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Corollary</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COROLLARY</font> valence is similar to the <font size="2">PARALLEL</font>, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as <em>The children played in + the yard </em>(i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or <em>The + band played my favorite song</em> (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RCP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Reciprocal<a name="Sec6o2o4" id="Sec6o2o4"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">RECIPROCAL</font> valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in <em>They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CPL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Complementary</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPLEMENTARY</font> valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as <em>The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story</em>, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>NNR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Nonrelational</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NONRELATIONAL</font> valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in <em>He shaved + while she did something else</em>. The way an Ilaksh sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the <font size="2">NONRELATIONAL</font> valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DUP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Duplicative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DUPLICATIVE</font> valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences <em>Let’s draw a picture</em> (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), <em>They both read that book</em> (i.e., first + one, then the other), <em>I bought a new car</em> (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DEM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Demonstrative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEMONSTRATIVE</font> valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ilaksh sentence constructed as <em>We played chess</em> with + the verb in the <font size="2">DEMONSTRATIVE</font> valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as <em>They + fought us</em> in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RES</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Resistive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">RESISTIVE</font> valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as <em>We took the + children to see the clowns anyway</em> (i.e., they didn’t want to go), <em>They fed me liver just the same</em> (i.e., I can’t stand liver), <em>Nevertheless, he told us the story</em> (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.10</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IMT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Imitative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMITATIVE</font> valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ilaksh sentence <em>The clown juggled three balls for + the child</em> in the <font size="2">IMITATIVE</font> valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.11</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CNG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Contingent</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONTINGENT</font> valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ilaksh sentence <em>I started the campfire for my friend</em> in the <font size="2">CONTINGENT</font> implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.12</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PTI</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Participative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PARTICIPATIVE</font> valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ilaksh sentence <em>They raced </em>in the <font size="2">PARTICIPATIVE</font> means ‘They + each took part in the race.’</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.13</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IDC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Indicative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INDICATIVE</font> valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence <em>I looked at her</em> in the <font size="2">INDICATIVE</font> would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence <em>I spoke to them</em> would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.14</strong></font></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>MUT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><font size="4"><strong>The Mutual</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MUTUAL</font> valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in <em>She and I take turns cleaning</em> or <em>They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes</em>.</p> +<h3><br /> + <br /> +<font size="4"><strong>6.2.</strong></font>15 Examples of Valence in Use</h3> +<blockquote> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Un-nà uvéstra tu guiliënìk ilákš.</font></strong><br /> + <font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CPL</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font size="-1">FML</font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘study’-<font size="-1">GRD/M/CSL/UNI</font> <font size="-1">1M</font>-<font size="-1">EFF</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘illness’-<font size="-1">ABS</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font>-<font size="-1">AGC<font size="-2">2</font>/7</font>-<font size="-1">SSD<font size="-2">1</font>/1 IFL/RPV</font>-‘speak’-<font size="-1">OBL</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/COA/CST</font></font><br /> + <em>I’m teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">In-nà alpçulámz kiàll.</font></strong><br /> + <font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>RCP</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font size="-1"> IFL</font>-<font size="-1">STA</font>-‘smile’<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font>-<font size="-1">MOT<font size="-2">1</font>/5</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘person’-<font size="-1">AFF</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/DPX</font></font><br /> + <em>The couple can’t help smiling at each other.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Iön-nà xtàl axmëèl ukšŭl.</font></strong><br /> + <font color="#FF0000"><strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IDC</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font size="-1">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font></font>-‘see’<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘father’-<font size="-1">IND</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> <font size="-1"> FML</font>-‘clown’-<font size="-1">OBL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font></font></font><br /> + <em>The clown gets the meaning of father’s look. </em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Äđü iň-ňmà atác.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSL/DPX</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">ma</font>-<font size="-1">ACT</font> <span class="style6"><strong><font size="-1">RCP</font></strong></span>-<span class="style7"><font size="-1">DVR</font></span> <font size="-1">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font></font>-‘write message’-<font size="-1">DEL/A/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>The two of them like writing to each other.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">El-lnà alairàpt àxmoel gmèh.</font></strong><br /> + <span class="style6"><strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRL</font></strong></span><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1"><span class="style7">PFT</span> IFL</font>-<span class="style14">PRC/CTX/PPS</span>-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSS</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘eat/drink food’-<font size="-1">PRX/A/CSL/UNI</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘mother’-<font size="-1">ACT</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘child’-<font size="-1">IND</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/AGG</font> <em><br /> + </em></font><em>Mother prefers that the children stop eating together.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong><br /> +</strong></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td height="25"><a name="Sec6o3" id="Sec6o3"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.3 VALIDATION</strong></font> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ilaksh. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. Validation is another of the few areas where Ilaksh morphology differs from that of Ithkuil, in that Ithkuil's nine validations have been expanded to fourteen in Ilaksh. Of these 14 validations, five refer to non-hearsay types of evidence, while nine refer to hearsay situations. These nine hearsay categories are distinguished by a two-fold matrix of whether the source of the hearsay is considered by the speaker to be trustworthy and whether the statement/information is potentially verifiable. The exactitude of Ilaksh evidential categories is impossible to capture in English translation except through cumbersome paraphrase, but can be approximated in a rough way using phrases such as <em>reportedly, presumably, supposedly, purportedly, allegedly, rumour has it, I have a feeling that,</em> etc. </p> +<p align="justify">The 14 validations are shown by one of seven consonantal <strong>C<span class="style14">v</span></strong> prefixes (including a null prefix, i.e., the absence of a prefix) combined with one of two variations in the <strong>V<span class="style14">v</span></strong> valence affix described above in Section 6.2. </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="112" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>((C<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>V<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="137" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">d</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="143" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">d</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<font size="-1">p</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">b</font>))</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> +The values for these prefixes are shown in Table 17 below as well as the meaning (description of evidential basis) of each validation.<br /> +</p> + + <span class="style13"><strong>Table 17(a) and (b): Cv Validation Prefixes With Vv Variants </strong></span><br /> + <br /> + <table width="796" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="24" valign="top"> </td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Label</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="140" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Name</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C<span class="style14">v</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<span class="style14">v</span><br /> + variant</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="460" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Evidential Basis </font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">CNF</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style13"><font color="#000000">CONFIRMATIVE</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">—</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td valign="top">direct observation/knowledge and verifiable by others </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">AFM</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style13">AFFIRMATIVE</td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">—</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td valign="top">direct observation/knowledge but unknown verifiability by others </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">3</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">RPT</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style13"><font color="#000000">REPORTIVE</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>w-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td valign="top">direct observation/knowledge but unverifiable by others </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="24" valign="top"><div align="center">4</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">INF</div></td> + <td width="140" valign="top" class="style13"><font color="#000000">INFERENTIAL</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>w-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="460" valign="top"><div>inference</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="24" valign="top"><div align="center">5</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">ITU</div></td> + <td width="140" valign="top" class="style13"><font color="#000000">INTUITIVE</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>y-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td width="460" valign="top"><div>intuition/feeling</div></td> + </tr> + </table> + <br /> +<strong>Hearsay Categories</strong> + <br /> +<table width="558" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Label</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Name</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Vv<br /> + variant</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Source<br /> + Trustworthy?</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Verifiable?</font> + </strong></div> + <div align="center"></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">6</div></td> + <td width="45" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">PSM</div></td> + <td width="156" valign="top"><div align="left" class="style13"><font color="#000000">PRESUMPTIVE</font></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>y-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">7</div></td> + <td width="45" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">PSM2</div></td> + <td width="156" valign="top"><div align="left" class="style13"><font color="#000000">PRESUMPTIVE 2 </font></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>h-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">8</div></td> + <td width="45" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">PPT</div></td> + <td width="156" valign="top" class="style13">PURPORTIVE</td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>h-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">No</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">9</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">PPT2</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style13">PURPORTIVE 2 </td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>hw-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">10</div></td> + <td width="45" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">CJT</div></td> + <td width="156" valign="top"><div align="left" class="style13"><font color="#000000">CONJECTURAL </font></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>hw-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">11</div></td> + <td width="45" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">DUB</div></td> + <td width="156" valign="top"><div align="left" class="style13"><font color="#000000">DUBITATIVE</font> </div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>hm-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">No</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">12</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">TEN</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left" class="style13"><font color="#000000">TENTATIVE</font> </div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>hm-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">No</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">13</div></td> + <td width="45" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">PUT</div></td> + <td width="156" valign="top"><div align="left" class="style13"><font color="#000000">PUTATIVE</font></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>hn-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">No</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="27" valign="top"><div align="center">14</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style9">IPB</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left" class="style13">IMPROBABLE</div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1"><strong>hn-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="52" valign="top"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="87" valign="top"><div align="center">No</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">No</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <br /> + <span class="style7">6.3.1 Examples of Validation in Use</span></h3> +<blockquote> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Yuin-nà uvéstra ru guiliënìk ilákš.</font></strong><br /> + <font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PSM</strong></font><span class="style7"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CPL</font></span><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font size="-1">FML</font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘study’-<font size="-1">GRD/M/CSL/UNI</font> <font size="-1">ma</font>-<font size="-1">EFF</font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘illness’-<font size="-1">ABS</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font>-<font size="-1">AGC<font size="-2">2</font>/7</font>-<font size="-1">SSD<font size="-2">1</font>/1 IFL/RPV</font>-‘speak’-<font size="-1">OBL</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/COA/CST</font></font><br /> + <em>He's presumably teaching the nurse to speak Ilaksh.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1"><span class="style7">Hiun-nà</span> alpçulámz kiàll.</font></strong><br /> + <font color="#FF0000" size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PPT</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style7"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1">RCP</font></span> <font size="-1"> IFL</font>-<font size="-1">STA</font>-‘smile’<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">MOT<font size="-2">1</font>/5</font></font></font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘person’-<font size="-1">AFF</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/DPX</font></font><br /> + <em>Purportedly, the couple can’t help smiling at each other.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1"><span class="style7">Äđü</span> hmiň-ňmà atác.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSL/DPX</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">ma</font>-<font size="-1">ACT</font> <span class="style6"><strong><font size="-1">DUB</font></strong></span>-<span class="style7"><span class="style14">RCP</span><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1">DVR</font></span> <font size="-1">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font></font>-‘write message’-<font size="-1">DEL/A/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>Supposedly the two of them like writing to each other but who knows if it’s true or not.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><a name="Sec6o4" id="Sec6o4"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.4 FUNCTION </strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Function refers to the general relationship a verb has to its noun participants based on whether the verb represents a tangible/physical act, an existential or psychological state, a subjective description, a statement of identification, inherent motion-in-place, a statement of location or position in space, or a transformation from one state to another. In this manner, a given verb can manifest different interpretations without the need for relexification or paraphrase. This addresses a lexico-semantic flaw in languages such as English where new verbs sometimes arise directly from nouns but the new verbal meaning can't be predicted until the verb is used in context. For example, imagine + an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as + in <em>Let’s ‘apple’ today</em>. Would this mean <em>to pick + apple?, to be an apple?, to grow an apple?, to look like an apple?, to turn something into an apple?</em> Without + a standardized system for the lexico-semantic function of verbs, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.</p> +<p align="justify"> Through the morphological category of function, Ilaksh provides such a standardized system, i.e., eight ways by which to interpret such verbal meaning. This is very important since all formatives are capable of both nominal (noun) and verbal meanings. Thus, by means of the different functions, the stem <span class="style9">xtà-</span> ‘eye’ can be made to have verbal meanings as diverse as <em>to be an eye</em>, <em>to be like an eye</em>, <em>to turn into an eye</em>, <em>to cause an eyeball to move (in place)</em>, <em>to be in an eye-like state</em>, <em>to be positioned where the eye is situated</em>, and <em>to move an eye from one place to another</em>. We will see later in <a href="#Sec6o5">Section 6.5</a> that these eight semantic interpretations can be infinitely expanded by means of stem incorporation and the category of Format. </p> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> + <tr> + <td height="150"><p align="center"><strong>NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL</strong></p> + <p> In Ithkuil, this concept of Function was called Conflation and worked in conjunction with two other categories called Derivation and Format. However, in Ilaksh, the notion of Derivation has been abandoned in favor of allowing <em>any</em> formative stem to be incorporated directly into another stem, a process which will be described at length in <a href="#Sec6o5">Section 6.5</a>. As a result, the notion of Conflation from Ithkuil has been decoupled from the concept of Format. Because of this change, the concept has been renamed Function and is described in this section on its own. </p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Function is shown by the <strong>C<span class="style12">m</span></strong> modification of the consonantal portion of the verbal stem within the formative itself, which usually means the adding a consonantal prefix + to the stem consonant; however the exact phonological manifestation of each <strong>C<font size="-1">m</font></strong> modification is dependent on the specific stem consonant or consonant cluster. </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>((V<span class="style12">L</span>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">i</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style12">c</span></strong> </div></td> + <td width="90" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style12">x</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style12">p</span>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>(C<span class="style12">m</span>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">r</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style12">r</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="77" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">a</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<span class="style12">x</span>C)</strong></div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<span class="style12">F</span></strong><strong> </strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style12">b</span>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="99" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p>The specific C<font size="-1">m</font> modifications are described below in Section 6.4.9 <span class="style6"></span>. The eight Functions are the <font size="-1">OPERATIVE</font>, <font size="-1">STATIVE</font>, <font size="-1">MANIFESTIVE</font>, <font size="-1">INCHOATIVE,</font> <font size="-1">DESCRIPTIVE,</font> <font size="-1">ACTIVE</font>, <font size="-1">POSITIONAL</font> and<font size="-1"> TRANSLATIVE </font>. They are described in the following sections. </p> +<p><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.4.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OPR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Operative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><font size="-1">OPERATIVE</font> function is unmarked, i.e., there is no change to the stem consonant or consonant cluster. The <font size="-1">OPERATIVE</font> indicates that the verb refers to a tangible or physical act or cause-and-effect event: to perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function.</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.4.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>STA</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Stative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><font size="-1">The STATIVE</font> function is usually marked by prefixing or suffixing an -<span class="style11"><strong>l</strong></span>- to the stem consonant, although the specific pattern is dependent on the stem consonant itself, as shown in Table 18 below. <font size="-1">The STATIVE</font> indicates a stative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a (temporary) state. It does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of copula identification as in “I am John”</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.4.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>MNF</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Manifestive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p><font size="-1">MANIFESTIVE</font> function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an <strong>-<span class="style11">r</span></strong>- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant; see Table 18 below for details. The <font size="-1">MANIFESTIVE</font> indicates that the verb represents a manifestion or naming of the identity of a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” + copula of identification in Western languages.</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.4.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ICH</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inchoative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><font size="-1">INCHOATIVE</font> function is marked<span class="style7"> by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular st</span>em consonant or consonant cluster; see Table 18 below for specifics. The <font size="-1">INCHOATIVE</font> indicates that the verb refers to a transformation from + one state to another or (trans-)formation of an identity<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</font></p> +<div align="justify" class="style7"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.4.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DSC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Descriptive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><span class="style7"><font size="-1">DESCRIPTIVE</font> function is marked by a change in the preceding </span><strong>V<span class="style12">c</span></strong><span class="style7"> vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in <a href="#Sec6o5o2">Section 6.5.2</a> for details). The <font size="-1">DESCRIPTIVE </font>indicates descriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of. This sense is the nearest + Ilaksh equivalent to English adjectives.</span></p> +<div align="justify" class="style7"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.4.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ATV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Active</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style7"><font size="-1">ACTIVE</font> function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -<span class="style11"><strong>l</strong></span>- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in <a href="#Sec6o5o2">Section 6.5.2</a> for details). The <font size="-1">ACTIVE</font> indicates action or motion <em>in situ</em>, i.e., action performed in place or movement in place (as in shaking, + spinning, wagging, wiggling, jumping up and down, etc.).<br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style7"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.4.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PSN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Positional </strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style7"><font size="-1">POSITIONAL</font> function is generally marked by prefixing or suffixing an -<span class="style11"><strong>r</strong></span>- to the stem consonant or consonant cluster, depending on the stem consonant (see Table 18 below for details) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in <a href="#Sec6o5o2">Section 6.5.2</a> for details). The <font size="-1">POSITIONAL</font> indicates that the verb refers to a position or location, + i.e. to be situated in a location/position in space.<br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style7"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.4.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>TN</strong><strong>V</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Translative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style7"><font size="-1">TRANSLATIVE</font> function is generally marked by prefixing a homologous nasal to the stem consonant or consonant cluster (i.e., a nasal pronounced in the same place of articulation as the stem consonant or first consonant of the stem's consonant cluster), although the specific pattern is dependent on the particular stem consonant or consonant cluster (see Table 18 below for specifics) in conjunction with a change in the preceding Vc vocalic affix from its standard value to its secondary value (see Table 20 in <a href="#Sec6o5o2">Section 6.5.2</a> for details). The<font size="-1"> TRANSLATIVE </font>indicates that the verb indicates a change in position or location is taking place, + i.e. to move or be moved from one location/position in space to another.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style7"> </p> +<h3>6.4.9 Values of the C<span class="style14">m</span> Function Affixes/Modifications and Alternation of the V<span class="style14">c</span> Affix </h3> +<p align="justify">The specific values for the stem-consonant modifications associated with Function are shown in Table 18 below. There are several different patterns of <strong>C<span class="style14">m</span></strong><span class="style13"><strong></strong></span> prefixes and/or modification of the <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong><span class="style13"><strong></strong></span> stem consonant or consonant cluster. Note that the <font size="-1">OPERATIVE</font> function is shown by a zero-form, i.e., it is unmarked, the Function being shown simply by the presence of the default <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong><span class="style13"><strong></strong></span> stem consonant or consonant cluster. Also note that the last four of the Functions (the <font size="-1">DESCRIPTIVE,</font> <font size="-1">ACTIVE</font>, <font size="-1">POSITIONAL</font> and<font size="-1"> TRANSLATIVE</font>) are shown using the same prefix forms as the first four, with the addition of a modification of the value of the verb's V<span class="style14">c</span> Affix to its secondary Form (see <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o6">Sections 3.6</a> and <a href="#Sec6o5o2">6.5.2</a> below). </p> +<p><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Tables 18(a)-(f): Function Prefixes + for Each <span class="style15">C<span class="style14">r</span></span> Stem Consonant or Consonant Cluster</strong></font><span class="style13"><br /> + *Asterisked Functions are indicated by addition of alternation of <strong>V<span class="style14">c</span></strong> affix to secondary form (see <a href="#Sec6o5o2">Sec. 6.5.2</a>)</span></p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><strong>(a)</strong> Standard pattern: <strong>( )-</strong>, <strong>l-</strong>, <strong>r-</strong>, and Homologous Nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (<strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong>) element, illustrated below by <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong> elements <strong>p</strong>, <strong>t</strong>, and <strong>kt</strong>. +<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#000000"> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div align="left"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster </font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(<strong>OPR/DSP* Function </strong>) </font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + STA/ATV</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + MNF/PSN</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + ICH/TNV*</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>p</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lp</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rp</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">mp</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>t</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lt</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rt</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">nt</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>kt</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lkt</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rkt</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ňkt</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><strong><br /> +(b)</strong> Pattern: <strong><strong>( )-</strong>, l-</strong>, <strong>r-</strong>, and homologous nasal prefixed to the stem consonant (<strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong>) element but with deletion of the initial stem consonant <strong>p-</strong> or <strong>k-</strong> following the nasal prefix due to assimilation with the nasal. This pattern applies to the following <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong> elements only: <strong>pt</strong>, <strong>pk</strong>, <strong>ptl</strong>, <strong>ptr</strong>, <strong>ptř</strong>, <strong>p<strong>ŧ</strong></strong>, <strong><strong>p<strong>ŧ</strong>l</strong></strong>, <strong><strong><strong>p<strong>ŧ</strong>r</strong></strong></strong>, <strong><strong>k<strong>ŧ</strong></strong>, <strong><strong>k<strong>ŧ</strong>l</strong></strong>, <strong><strong><strong>k<strong>ŧ</strong>r</strong></strong></strong>, ps</strong>, <strong>pš</strong>, <strong>ks</strong>, <strong>kš</strong>, <strong><strong>psr</strong>, <strong>pš</strong>r, <strong>ksr</strong>, <strong>kšr</strong>, <strong>psl</strong>, <strong>pšl</strong>, <strong>ksl</strong>, <strong>kšl</strong>, <strong>pst</strong>, <strong>pšt</strong>, <strong>kst</strong>, <strong>kšt</strong>, <strong>ps</strong>k <strong>pšk</strong>, <strong>ksp</strong>, <strong>kš</strong>p, bz</strong>, <strong>bž</strong>, <strong>gz</strong>, <strong>gž</strong>, <strong>bzg</strong>, <strong>bžg</strong>, <strong>gzb</strong>, <strong>gžb</strong>,<strong>gzd</strong>, and<strong> gžd</strong>. Four of these elements are illustrated below: </p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#000000"> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div align="left"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster </font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(<strong>OPR/DSP* Function </strong>) </font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + STA/ATV</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + MNF/PSN</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + ICH/TNV*</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>pt</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lpt</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rpt</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">mt</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>ptr</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lptr</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rptr</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">mtr</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top" class="style17">ksr</td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lksr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rksr</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center">ňsr</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top" class="style17">gz</td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lgz</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rgz</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center">ňz</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><br /> +<strong>c)</strong> Pattern: <strong>-()</strong>, <strong>-</strong><strong>l</strong>, <strong>-</strong><strong>r</strong>, and <strong><strong>-</strong>w</strong> are added as suffixes to the <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong> element. This pattern applies to the following <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong> elements only: <strong>pp</strong>, <strong>tt</strong>, <strong>kk</strong>, <strong>bb</strong>, <strong>dd</strong>, <strong>gg</strong>, <strong>ff</strong>, <strong>ŧŧ,</strong> <strong>xx</strong>, <strong>vv</strong>, <strong>đđ</strong>, <strong>ss</strong>, <strong>šš</strong>, <strong>zz</strong>, <strong>žž</strong>, <strong>mm</strong>, <strong>ňň</strong>, <strong>žž</strong>, <strong>bg</strong>, and <strong>gd</strong>. Two of these elements are illustrated below: </p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#000000"> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div align="left"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster </font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(<strong>OPR/DSP* Function </strong>) </font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + STA/ATV</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + MNF/PSN</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + ICH/TNV*</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>pp</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ppl</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ppr</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ppw</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>gd</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">gdl</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">gdr</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">gdw</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><br /> +<strong>d)</strong> Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a geminated consonant within the <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong> element is simplified to a non-geminate when taking the <strong>-</strong><strong>l</strong>, <strong>-</strong><strong>r</strong>, and nasal prefixes. This pattern applies to the following <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong> elements only: <strong>ppy</strong>, <strong>tty</strong>, <strong>kky</strong>, <strong>bby</strong>, <strong>ddy</strong>, <strong>ggy</strong>, <strong>ffy</strong>, <strong>ŧŧy,</strong> <strong>xxy</strong>, <strong>vvy</strong>, and <strong>đđy</strong>. Two of these elements are illustrated below: </p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#000000"> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div align="left"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster </font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(<strong>OPR/DSP* Function </strong>) </font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + STA/ATV</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + MNF/PSN</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + ICH/TNV*</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>ppy</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lpy</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rpy</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">mpy</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>xxy</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lxy</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rxy</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ňxy</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><strong><br /> + <span class="style13">e)</span></strong><span class="style13"> Same as standard pattern (a) above, except that a <strong>-w</strong> suffix is substituted for the nasal prefix in the <span class="style14">INCHOATIVE</span> and <span class="style14">TRANSLATIVE</span> functions. This pattern applies to the following <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong> elements only: <strong>m</strong>, <strong>n</strong>, <strong><strong>ň</strong></strong>, <strong>c</strong>, <strong>č</strong>, <strong>ż</strong>, <strong>j</strong>, <strong><strong>ck</strong>, <strong>čk</strong>, <strong>gż</strong>, <strong>jg</strong>, <strong>cp</strong>, <strong>č</strong>p, <strong>ct</strong>, <strong><strong><strong>čt</strong></strong></strong>, </strong> <strong>vm</strong>, <strong>vn</strong>, <strong><strong><strong>đ</strong>m</strong>, <strong><strong>đ</strong>n</strong>, <strong>pf</strong>, <strong>bv</strong>, <strong>dv</strong>,</strong>and <strong>gv</strong>. Two of these elements are illustrated below: </span></p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#000000"> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div align="left"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster </font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(<strong>OPR/DSP* Function </strong>) </font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + STA/ATV</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + MNF/PSN</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + ICH/TNV*</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>m</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lm</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rm</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">mw</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div><font size="+1"><strong>gv</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">lgv</font></div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">rgv</font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">gvw</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br /> + <span class="style13"><strong>f)</strong> The following <strong>C<span class="style14">r</span></strong> elements are individual in their patterning for each Function: </span></p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#000000"> + <tr> + <td width="192" valign="top"><div align="left"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM Consonant or Consonant Cluster </font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(<strong>OPR/DSP* Function </strong>) </font></div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + STA/ATV</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="88" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + MNF/PSN</strong></font>*</div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + ICH/TNV*</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">r</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">hh </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řs</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">l</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řt</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">rr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ňw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">hr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řš </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">ll</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řy</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">hl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řth</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">ry</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">xw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">xv </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řç</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">ly</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rly</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řd</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">ř</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lř</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řk</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">rry</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">çř</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řřw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řm</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style17">lly</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">llw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rrw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řn</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>řř</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řřy</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řh</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>my</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">pw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">bw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">mw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>ny</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">tw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">dw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">nw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>cc</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">pc</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">fc</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">cw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>čč</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">pč</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">fč</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">čw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>ddz</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">thc</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">bdz</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">dzw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>jj</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">thč</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">bj</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">jw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>bd </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lbd </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rbd </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">md </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>bdh</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lbdh</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rbdh</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">mdh</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>gdh</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lgdh</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rgdh</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ňdh</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>db </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ldb</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rdb</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">nb</div></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>cm</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lcm</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rcm</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">smw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>dg </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ldg </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rdg </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">mg </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>cl</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lcl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rcl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">nsw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>čl</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">čl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">čl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">nšw </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>dzl</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ldzl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rdzl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">nzw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>jl</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ljl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rjl</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">nžw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>cř </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lcř </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rcř </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ssw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>čř </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lčř </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rčř </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ššw </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>dzř </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ldzř </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rdzř </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">zzw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>jř </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ljř </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rjř </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">žžw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>cr </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lcr </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rcr </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">sw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>čr </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">lčr </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rčr </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">šw </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>dzr </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ldzr </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rdzr </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">zw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>jr </strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ljr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">rjr</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">žw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>mmy</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">vw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">smy</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">zmy</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>nny</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">dhw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">sny</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">zny</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>ml</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">fw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">psw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">spw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>nl</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">thw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ksw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">stw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>mr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">kw </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">pšw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">špw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>nr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">gw </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">kšw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">štw</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>ňl</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">kc </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">xc </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">ňř</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>ňr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">kč </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">xč </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">gj</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>mř</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">sfw </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">šfw </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řņ</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div class="style11"><strong>nř</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">skw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">škw</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11">řg</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<p>All remaining <strong>Cr</strong> elements not referenced in the tables above follow the standard pattern (a). </p> +<p class="style13"> </p> +<h3> 6.4.10 Examples of Function </h3> +<p>Here follow examples of the eight functions applied to the same stem <font size="+1"><strong>urà</strong></font> ‘prepare(d) food’:</p> +<blockquote> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="7%" height="32"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OPR</font></strong></td> + <td width="18%"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OPERATIVE</font></td> + <td width="75%"><font size="+1"><strong>urà</strong></font> <em> ‘prepare(d)/cook(ed) food’</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="34"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STA</font></strong></td> + <td><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STATIVE</font></td> + <td><font size="+1"><strong>ulrà</strong></font> <em> ‘to be in a state of preparing/cooking food’</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="34"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MNF</font></strong></td> + <td><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MANIFESTIVE</font></td> + <td><font size="+1"><strong>uhhà</strong></font> <em>‘to be prepared/cooked food’</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="29"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ICH</font></strong></td> + <td><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INCHOATIVE</font></td> + <td><font size="+1"><strong>uřsà</strong></font> <em>‘to become/turn into prepared/cooked food’</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="32"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DSP</font></strong></td> + <td><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DESCRIPTIVE</font></td> + <td><font size="+1"><strong>ärà</strong></font> <em>‘to be like prepared/cooked food’</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="32"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ATV</font></strong></td> + <td><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ACTIVE</font></td> + <td><font size="+1"><strong>älrà </strong></font><em>‘prepared/cooked food moving around’ [e.g., in the pan or on the plate] </em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="36"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PSN</font></strong></td> + <td><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POSITIONAL</font></td> + <td><font size="+1"><strong>ähhà</strong></font> <em>‘to be situated at or placed with the prepared/cooked food’</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="36" class="style9">TNV</td> + <td><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TRANSLATIVE</font></td> + <td><font size="+1"><strong>äřsà</strong></font> <em>‘to move the prepared/cooked food’[e.g., from one place to another] </em></td> + </tr> + </table> +</blockquote> +<p>Additional examples of Function:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Ūalkresk zìhh ùdvüöl.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL/RSL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<span class="style26"><font size="-1">STA</font></span>-‘inside-out’-<font size="-1">PRX/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘article of clothing’-<font size="-1">OBL</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/ASO/AGG </font></font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘wife’-<font size="-1">POS</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>His wife’s clothes are inside-out.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Epsiolřūl aktäàl.</font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">IFL</font>-<span class="style7"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">PST</font></font></span><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">/ITR/PPS</font>-<font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TMP</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font></font><span class="style26"><font size="-1">ATV</font></span>-‘circular motion’<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font size="-1"> </font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘man’-<font size="-1">IND</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font></font><br /> + <em>The man succeeded in twirling/spinning around for a while.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Y</font><font size="+1">oaňšŭl gmèint.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEC-FML/RSL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><span class="style26"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ICH</font></span><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘clown’-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font> </font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘child’-<font size="-1">ABS</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1">DEL/U/CSL/DPX</font></font><br /> + <em>The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!</em> </p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Akkoàl <strong>xtan-nwā </strong>o-uzlul.</font></strong> <br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> -‘woman’-<font size="-1">DEF<font size="-2">1</font>/8</font> ‘run’-<font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font size="-1">CRD</font> <font size="-1">IFL/RPV/CCM</font>-<span class="style26"><font size="-1">DSP</font></span>-‘gazelle’</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.</em></p> + <p align="justify"><span class="style11"><strong>Ervrekf</strong><span class="style24"> </span><strong>īfš <strong>nrūoilüb </strong>zmayüūlavz.</strong></span><br /> + <span class="style13"><span class="style14">IFL</span>-<span class="style28">PSN</span>-‘pathway’-<span class="style14">PRX/N/CSL/UNI-DCS<span class="style12">1</span>/1</span> <span class="style14">IFL</span>-‘oblique verticality’-<span class="style14">FUN</span>-<span class="style14">EXN1/6</span> <span class="style14">IFL</span>-‘valley’-<span class="style14">NAV-DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span>-<span class="style14">SCO<span class="style12">2</span>/5</span></span><br /> + <em>The path winds steeply through the canyon.</em></p> + <p> </p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><a name="Sec6o5" id="Sec6o5"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.5 INCORPORATION AND FORMAT</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p>Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed <strong>conflation</strong>. This is illustrated + in the following English sentences:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>1. <em>He bicycled south. = </em>He traveled south by bicycle.<br /> + 2. <em>She dolled herself up</em>. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.<br /> + 3. <em>They’re shelving the books</em>. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.<br /> + 4. <em>Slide me a beer</em>. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English <em>to bicycle</em> in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb <em>to doll up</em> does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, <em>to shelve</em> means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does <em>slide</em> in sentence (4).</p> +<p align="justify">As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle] <br /> + =<em> <strong>He bicycled south</strong></em>.</font></p> + <p align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll] <br /> + = <em><strong>She dolled herself up</strong></em>.</font></p> + <p align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves] <br /> + = <em><strong>They’re shelving the books</strong></em>.</font></p> + <p align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">[1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me <br /> + = <em><strong>Slide me a beer</strong></em>.</font></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that <em>to hand</em> means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but <em>to shoulder</em> does <strong>not</strong> mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder. </p> +<p align="justify">Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form. </p> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh systemizes verb conflation into a productive + scheme, in which the primary verb can convey any of eight overt senses, called <strong>formats</strong>, which in turn combine with <em><strong>any</strong></em> secondary verbal stem to convey the covert sense. The secondary verbal stem is incorporated directly into a valence/modality adjunct as an affix immediately preceding the <strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong> modality element and following the <strong>V<font size="-1">v</font></strong><span class="style20"><strong></strong></span> valence affix if present. This incorporated stem is labeled as morphological terms <strong>C<font size="-1">d</font></strong> and <strong>V<font size="-1">d</font></strong>, that is, the Stem Consonant + Stem vowel of the incorporated stem. As for the tone of the incorporated stem, it becomes the tone for the entire adjunct, to be pronounced as usual beginning with the stressed syllable, i.e., the<strong> C<span class="style12">M</span></strong> syllabic consonant. (NOTE: For those valence/modality adjuncts which do not contain a <strong>C<font size="-1">d</font></strong> + <strong>V<font size="-1">d</font></strong> incorporated stem, the default tone of the adjunct is falling tone.) </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="112" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>((C<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="137" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>(C<font size="-1">d</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="143" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>V<font size="-1">d</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<font size="-1">p</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">b</font>))</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">In addition to the tone of the incorporated stem's tone, we know from Chapter 2 that each Consonant+Vowel root in Ilaksh falls into one of three Patterns (Pattern 1 being the three holistic stems, and Patterns 2 and 3 being the six complementary stems). While the three Patterns can be shown by mutation of the <strong>C<span class="style14">d</span></strong> consonant, a way must be found to indicate which of three stems per pattern is intended, as well as the Designation of the stem (i.e., <span class="style14">FORMAL</span> versus <span class="style14">INFORMAL</span>). This is accomplished by mutating the <strong>V<span class="style14">d</span></strong> vowel element, as shown in Table 19 below. </p> +<span class="style6"><span class="style7"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 19: V<span class="style12">d</span> Mutation Series<br /> +</font></strong></span></span> +<table width="581" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="right"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem Vowel —> </font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>a</strong></div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>e</strong></div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>i</strong></div></td> + <td width="75" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong> o </strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong> u </strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="92" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Informal <br /> + Designation</font></div></td> + <td width="79" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 1</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">a</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">e</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">i</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"> o </div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"> u </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="79" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 2</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ä</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ë</div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ï</div></td> + <td width="75" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ö</div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ü</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="79" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 3</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ai</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ei</div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ëi</div></td> + <td width="75" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">oi</div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ui</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<table width="581" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="91" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Formal Designation</font></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 1</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">au</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">eu</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">iu</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ou</div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ëu</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 2</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ia</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ie</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ië</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">io</div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">i-u</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 3</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">u</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">ue</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">u-i</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">uo</div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11">uë</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<h3><a name="Sec6o5o1" id="Sec6o5o1"></a>6.5.1 Examples of Stem Incorporation</h3> +<p>Here are some examples of incorporation using the stems <font size="+1"><strong>xtā</strong></font>- <em>‘run’</em>, <font size="+1"><strong>zdā</strong></font>- <em>‘keep in holding area; contain’</em>, <font size="+1"><strong>ammyû</strong></font>- <em>‘sleep’</em>, <font size="+1"><strong>úse</strong></font>- <em>‘sing a song’</em>, <span class="style17">açrà</span>- <em>‘ingest/consume’</em>, and <font size="+1"><strong>admù</strong></font>- <em>‘cry’</em> :</p> +<blockquote> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Akkoàl xtam-mā zlul.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘woman’-<span class="style14">ACT</span>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font>-<font size="-1">DEF<font size="-2">1</font>/8</font> <strong><font color="#FF0000">‘run’</font></strong>-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DES </font> <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL/SCH</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘gazelle’-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>The woman wants to run like a gazelle.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Akkoàl <strong>xtan-nwā </strong>o-uzlul.</font></strong> <br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> -‘woman’-<font size="-1">DEF<font size="-2">1</font>/8</font> <strong><font color="#FF0000">‘run’</font></strong>-<font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font size="-1">CRD</font> <font size="-1">IFL/RPV/CCM</font>-<font size="-1">DSP</font>-‘gazelle’</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Axmëèl <strong><font size="+1"><strong>zdan-nūa </strong></font></strong></font><font size="+1">aoblelt.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-father-<font size="-1">IND</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong><font color="#FF0000">‘contain’</font></strong>-<font size="-1">MTV</font> </font> <font size="-1">IFL/OBJ</font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘clam’-<font size="-1">DEL/U/CSL/DCT</font></font><br /> + <em>Father went off clam-hunting.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Àxmäula mmyün-nï</font><span class="style24"> </span><font size="+1">î üúsel gmìel.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-mother-<font size="-1">EFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> <strong><font color="#FF0000">‘sleep’</font></strong>-<font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font size="-1">HAB</font> <font size="-1">FML/ATH</font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘sing a song’-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font> ‘child’-<font size="-1">AFF</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>Mother used to sing the child to sleep.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Çräm-mlà i</font><font size="+1">-uzgăt ukšüŭl bler.</font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FF0000">‘consume/ingest’</font></strong>-<font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">OBG</font></font> </font><font size="-1">FML/PRT</font>-<span class="style14">OPR</span>-‘buy’-<font size="-1">DEL/U/CSL/UNI</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘clown’-<font size="-1">IND</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font> ‘clam’-<font size="-1">OBL</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/DCT</font></font><br /> + <em>The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Axmièl <strong><font size="+1">seun-ná </font></strong> a-ildmùl.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-father-<font size="-1">AFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font></font><font size="-1"> </font> <font color="#FF0000"><strong>‘sing a song’</strong></font>-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font size="-1">IFL/SBQ</font>-<font size="-1">STA</font>-‘cry’</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>Father is crying because of the song.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Àxmäula axmièl dmün-nà úisel.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-mother-<font size="-1">EFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-father-<font size="-1">AFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FF0000">‘cry’</font></strong>-<font size="-1">IFL</font></font> </font> <font size="-1"> FML/ISR</font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘sing a song’</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>Mother makes father cry by singing.</em></p> + <p> </p> +</blockquote> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> + <tr> + <td height="127"><p align="center"><strong>NOTE TO THOSE FAMILIAR WITH ITHKUIL</strong></p> + <p> Ithkuil provides for a process called Derivation in which the eight formats which convey the sense of the primary verb combine with the seven conflations plus any of nearly 240 derivative conflations to yield over 2000 possible semantic combinations. While the category of Format is retained in Ilaksh, the process of Derivation has been eliminated and replaced by the process of Incorporation, allowing a theoretically unlimited number of semantic conflations for verbs. </p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3><a name="Sec6o5o2" id="Sec6o5o2"></a>6.5.2 Format </h3> +<p align="justify">As described above, the primary stem of a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ilaksh, this sense is overtly identified by the <strong>format</strong> of the verb. Format is shown as part of the <strong>V<font size="-1">c</font></strong> prefix which also shows the categories of Designation and Essence (see <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o6">Sections 3.6</a> and <a href="Chapter_3.html#Sec3o7">3.7</a>). </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>((V<span class="style12">L</span>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">i</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>V<span class="style12">c</span></strong> </div></td> + <td width="90" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style12">x</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style12">p</span>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style12">m</span>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">r</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style12">r</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="77" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">a</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<span class="style12">x</span>C)</strong></div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<span class="style12">F</span></strong><strong> </strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style12">b</span>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="99" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> Table 20 below shows the values of <strong>V<font size="-1">c</font></strong>. We have previously seen (in Secs. 3.6, and 3.7) that each of the Vc affixes has a secondary form (used in conjunction with four of the eight verbal Functions, as explained in Sec. 6.4.9 above). However, in addition to these secondary forms, all <strong>V<span class="style12">c</span></strong> affixes also have an alternate form used to indicate the presence of a <strong>C<span class="style12">x</span>+V<span class="style12">p</span></strong> Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix. These alternate forms are necessary in order to disambiguate which consonants in a complex formative belong to the formative stem from those belonging to affixes. By providing an alternate form, the reader of a complex Ilaksh formative can know that the syllable following the <strong>V<span class="style12">c</span></strong> affix is, in fact, a <strong>C<span class="style12">x</span>+V<span class="style12">p</span></strong> Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix and not the <strong>C<span class="style12">r</span>+V<span class="style12">r</span></strong> formative stem.</p> +<p align="justify"><br /> + <span class="style9">Tables 20(a) and (b): Vc Affixes: Designation/Essence/Format Affixes </span></p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="95" rowspan="2" valign="top"><br /> + <div align="center"><strong>Designation</strong></div></td> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><br /> + <div align="center"><strong>Essence</strong></div></td> + <td width="96" rowspan="2" valign="top"><br /> + <div align="center"> </div></td> + <td width="436" colspan="8" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>FORMAT</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>SCH</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>ISR</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>ATH</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>PRT</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>RSL</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>SBQ</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>CCM</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>OBJ</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="95" rowspan="4" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1"><strong> </strong></font></div> + <div align="center"><font size="-1"><strong>INFORMAL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1"><br /> + NORMAL</font></div></td> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">primary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">(a)</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ai</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">au</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ia</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ua</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">a-i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">a-u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ao</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="96" height="22" valign="top"><div align="center">2ndary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ei</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">eu</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ie</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ue</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e-i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e-u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">eo</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1">REPRESENTATIVE </font></div></td> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">primary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ï</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">iu</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ea </font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u-i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">eë</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ae</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">aö</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">2ndary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">oi</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ou</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">io</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">uo</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o-i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o-u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o-ü</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="95" rowspan="4" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1"><strong> </strong></font></div> + <div align="center"><font size="-1"><strong>FORMAL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1"><br /> + NORMAL</font></div></td> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">primary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ui</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ü</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i-u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">oa</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">oë</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">oe</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">öa</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">2ndary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ä</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">äi</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">äu</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">iä</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">uä</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">eö</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">üo</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ä-i</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1">REPRESENTATIVE </font></div></td> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">primary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ö</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">öi</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">öu</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">iö</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">uö</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ö-i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ö-u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ä-u</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">2ndary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ë</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ëi</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ëu</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ië</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">uë</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ë-i </font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ë-u </font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">äo</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p>The alternate versions of these affixes, used to indicate the presence of <strong>C<span class="style12">x</span>+V<span class="style12">p</span></strong> Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infixes, are given below: </p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="95" rowspan="2" valign="top"><br /> + <div align="center"><strong>Designation</strong></div></td> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><br /> + <div align="center"><strong>Essence</strong></div></td> + <td width="96" rowspan="2" valign="top"><br /> + <div align="center"> </div></td> + <td width="436" colspan="8" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>FORMAT</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>SCH</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>ISR</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>ATH</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>PRT</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>RSL</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>SBQ</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>CCM</strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>OBJ</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="95" rowspan="4" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1"><strong> </strong></font></div> + <div align="center"><font size="-1"><strong>INFORMAL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1"><br /> + NORMAL</font></div></td> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">primary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">a</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ai</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">au</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i<span class="style11">’</span>a</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u<span class="style11">’</span>a</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">a<span class="style11">’</span>i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">a<span class="style11">’</span>u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">a<span class="style11">’</span>o</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">2ndary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ei</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">eu</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i<span class="style11">’</span>e</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u<span class="style11">’</span>e</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e<span class="style11">’</span>i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e<span class="style11">’</span>u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e<span class="style11">’</span>o</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1">REPRESENTATIVE </font></div></td> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">primary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ï</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">iu</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e<span class="style11">’</span>a </font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u<span class="style11">’</span>i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e<span class="style11">’</span>ë</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">a<span class="style11">’</span>e</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">a<span class="style11">’</span>ö</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">2ndary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">oi</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ou</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i<span class="style11">’</span>o</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u<span class="style11">’</span>o</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o<span class="style11">’</span>i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o<span class="style11">’</span>u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o<span class="style11">’</span>ü</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="95" rowspan="4" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1"><strong> </strong></font></div> + <div align="center"><font size="-1"><strong>FORMAL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1"><br /> + NORMAL</font></div></td> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">primary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u</font><span class="style17">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ui</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ü</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i<span class="style11">’</span>u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o<span class="style11">’</span>a</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o<span class="style11">’</span>ë</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">o<span class="style11">’</span>e</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ö<span class="style11">’</span>a</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">2ndary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ä</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">äi</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">äu</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i<span class="style11">’</span>ä</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u<span class="style11">’</span>ä</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">e<span class="style11">’</span>ö</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ü<span class="style11">’</span>o</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ä<span class="style11">’</span>i</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="88" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1">REPRESENTATIVE </font></div></td> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">primary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ö</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">öi</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">öu</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i<span class="style11">’</span>ö</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u<span class="style11">’</span>ö</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ö<span class="style11">’</span>i</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ö<span class="style11">’</span>u</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ä<span class="style11">’</span>u</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="96" valign="top"><div align="center">2ndary form </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ë</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ëi</font><span class="style11">’</span></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ëu<span class="style11">’</span></font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">i<span class="style11">’</span>ë</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">u<span class="style11">’</span>ë</font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ë<span class="style11">’</span>i </font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ë<span class="style11">’</span>u </font></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="+1">ä<span class="style11">’</span>o</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"> + <tr> + <td><div align="justify"><strong>IMPORTANT NOTE</strong>: The above alternate versions of the Vc affix are used if the formative conatins a <strong>C<span class="style12">x</span>+V<span class="style12">p</span></strong> Phase/Sanction/Version/Aspect infix <strong><em>and</em></strong> only if the formative <span class="style7"><strong> C<span class="style12">r</span>+V<span class="style12">r</span> </strong></span> stem + <span class="style7"><strong>C<span class="style12">a</span></strong></span> affix are followed by one or more of the consonant-based suffixes from Chapter 7. Otherwise, the reader/listener can assume that the last consonant or consonant cluster in an Ilaksh formative is the <span class="style7"><strong>C<span class="style12">a</span></strong></span> affix and that the penultimate (second-to-last) consonant or consonantal cluster is the <span class="style7"><strong>C<span class="style12">r</span></strong></span> stem consonantal form. In this way, it is always possible to discern exactly which consonants in an Ilaksh formative correspond to the terms of the <span class="style7"><strong>((V<font size="-2">L</font> +) C<span class="style12">i</span> + V<span class="style12">c</span> (+ C<span class="style12">x</span> + V<span class="style12">p</span>) +) (C<span class="style12">m</span> +) C<span class="style12">r</span> + V<span class="style12">r</span> + C<span class="style12">a</span> (+ V<span class="style12">x</span>C ) (+ V<span class="style12">F</span> (+ C<span class="style12">b</span>)) [+ tone][+ stress]</strong></span> morphological formula.</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.5.2.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SCH</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Schematic</strong> </td> + </tr> + </table> + The<font size="-1"> SCHEMATIC </font>function indicates that the + verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., <em>I’m + speeding through the book</em> = reading speedily; <em>Clouds blanketed + the city</em> = cover like a blanket</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.5.2.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ISR</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Instrumentative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + The <font size="-1">INSTRUMENTATIVE</font> function Indicates the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, e.g., <em>I clubbed him</em> = I hit him with a club; <em>She drove him there</em> = She transported him there by driving </div> +<br /> +<br /> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.5.2.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ATH</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Authoritive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + The <font size="-1">AUTHORITIVE</font> function indicates that the + verb specifies the indirect/enabling cause or circumstance which gives rise + to the conflated primary sense, e.g., <em>He sang her cares away</em> = + his singing allowed her to forget her cares</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.5.2.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRT</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Precurrent</strong> </td> + </tr> + </table> + The <font size="-1">PRECURRENT</font> function indicates that the + verb specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the conflated sense, where the overt sense is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the conflated sense would have occurred anyway, e.g., <em>I + bought some lunch</em> (conflated sense: EAT)</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.5.2.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RSL</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Resultative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + The <font size="-1">RESULTATIVE</font> function indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., <em>The plane crashed into the water</em> (conflated sense: + FLY)</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.5.2.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SBQ</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Subsequent </strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + The<font size="-1"> SUBSEQUENT </font>function indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect result or purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., <em>I’ll look in + on the stew</em> (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen])</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.5.2.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CCM</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Concommitant </strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + The <font size="-1">CONCOMMITANT</font> function indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., <em>She wore jeans to church</em> (conflated sense: GO); <em>He sweated + through her recital</em> (Conflated sense: LISTEN)</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.5.2.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>OBJ</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Objective </strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + The <font size="-1">OBJECTIVE</font> function indicates that the + verb specifies the Patient (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="Chapter_4.htmlSec4o1o1">Sec. + 4.1.1</a></font>) of the underlying conflated sense, e.g., <em>She dusted + the table</em> (conflated sense: REMOVE); <em>They fish that river each + spring</em> (conflated sense: GATHER/COLLECT)</div> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 6.5.3 Examples of Format in Use</h3> +<p>These are the same examples from <a href="#Sec6o5o1">Section 6.5.1</a> above on Incorporation, now highlighting the different formats used:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Akkoàl xtam-mā zlul.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘woman’-<span class="style14">ACT</span>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font>-<font size="-1">DEF<font size="-2">1</font>/8</font> ‘run’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DES </font> <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL/<span class="style6"><strong>SCH</strong></span></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘gazelle’-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>The woman wants to run like a gazelle.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Akkoàl <strong>xtan-nwā </strong>o-uzlul.</font></strong> <br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> -‘woman’-<font size="-1">DEF<font size="-2">1</font>/8</font> ‘run’-<font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font size="-1">CRD</font> <font size="-1">IFL/RPV/<span class="style6"><strong>CCM</strong></span></font>-<font size="-1">DSP</font>-‘gazelle’</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>The woman imagines she is like a running gazelle.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Axmëèl <strong><font size="+1"><strong>zdan-nūa </strong></font></strong></font><font size="+1">aoblelt.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-father-<font size="-1">IND</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> ‘contain’-<font size="-1">MTV</font> </font> <font size="-1">IFL/<span class="style6"><strong>OBJ</strong></span></font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘clam’-<font size="-1">DEL/U/CSL/DCT</font></font><br /> + <em>Father went off clam-hunting.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Àxmäula mmyün-nï</font><span class="style24"> </span><font size="+1">î üúsel gmìel.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-mother-<font size="-1">EFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> ‘sleep’-<font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font size="-1">HAB</font> <font size="-1">FML/<span class="style26">ATH</span></font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘sing a song’-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font> ‘child’-<font size="-1">AFF</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>Mother used to sing the child to sleep.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Çräm-mlà i</font><font size="+1">-uzgăt ukšüŭl bler.</font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘consume/ingest’-<font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">OBG</font></font> </font><font size="-1">FML/<span class="style26">PRT</span></font>-<span class="style14">OPR</span>-‘buy’-<font size="-1">DEL/U/CSL/UNI</font> </font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘clown’-<font size="-1">IND</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font> </font> ‘clam’-<font size="-1">OBL</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/DCT</font></font><br /> + <em>The clown had to buy some clams and consume them.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Axmiè <strong><font size="+1">seun-ná </font></strong> a-ildmùl.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-father-<font size="-1">AFF </font> ‘sing a song’-</font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font size="-1">IFL/<span class="style26">SBQ</span></font>-<font size="-1">STA</font>-‘cry’</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>Father is crying because of the song.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Àxmäula axmièl dmün-nà úisel.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-mother-<font size="-1">EFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-father-<font size="-1">AFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘cry’-<font size="-1">IFL</font></font> </font> <font size="-1"> FML/<span class="style26">ISR</span></font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘sing a song’</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>Mother makes father cry by singing.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /> +</font></p> +<p align="justify"><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><a name="Sec6o6" id="Sec6o6"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.6 BIAS</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in <a href="#Sec6o1">Sec. 6.1</a>), often triggering a + translation change as well.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage<a name="Sec6o6o1" id="Sec6o6o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">Bias is shown in any one of two ways: </p> +<ol> + <li> + <div align="justify">If a valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to to the adjunct, e.g., <span class="style11"><strong> illûi’ss</strong></span><br /> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"> If no valence/modality adjunct is present, then as a word-final consonantal suffix to formative with a glottal stop being infixed between the suffix and the VF mood/context suffix, + e.g., <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>uprexalo’ss</strong></font></div> + </li> +</ol> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="112" valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style20"></span><strong>((C<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong><span class="style20"><br /> + </span></div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="137" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">d</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="143" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">d</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<font size="-1">p</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>(C<font size="-1">b</font>))</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>((V<span class="style12">L</span>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">i</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style12">c</span></strong> </div></td> + <td width="90" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style12">x</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style12">p</span>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<span class="style12">m</span>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">r</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style12">r</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="77" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">a</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="48" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<span class="style12">x</span>C)</strong></div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(V<span class="style12">F</span></strong><strong> </strong></div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center" class="style6"><strong>(’C<span class="style12">b</span>))</strong></div></td> + <td width="99" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p>(NOTE: We will also see in <a href="Chapter_8.html#Sec8o1o2">Section 8.1.2</a> that a <strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C<font size="-2">b</font> </font></strong>Bias affix may be associated with a Form 3 single-referent personal reference adjunct.) </p> +<p align="justify">These <strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C<font size="-2">b</font> </font></strong>affix forms are shown in Table 21 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms +described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.</p> +<p align="justify"><br /> + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 21: Morpho-Phonological +Markers for Bias</font></strong></p> +<table width="43%" border="1"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LABEL</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF BIAS </font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C<font size="-2">b</font> AFFIX → <br /> + C<font size="-2">b</font> INTENSIVE AFFIX </font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="5%">1</td> + <td width="13%"><div align="center" class="style9">ASU</div></td> + <td width="42%" class="style13">ASSURATIVE</td> + <td width="40%"><span class="style11">n → nn</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">HPB</div></td> + <td class="style13">HYPERBOLIC</td> + <td><span class="style11">m → mm </span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">COI</div></td> + <td class="style13">COINCIDENTAL</td> + <td><span class="style11">ň → ňň</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">ACP</div></td> + <td class="style13">ACCEPTIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">h → hh</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>5</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">RAC</div></td> + <td class="style13">REACTIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">ç → çç</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>6</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">STU</div></td> + <td class="style13">STUPEFACTIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">s → ss</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>7</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">CTV</div></td> + <td class="style13">CONTEMPLATIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">z → zz </span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>8</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">DPV</div></td> + <td class="style13">DESPERATIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">š → šš</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>9</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">RVL</div></td> + <td class="style13">REVELATIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">l → ll</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>10</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">GRA</div></td> + <td class="style13">GRATIFICATIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">r → rr</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>11</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">SOL</div></td> + <td class="style13">SOLICITIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">ř → řř</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>12</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">SEL</div></td> + <td class="style13">SELECTIVE</td> + <td><strong>ŧ</strong><span class="style11"> → </span><strong>ŧŧ</strong></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>13</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">IRO</div></td> + <td class="style13">IRONIC</td> + <td><span class="style11">đ → đđ</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>14</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">EXA</div></td> + <td class="style13">EXASPERATIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">bz → bzz</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>15</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">LTL</div></td> + <td class="style13">LITERAL</td> + <td><span class="style11">gž → g žž</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>16</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">CRR</div></td> + <td class="style13">CORRECTIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">x → xx</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>17</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">EUP</div></td> + <td class="style13">EUPHEMISTIC</td> + <td><span class="style11">gz → gzz </span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>18</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">SKP</div></td> + <td class="style13">SKEPTICAL</td> + <td><span class="style11">ks → kss</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>19</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">CYN</div></td> + <td class="style13">CYNICAL</td> + <td><span class="style11">ž → žž</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>20</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">CTP</div></td> + <td class="style13">CONTEMPTIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">kš → kšš</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>21</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">DSN</div></td> + <td class="style13">DISMISSIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">pç → pçç</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>22</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">IDG</div></td> + <td class="style13">INDIGNATIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">pš → pšš</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>23</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">SGS</div></td> + <td class="style13">SUGGESTIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">ps → pss</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>24</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">PPV</div></td> + <td class="style13">PROPOSITIVE</td> + <td><span class="style11">bž → bžž</span></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ASU</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">ASSURATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by <em>I told you so!</em> or <em>You see?!</em><br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">HPB</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">HYPERBOLIC</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in <em>I + so don’t care!</em> or <em>That is totally not what I wanted.</em> The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression <em>That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!</em><br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">COI</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">COINCIDENTAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in<em> I happened to run into Jane</em> or <em>It + just so happens that I’m busy</em>. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ACP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">ACCEPTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RAC</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REACTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">STU</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">STUPEFACTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in <em>It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall</em>. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CTV</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONTEMPLATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">DPV</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">DESPERATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%"><strong>6.6.1.9</strong></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RVL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REVELATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.10</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">GRA</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">GRATIFICATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.11</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SOL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SOLICITIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses the Ilaksh equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence <em>So dance already! </em><br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.12</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SEL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SELECTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.13</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IRO</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">IRONIC</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.14</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EXA</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EXASPERATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.15</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">LTL</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">LITERAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in <em>Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka</em> (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in <em>Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka</em> (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.16</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CRR</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CORRECTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.17</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EUP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EUPHEMISTIC</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.18</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SKP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SKEPTICAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.19</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CYN</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CYNICAL</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.20</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CTP</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONTEMPTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.21</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">DSM</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">DISMISSIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.22</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IDG</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INDIGNATIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.23</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SGS</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SUGGESTIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’<br /> + <br /> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.24</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PPV</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROPOSITIVE</font></strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences <em>How about going for a stroll?</em>, <em>We + could meet behind the barn if you want</em>, or <em>You can sit on my lap</em>. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’ </div> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use</h3> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1">Ūalkresk zìhh ùdvüöla’nn.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL/RSL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">STA</font>-‘inside-out’-<font size="-1">PRX/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">‘article of clothing’-<font size="-1">OBL</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/ASO/AGG </font></font><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FML</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-‘wife’-<font size="-1">POS</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font>-<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">FAC</font>-<span class="style26"><font size="-1">ASU+</font></span></font><br /> + <em>You see?! I told you his wife’s clothes are inside-out!</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">U</font><font size="+1">xakloskò’<span class="style11">ňň</span>.</font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">FRM</font>-<span class="style7"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRC/</font></span><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FRG<span class="style7">/PPS</span></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘rain’-<font size="-1">PRX/M/CSL/UNI</font>-<font size="-1">SUB</font></font>-<span class="style6"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">COI</font></font></strong></span><br /> + <em>It may just so happen to be raining.</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1">W</font><font size="+1">ain-nyàx u’rleuvaskăr kü.</font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">INF</font>-<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MNO</font></font>-<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">CPC</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<span class="style6"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">CRR</font></font></strong></span></font></font></font> </font><font size="-1">FML</font>-<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRC/CTX/IPU</font></font><font size="-1"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<span class="style7">CNT</span></font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-</font></font></font></font>‘job/employment task’-<font size="-1">PRX/M/CSL/UNI</font>-<font size="-1">NA1<font size="-2">1</font>/5 </font><font size="-1">2m</font>-<font size="-1">ACT</font></font><br /> + <em>What I mean to say is that I don't think you'll be able to work any longer.</em></p> + <p align="justify"><strong><font size="+1">Xasskügà’pss akkiàl.</font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">IFL</font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘eyesight’-<font size="-1">PRX/M/CSL/DPX</font>-<font size="-1">FLC</font><span class="style12">1</span><font size="-1">/6-FAC-<span class="style6"><strong>SGS+</strong></span> </font> <font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘woman’-<font size="-1">AFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font></font><br /> + <em>Let's assume for the sake of argument that the woman’s eyesight is improving.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><a name="Sec6o7" id="Sec6o7"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.7 ASPECT ALTERNATIVE </strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The category of Aspect was introduced and discussed in <a href="Chapter_5.html#Sec5o6">Section 5.6</a>, where it was described that Aspect is normally presented as the<strong> V<font size="-1">p</font></strong> infix to a formative, placed immediately following the <strong>C<span class="style14">x</span> </strong>Phase/Sanction/Version affix. As an alternative, however, Aspect may be conveyed by suffixing <strong>V<font size="-1">p</font></strong> infix to a valence/modality adjunct immediately following the <strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong> modality affix. </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="112" valign="top"><div align="center"><span class="style20"></span><strong>((C<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong><span class="style20"><br /> + </span></div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">v</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="137" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">d</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="143" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>V<font size="-1">d</font>)</strong></div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style12">M</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF00"><div align="center"><strong><span class="style6">(V<font size="-1">p</font><font size="-1"></font></span></strong></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>(C<font size="-1">b</font>))</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Examples:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Axmëèl <strong><font size="+1"><strong>zdan-nūa </strong></font></strong></font><font size="+1">aoblelt.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-father-<font size="-1">IND</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> ‘contain’-<span class="style6"><strong><font size="-1">MTV</font></strong></span> </font> <font size="-1">IFL/OBJ</font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘clam’-<font size="-1">DEL/U/CSL/DCT</font></font><br /> + <em>Father went off clam-hunting.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">Àxmäula mmyün-nï</font><span class="style24"> </span><font size="+1">î üsél gmìel.</font></strong><br /> + <font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFL</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-mother-<font size="-1">EFF</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font> ‘sleep’-<font size="-1">IFL</font>-<span class="style6"><strong><font size="-1">HAB</font></strong></span> <font size="-1">FML/ATH</font>-<font size="-1">OPR</font>-‘sing a song’-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font> ‘child’-<font size="-1">AFF</font>-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font><br /> + <em>Mother used to sing the child to sleep.</em></p> + <p><strong><font size="+1">W</font><font size="+1">ain-nyeu u’rlavastăr ktòal.</font></strong><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1">INF</font>-<span class="style14">MNO</span><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font size="-1">CPC</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font color="#FF0000"><strong>CNT</strong></font></font></font></font></font> <font size="-1"> FML</font>-<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRC/CTX/IPU</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">OPR</font></font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font></font></font></font>‘job/employment task’-<font size="-1">PRX/M/ASO/UNI</font>-<font size="-1">NA1<font size="-2">1</font>/5 </font><font size="-1">IFL</font>-‘man’-<font size="-1">ACT</font></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-<font size="-1">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</font></font></font><br /> + <em>It's fair to say the man won't be able to work any longer.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="right"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="Chapter_7.html">Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >></a></strong></p> + <table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="24%" rowspan="7"><div align="left" class="style2"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></div></td> + <td width="26%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="28%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="22%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18" class="style3"><a href="http://www.ithkuil.net">Home</a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style3">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style3">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18" class="style3"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style3">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style3">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style3">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style3">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style3">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style3">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style3">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style3">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style3">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style3">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style3">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p align="justify">©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. </p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote> + <p></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +</body> +</html> |