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diff --git a/2004-en/06_verbs_2.html b/2004-en/06_verbs_2.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..da3f845 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/06_verbs_2.html @@ -0,0 +1,2921 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title>A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +.style2 { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; + font-weight: bold; + color: #999999; +} +.style3 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; font-size: small; color: #0000FF; } +.style11 {font-size: large} +.style6 {color: #FF0000} +.style7 {color: #000000} +.style9 { font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style13 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif} +.style14 {font-size: small} +.style17 {font-size: large; 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font-family: Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; } +.style45 {font-size: large; font-style: italic; } +.style47 { font-family: Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; +} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> + +<h2 align="center" class="style2">Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language<br /> + <img src="images/masthead.jpg" width="465" height="50" /></h2> +<table width="88%" border="0" align="center"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"> </td> + <td width="4%"> </td> + <td width="19%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style21"><a href="index.htm">Home</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="24"><a href="00_intro.html"><span class="style21">Introduction</span></a></td> + <td><a href="04_case.html"><span class="style21">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="08_adjuncts.html"><span class="style21">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="12_numbers.htm"><span class="style21">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style21"><a href="faqs.html">FAQs</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="01_phonology.html"><span class="style21">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="05_verbs_1.html"><span class="style21">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="09_syntax.html"><span class="style21">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + <td><a href="abbreviations.html"><span class="style21">List of Abbreviations</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style21"><a href="links.html">Links of Interest</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="02_morpho-phonology.html"><span class="style21">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="06_verbs_2.html"><span class="style21">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="10_lexico-semantics.html"><span class="style21">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + <td><a href="lexicon.htm"><span class="style21">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="03_morphology.html"><span class="style21">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="07_suffixes.html"><span class="style21">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="11_script.htm"><span class="style21">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + <td><span class="style21"><a href="texts.html">Texts</a></span></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="right" class="style47"> </p> +<p align="right"><span class="style35">Update:</span><span class="style47"> <a href="links.html">The Ithkuil Grammar Is Now Available in Book Form</a></span></p> +<p> </p> +<h2 align="center"><strong>Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology </strong></h2> +<table width="72%" border="0" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="27%"> </td> + <td width="25%"><a href="#Sec6o1">6.1 Modality</a> </td> + <td width="48%"><a href="#Sec6o3">6.3 Alternate Representation of Formative Categories</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec6o2">6.2 Level</a> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec6o4">6.4 Incorporation and Format </a><a href="#Sec6o4"></a></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +In this chapter, we examine two additional morphological categories — <strong>Modality<strong> </strong></strong>and <strong>Level — </strong>as well as the morpho-syntactic process called <strong>Incorporation</strong> and its associated morphological category <strong>Format</strong>. Modality and Level are shown via a word separate from the formative itself, the <strong>verbal adjunct</strong>. The concept of adjuncts was previously discussed in <a href="02_morpho-phonology.html#Sec2o4">Section 2.4</a> and <a href="02_morpho-phonology.html#Sec2o4o2">2.4.2</a>. A verbal adjunct is placed either immediately preceding or immediately following a verbal formative, and provides additional morphological information about the formative.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Note that, in addition to conveying Modality and Level, the verbal adjunct also has slots for conveying certain categories usually conveyed by the formative, specifically Valence, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, Aspect, Mood, Bias, and Extension. Therefore, a verbal adjunct can be used to convey these other categories in order to decrease the number of syllables of the formative and facilitate pronunciation/euphony of the sentence as whole. This is discussed in <a href="#Sec6o3">Section 6.3</a>.</p> + +<p align="justify" class="style11">The structure of a <strong>verbal adjunct</strong> is as follows. Those slots which are exclusive to verbal adjuncts (i.e., not also found in the formative) are Slots B and D:<br /> + <br /> +</p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">A</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">B</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">C</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">D</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">E</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">F</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">G</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center">H</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="39" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>(((C<span class="style14">L</span>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>Ve)</strong></div></td> + <td width="110" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Cv)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Vm)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="102" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cs</strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Vs</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Cb))</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Valence<br /> + </div> </td> + <td width="101" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Level</div> </td> + <td width="110" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Phase +<br /> + Saction +<br /> + Illocution</div> </td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Modality<br /> + <br /> + </div> </td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect<br /> + </div> </td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect</div> </td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Bias</p> </td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"> + <p><br /> + Extension<br /> + </p> + </div> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> +<span class="style11">The <strong>Cs</strong> aspectual infix in Slot E is mandatory, even if it carries a null value (i.e., no aspect). The <strong>Cs</strong> consonantal affix will always contain one of the specialized dyssyllabic geminate clusters described in <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o2o1o3">Section 1.2.1.3</a>, written <strong>n-n</strong>, <strong>m-m</strong>, <strong>l-l</strong>, <strong>r-r</strong>, etc. as well as various other syllabic consonant clusters, e.g.,<strong> l-m</strong>, <strong>l-n</strong>, <strong>r-m</strong>, <strong>r-n</strong>, and <strong>r-<strong>ň</strong></strong>. The second member of the dyssyllabic consonant cluster always carries the word stress and tone in a verbal adjunct. It is the appearance of such a dyssyllabic geminate cluster as the last, or second-to-last consonantal form in the word that identifies the word to readers/listeners as a verbal adjunct.</span></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The default tone of a verbal adjunct is falling. However, variations in the tone of a verbal adjunct can be used to convey the accompanying formative’s Extension category, in order to simplify the phonetic structure of the Formative's <strong>Ca</strong> affix (see <a href="03_morphology.html">Chapter 3</a>) for purposes of euphony and ease of pronunciation. This is discussed in <a href="#Sec6o3o5">Section 6.3.5</a> below.</p> +<p align="justify"><br /> +<span class="style11">For an example of a verbal adjunct, the example verb at the beginning of Chapter 5 (<a href="05_verbs_1.html">Section 5.0</a>) is repeated here: </span></p> +<p align="center"><span class="style30">hruštrul-lyö’ň ˉhnič<sup>h</sup>âçtàu’watkw<strong>ö</strong>u </span></p> +<p align="justify"><span class="style11">The first word of this two-word phrase is the adjunct, analyzable as follows:</span></p> +<table width="912" border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">A</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">B</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">C</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">D</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">E</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">F</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">G</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center">H</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="118" height="39" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style32">hr</div></td> + <td width="114" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style32">u</div></td> + <td width="137" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style32">štr</div></td> + <td width="120" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style32">u</div></td> + <td width="114" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style32">l-ly</div></td> + <td width="93" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style32">ö</div></td> + <td width="99" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style33"> + <div align="center"><strong>’ň</strong></div> + </div></td> + <td width="99" valign="middle"><div align="center"><strong>[falling tone]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="118" height="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style34"><br /> + DEMONSTRATIVE valence<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style34"> + <p><br /> + SURPASSIVE-RELATIVE level<br /> + </p> + </div></td> + <td width="137" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style34"><br /> + RECURRENT phase<br /> + REFUTATIVE sanction<br /> + DIRECTIVE illocution<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="120" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style34"> <br /> + DESIDERATIVE modality<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="114" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style34"><br /> + REGRESSIVE aspect</div></td> + <td width="93" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style34"><br /> + IMMINENT aspect</div></td> + <td width="99" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style34"><br /> + COINCIDENTAL <br /> + bias</div></td> + <td width="99" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style34"><br /> + [default EXTENSION]</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<p align="justify"><a name="Sec6o1" id="Sec6o1"></a><br /> +</p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>6.1 MODALITY </strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><span class="style11"><strong>Modality</strong> corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., <em>can, may, must, should</em>, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as t<em>o want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that</em>, etc. However, + in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o5">Sec. + 3.5</a>) and the Perspective (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o3">Sec. + 3.3</a>) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the “subject” noun (see <a href="04_case.html#Sec4o3o9">Sec. + 4.3.9</a>). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows: As we saw in <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o5">Sections + 3.5</a> and <a href="04_case.html#Sec4o3o9">4.3.9</a>, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in +the following sentences.</span></p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify">1) <em>You must <strong>come home at once</strong></em>.<br /> + 2) <em>That girl can <strong>sing better than anybody</strong></em>.<br /> + 3) <em>Our troops should <strong>attack at dawn</strong></em>.<br /> + 4) <em>Mother needs <strong>you to come with her</strong></em>.<br /> + 5) <em>The teacher requests that <strong>I dance for you</strong></em>.<br /> + 6) <em>The man believes <strong>clowns are dangerous</strong></em>. </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.Because the clauses following the verbs <em>must, can, should, + need, request, believe</em>, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o3">Sec. + 3.3</a></font>) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o5">Sec. + 3.5</a>). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns <em>you, girl, troops, mother, teacher</em>, and <em>man</em> in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="04_case.html#Sec4o3o9">Sec. + 4.3.9</a></font>). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence <em>She + chose to move to Australia</em>, the verb <em>chose</em> signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the <em>move to Australia</em> clause would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective but + would <em>not</em> be marked in the REPRESENTATIVE essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by the<strong> Vm </strong>vocalic affix in Slot D of a verbal adjunct. </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">A</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">B</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">C</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">D</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">E</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">F</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">G</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="39" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>(((C<span class="style14">L</span>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>Ve)</strong></div></td> + <td width="110" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Cv)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Vm)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="102" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cs</strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Vs</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Cb))</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Valence<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Level</div></td> + <td width="110" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Phase +<br /> + Sactions +<br /> + Illocutions</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Modality</strong></span><br /> + <br /> + </div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Bias</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +The 30 modalities and their respective <strong>Vm</strong> affixes are shown in Table 16 below. The function of each modality is described in the sub-sections following the table.</p> +<p class="style29"><br /> +Table 16: Vm Modality Affixes </p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">1Label </div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">Name</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">Vm-affix</div></td> + <td width="51" rowspan="17" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>Label</strong></div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>Name</strong></div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>Vm-affix</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">--</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">(no modality)</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center"><span class="style17">a</span></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">15</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">ITV</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Intentive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>iu</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">DES</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Desiderative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>u</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">16</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">ANT</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Anticipative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>au</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">ASP</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Aspirative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>e</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">17</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">DSP</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Dispositive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>eu</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">3</div></td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">EPC</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Expectative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>o</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">18</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">PRE</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Preparative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ou</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">4</div></td> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">CRD</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Credential</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>i</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">19</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">NEC</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Necessitative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ae</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">5</div></td> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">REQ</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Requisitive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ö</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">20</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">DCV</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Decisive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ia / ua</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">6</div></td> + <td width="55" height="31" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">EXH</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Exhortative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>î / û</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">21</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">PTV</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Proclivitive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ie / ue</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">7</div></td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">OPR</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Opportunitive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>â</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">22</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">VOL</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Voluntative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>io / uo</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">8</div></td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">CPC</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Capacitative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ê</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">23</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">ACC</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Accordative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>iö / uö</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">9</div></td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">PRM</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Permissive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ô</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">24</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">ICL</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Inclinative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ea</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">10</div></td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">PTN</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Potential</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ü / oe</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">25</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">CML</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div class="style13">Compulsive</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>oa</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">11</div></td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">CLS</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Compulsory</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ai</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">26</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">DVR</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Divertive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>öi / ië</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">12</div></td> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">OBG</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Obligative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ei</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">27</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">DVT</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Devotive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>öu / uë</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">13</div></td> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">IMS</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Impositive</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ui</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">28</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">PFT</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Preferential</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>eo</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" valign="middle"><div align="center">14</div></td> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">ADV</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Advocative</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>oi</strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center">29</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">IPS</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Impressional</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ëi</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="30" colspan="4" valign="middle"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center">30</div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13">PMS</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="middle"><div class="style13">Promissory</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ëu</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DES</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Desiderative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DESIDERATIVE more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in <em>The teacher wants the students to study hard</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ASP</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Aspirative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EPC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Expectative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in <em>He expected her to be beautiful</em>, + or <em>I imagine he’s reached his destination</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CRD</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Credential</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The CREDENTIAL corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in <em>I think she has two sons</em>, or <em>We believe the earth to be round</em>. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as <em>I think she’s pretty</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>REQ</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Requisitive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in <em>I request his presence at the banquet</em>, +or <em>I’d like you to visit your father.</em></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EXH</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Exhortative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in <em>I demand you return my book</em> or <em>Let the gates be opened!</em></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>OPR</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Opportunitive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the + English modal verb <em>can/could/be able</em> where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in <em>Can we pass by our old house when we visit town?</em> or <em>Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CPC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Capacitative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verb <em>can/could/be able</em> where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in <em>Can she sing opera?</em> or <em>He could run + like the wind</em>. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in <em>He speaks French like + a native</em> [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.1.9</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRM</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Permissive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>can/could/be able</em> or <em>may/might</em> where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in <em>Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert</em>; or <em>Could I talk to you?</em></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.10</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PTN</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Potential</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English + modal verb <em>can/could/be</em> able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in <em>Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area</em>, or <em>That man could fly into rages for no reason</em>. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in <em>It rains unpredictably in the Northwest</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.11</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CLS</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Compulsory</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The COMPULSORY corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>must</em> or <em>have to/had to</em> in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in <em>You must get up now</em>, or<em> I had to attend the ceremony</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.12</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>OBG</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Obligative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The OBLIGATIVE corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>should</em>, <em>ought to</em>, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in <em>You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel</em>, or <em>It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.13</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IMS</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Impositive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>be supposed to, be expected to</em>, or <em>be to</em> which impose an expectation upon a party, as in <em>You’re supposed to + smile when introduced</em>, or <em>He is to give a speech at the banquet</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.14</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ADV</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Advocative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ADVOCATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>suggest tha</em>t or <em>propose that</em> which advocate + a position, as in <em>I suggest you study harder</em> or <em>They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.15</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ITV</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Intentive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INTENTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>intend to</em>, <em>plan on</em> or <em>shall</em> which + convey an intention, as in <em>The girls plan on travelling to Europe</em>, + or <em>I shall see to it</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.16</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ANT</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Anticipative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ANTICIPATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>to look forward to</em> or <em>to eagerly await</em> which convey positive anticipation, as in <em>We look forward to the clowns coming + to town</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.17</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DSP</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Dispositive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English + expression <em>to be willing to</em>, conveying willingness as in <em>He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.18</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRE</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Preparative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English + expressions <em>be ready to</em> or <em>be prepared to</em>, indicating readiness, + as in <em>She’s ready to host the party</em>, or <em>They are prepared + to endure harsh weather</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.19</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>NEC</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Necessitative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The NECESSITATIVE corresponds to the + English expressions <em>need to</em> or <em>be necessary to</em>, indicating + necessity, as in <em>You need to do something about those clowns in the yard</em>, + or <em>It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%"><strong>6.1.20</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DCV</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="62%"><strong>The Decisive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as <em>decide to</em> or <em>choose to</em>, indicating choice, as in <em>Peter decided to cook + breakfast</em> or <em>Colleen chose to visit the clowns</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.21</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PTV</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Proclivitive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PROCLIVITIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>tend to, be apt to</em>, or <em>be prone to</em>, indicating + tendency, as in <em>The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs</em>, or <em>Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.22</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>VOL</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Voluntative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The VOLUNTATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>offer to</em> or <em>volunteer to</em>, indicating an act of offering + as in <em>The foreman offered to put poison in my beer</em>, or <em>Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.23</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ACC</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Accordative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English + expression <em>agree to</em>, as in <em>Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.24</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ICL</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Inclinative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>to feel like</em> or <em>be up for</em>, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in <em>He’s up for going to the shindig</em>, + or <em>Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table cellpadding="0" width="45%" border="0"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td width="19%" class="style11"><strong>6.1.25</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#cccccc" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>CML</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%" class="style11"><strong>The Compulsive</strong></td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The COMPULSIVE corresponds to English expressions such as <em>feel driven to</em> or<em> feel a need to</em>, indicating compulsion, as in <em>Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines</em>, or <em>My hairdresser feels a need to date bikers</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>uï</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.26</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DVR</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Divertive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DIVERTIVE corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>like to</em>, or <em>enjoy</em>, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in <em>Boys like to dream about cars</em>, or <em>My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.27</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DVT</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Devotive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DEVOTIVE corresponds to English expressions + such as <em>be devoted to</em> or <em>be committed to</em>, indicating devotion + as in <em>Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town</em>, + or <em>They were devoted to rooting for the losing team</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.28</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PFT</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Preferential</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>prefer</em>, or <em>would rather that</em>, indicating + preference as in <em>He’d rather work by himself</em>, or <em>Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.29</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IPS</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Impressional</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>have an impression that, have a hunch that</em>, or <em>feel that</em>, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in <em>I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic</em>, or <em>Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool</em>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>6.1.30</strong></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PMS</strong></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="64%"><strong>The Promissory</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PROMISSORY corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>promise</em>, or <em>swear that</em>, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in <em>She promised that her son would visit my daughter</em>, + or <em>Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient</em>. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"><strong>6.1.</strong>31 Examples of Modality in Use</h3> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-7-15d.jpg" width="117" height="44" /><br /> + <strong>Wëtöin-n </strong>ailtac qeiwi.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">RCP-PPS/CTX/ASR-<span class="style6"><strong>DVR</strong></span>-FAC DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX</span><br /> + <em>The two of them like writing to each other.</em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-1b.jpg" width="153" height="45" /><br /> + Hëtiun-n ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong> <br /> + <span class="style40"><span class="style14"><span class="style14">PRL-</span></span><span class="style41">ITV</span><span class="style14">-FAC<strong> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM-DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + </span><em>She and I are planning on taking a walk later on.</em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/6-1-31c.jpg" width="98" height="39" /><br /> + On-n<strong> </strong>amnadya osmuil.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25"><span class="style6"><strong>EPC</strong></span>-FAC STA-‘awe’-RPV/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL IFL-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><br /> + <em>The valley is expected to be awe-inspiring.</em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><strong><img src="images/6-1-31d.jpg" width="123" height="43" /></strong><br /> + Ur-rwu<strong> </strong>ivadya âbyeil.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25"><span class="style6"><strong>DES</strong></span>-FAC/RSM-RTR DYN-‘play’-RPV/PRX/A/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘dog’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-</span><span class="style25">IFL</span><br /> + <em>The dog wanted to play some more.</em></p> + <p align="justify"></p> + <p align="justify"> </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="justify"><a name="Sec6o2" id="Sec6o2"></a><br /> +</p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>6.2 LEVEL</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><span class="style11"><strong>Level</strong> corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -<em>er</em> and +-<em>est</em> seen in <em>great-greater-greatest</em>, or alternately with the adverbs <em>more</em> and <em>most</em>, as well as their negative counterparts <em>less</em> and <em>least</em>. The Ithkuil comparison schema is much more complex than those found in natural languages and is designed to eliminate various ambiguities that arise from those simpler schemata, as discussed below.<br /> +</span></p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec6o2o1" id="Sec6o2o1"></a><br /> +6.2.1 Ambiguity and Under-specification in Natural Languages </h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The comparison schemata of natural languages tend to grossly under-specify the exact semantic nature of the comparison. A clear case of such under-specification can be seen in an English example sentence such as <em>Jane is healthier.</em> This sentence can mean any of the following:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify" class="style11"><em>(a) Jane's state of health has improved, although she is still unwell.<br /> + (b) Jane's state of health has improved so that now she is well (whereas before she was unwell).<br /> + (c) Jane's state of health is even better than it previously was (i.e., she was healthy before, but is even healthier now). <br /> + (d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as someone else's state of health (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).<br /> + (e) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, so that Jane can be considered healthy while the other is unwell.<br /> + (f) Jane's state of health is better than someone else's state of health, even though both can be considered healthy.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +This ambiguity is not alleviated even when we specify a party to which Jane's health is being compared as in <em>Jane is healthier than Sue</em>, which can mean:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify" class="style45">(a) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's although both are unwell.<br /> + (b) Jane's state of health is better than Sue's, so that Jane can be considered well while Sue is unwell.<br /> + (c) Both Jane and Sue are healthy, but Jane's state of health is even better than Sue's. <br /> + (d) Jane's state of health is not as poor as Sue's (although neither Jane nor the other person are well).</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +This sort of ambiguity allows odd-sounding sentences such as <em>Snow is warmer </em>(e.g., than liquid nitrogen) to be perfectly grammatical. What is important to note about the above analysis is that the words <em>healthier</em> or <em>warmer</em> do not indicate in the actual context of usage <em>whether a person is actually healthy or whether snow is actually warm.</em> Rather English -<em>er</em> and -<em>est</em> (and <em>more</em> and <em>most</em>) as well as their negative counterparts (<em>less</em> and <em>least</em>) merely serve to indicate <em>on a relative scale</em> a relationship between two entities being compared (or where only one party is mentioned, in relationship to some unspecified standard or expectation). Additional statements are needed to clarify the actual context to determine where the entities fall on the quantitative "spectrum" or range of the particular quality or attribute pair in question, e.g., <em>unhealthy </em><—> <em>healthy</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The comparison scheme of Ithkuil has been designed to inherently specify such relative comparison while simultaneously specifying placement within the qualitative spectrum, so that ambiguity as to whether “healthier” means the person is well or unwell is eliminated. </p> +<p class="style11"> </p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11">6.2.2 Relative Versus Absolute Comparison</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">An additional aspect of Ithkuil comparison is the concept of <strong>relative comparison </strong>versus<strong> absolute comparison</strong>. This is an important concept which impacts the truth value of a statement based upon context. Specifically, relative comparison allows for statements to be true within the narrow confines of the context-at-hand, whereas absolute comparison allows for statements to be true without reference to any specific context. This can be illustrated by the following examples.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><em>(a) Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky.<br /> + (b) That highway is the fastest way into town.</em></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +Both of these sentences are true in certain pragmatic contexts and not true in others. For example, while Sirius is the most luminous star as seen from Earth, this is merely due to its relative nearness to Earth (8.4 light years) as compared to most other stars. There are thousands of known stars which are larger (and inherently more luminous) than Sirius but are much further away from Earth. So Sentence (a) is true in a relative context but false in an absolute context. Similarly the highway in Sentence (b) may be the fastest way in most conditions, but if there is a traffic jam or an accident blocking the highway, or if one has access to a private helicopter, then the statement would be false. Therefore, it is only true in a narrow context determined by the pragmatics of the moment it is spoken. Ithkuil allows speakers to specify whether a comparison is to be interpreted within the context-at-hand (relative comparison) or as an absolute statement irrespective of the context-at-hand.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<h3 class="style11"><a name="Sec6o2o3" id="Sec6o2o3"></a><br /> + 6.2.3 Comparison Operators (Levels) </h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">There are nine comparison operators for the Ithkuil verb, called Levels, which specify the comparative relationship involved, e.g., <em>same as, more than, less than</em>, etc. These levels are marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix to the verb, <strong>Ve</strong>. Each prefix comes in two varieties, to distinguish between relative versus absolute comparison. Additionally there is an unmarked default zero-level in which no comparison is being made). The presence of a <strong>Ve</strong> prefix in Slot B of the verbal adjunct requires Slots C And D to be filled by their respective affixes as well.</p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">A</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">B</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">C</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">D</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">E</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">F</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">G</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center">H</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="39" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>(((C<span class="style14">L</span>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>Ve)</strong></div></td> + <td width="110" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Cv)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Vm)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="102" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cs</strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Vs</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Cb))</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Valence<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Level</strong></span></div></td> + <td width="110" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Phase +<br /> + Sanction +<br /> + Illocution</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Modality<br /> + <br /> + </div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Bias</p></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"> + <p><br /> + Extension<br /> + </p> + </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +NOTE: As an alternative to using <strong>Ve</strong>, Level can also be conveyed by the suffixes -V<sub>1</sub><strong>mļ</strong> and -V<sub>2</sub><strong>mļ</strong> added to the formative (placed in Slot XI), explained in <a href="07_suffixes.html#LVLsuffix">Section 7.4.13 - LVL suffix</a>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> In interpreting the meaning of the various Levels, the terms used in the formulas refer to the following <strong>X-M-(Y)</strong> model, where M represents a verb or an adjectival description, X is the "subject" of the verb, and Y is the standard being compared to. </p> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="8%"><div align="center" class="style13">Sue</div></td> + <td width="16%"><div align="center" class="style13"> dances as well as / <br /> + dances better than / <br /> + dances worse than<br /> + etc.<br /> + <br /> + </div></td> + <td width="12%"><div align="center" class="style13">Mary</div></td> + <td width="28%" rowspan="2"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>OR</strong></div> + <div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="10%"><div align="center" class="style13">Sue</div></td> + <td width="16%"><div align="center" class="style13"> + <div>is as smart<br /> + is smarter than<br /> + is less smart than<br /> + etc. <br /> + </div> + </div></td> + <td width="10%"><div align="center" class="style13">Mary</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="56"><div align="center"><strong>X</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>M</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>(Y)</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>X</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>M</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>(Y)</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Note that the meaning of each Level allows for an interpretation in which there is no Y term so that the standard of comparison is a previous state of X, e.g., the difference between <em>Sue dances better than Mary</em> versus <em>Sue dances better than before</em>. <br /> +</p> +<p class="style29"> </p> +<p class="style29"><br /> + Table 17: Ve Level prefixes</p> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#000000">V<font size="-1">L</font></font></strong> Prefix </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center">Meaning</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>Label</td> + <td>Name of Level </td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1">RELATIVE<br /> + </font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font size="-1">ABSOLUTE</font></div></td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="8%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EQU</font></strong></td> + <td width="13%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EQUATIVE</font></td> + <td width="8%" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>a-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="8%" valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>â-</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="63%" valign="top"><div> X M ’s the same as Y ( or as before) / X is as M as Y ( or as before)</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SUR</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SURPASSIVE</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>u-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>û / î-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div>X M ’s more than Y ( or than before) / X is more M than Y ( or than before)</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DFC</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEFICIENT</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>i-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ö-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div>X M ’s less than Y ( or than before) / X is less M than Y ( or than before)</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font color="#000000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OPT </font></strong></td> + <td><font color="#000000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OPTIMAL</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>o-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ô-</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div>X M ’s at its most possible / X is at its most M possible </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font color="#000000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MIN </font></strong></td> + <td><font color="#000000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MINIMAL </font> </td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>e-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><font color="#000000" size="+1"><strong>ê-</strong></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div>X M ’s at its least possible / X is at its least M possible </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SPL</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SUPERLATIVE</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#000000">ai-</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#000000">au-</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div>X M ’s at its most yet / X is at its most M yet </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IFR</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INFERIOR</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#000000">ui-</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#000000">iu-</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div>X M ’s at its least yet / X is at its least M yet </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SPQ</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SUPEREQUATIVE</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#000000">ei-</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#000000">eu-</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div>X M ’s more than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is more M than or = to Y / before</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SBE</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SUBEQUATIVE</font></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#000000">oi-</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#000000">ou-</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div>X M ’s less than or = to Y ( or than or equal to before) / X is less M than or = to Y / before</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p class="style11">Note that in verbal adjuncts where Valence is marked by a word-initial <strong>C<span class="style14">L</span></strong> consonantal prefix in Slot A (see <a href="#Sec6o3o4">Sec. 6.3.4</a>), but there is no Level, the neutral value of <strong>Ve</strong> in Slot B is <strong>ë</strong>.</p> +<p class="style11"> </p> +<p><a name="Sec6o2o4" id="Sec6o2o4"></a></p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11">6.2.4 The Comparison Cases</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">In addition to Level, there are 24 specialized noun cases which identify the exact nature of the comparison in relation to the quantitative spectrum, range, or standard for the particular attribute, quality, or act in question. These cases are applied to the noun to which something is compared, i.e., the term Y in the above formulas. So, for example, in the Ithkuil translation of the sentence <em>Jane is healthier than her sister</em>, the equivalent to <em>is healthier</em> would be shown by a Level prefix meaning "more than" applied to a formative meaning "manifesting a state of health," while the phrase corresponding to <em>than her sister</em> would be the word <em>sister</em> marked for a case which specifies whether the other noun to which the sister is being compared (i.e., Jane) is now well, or is nevertheless still unhealthy, etc. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">It is primarily through the use of these specialized comparison cases that the ambiguities discussed above in <a href="#Sec6o2o1">Sec. 6.2.1</a> are eliminated. The meaning of each case as applied to Y, in terms of the X-M-Y formula discussed above, would be: </p> +<p align="center" class="style11"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">"in comparison to Y, where X Q in terms of reference standard S" </font></strong></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">where Q indicates the change (or lack thereof) in X over time and S indicates an external standard of comparison for M. An example of this formula in use would be where the term Q = "was previously less M than Y" and S = "although X (still) isn't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness" applied to the sentence <em>Jane is healthier than Sue</em>, now disambiguated to mean that Jane, while being in a healthier stated than Sue, still isn't very healthy. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">There are eight possible values for Q and three possible values for S, rendering a total of 24 possible Q + S combinations. It is these 24 possible Q + S combinations that are rendered as the Comparison cases in Ithkuil. The eight possible values for Q are as follows:</p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" width="702"> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>1</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>2</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>3</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>4</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>5</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>6</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>7</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>8</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The three possible values for S are as follows:</p> +<table width="702" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>A</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11">although X (still) isn’t very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>B</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11">where X meets/exceeds some some external standard or expectation of M-ness and Y does not</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="21" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>C</strong></div></td> + <td width="675" valign="top" class="style11"><div>where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The eight values of Q combine with the three values of S to give the specific meanings of the 24 comparison cases as shown below in Table 18. As with the 72 primary cases (see <a href="04_case.html">Chapter 4</a>) the 24 comparison cases are shown by the <strong>Vc</strong> infix to the formative in Slot VIII.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +<strong>Table 18: The 24 Comparison Cases</strong> (as per the formula: <strong><font size="-1">[X] [M] [in comparison to Y] where X Q in terms of reference standard S</font></strong>)</p> +<table width="98%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"> + <tr> + <td width="66"><div align="center"><strong>Mutation Series </strong></div></td> + <td width="41"><div align="center"><strong>Label</strong></div></td> + <td width="95"><div align="center"><strong>Name of Case </strong></div></td> + <td width="41"><div align="center"><strong>Vc</strong></div></td> + <td width="364"><div align="center"><strong>Value of Q <br /> + (change in X over time)<br /> + </strong></div></td> + <td width="317"><div align="center"><strong>Value of S <br /> +(Comparison to external standard) </strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">73</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP1A</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 1A</font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">aì</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + </div></td> + <td rowspan="8">although X (or X and Y) (still) isn’t/aren't very M compared to some external standard or expectation of M-ness</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">74</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP2A</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 2A</font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">eì</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">75</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP3A</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 3A</font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">oì</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">76</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP4A</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 4A</font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">uì</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">77</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP5A</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 5A</font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">aù</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">78</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP6A</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 6A</font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">eù</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">79</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP7A</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 7A</font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">où</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">80</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP8A</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 8A</font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">iù</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">81</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP1B</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 1B </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">ao</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + </div></td> + <td rowspan="8">and where X (or Y) meets/exceeds some some extrenal standard or expectation of M-ness and Y (or X) does not</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">82</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP2B</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 2B </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">aü</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">83</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP3B</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 3B </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">eü</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">84</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP4B</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 4B </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">oü</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">85</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP5B</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 5B </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">ëì</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">86</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP6B</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 6B </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">öì</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">87</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP7B</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 7B </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">ëù</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">88</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP8B</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 8B </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">öù</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">89</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP1C</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 1C </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">eai</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously less M (or M ’d less) than Y + </div></td> + <td rowspan="8">and where both X and Y meet/exceed some external standard or expectation of M-ness, where previously only Y met/exceeded it</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">90</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP2C</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 2C </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">oai</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously more M (or M ’d more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">91</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP3C</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 3C </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">eau</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is still less M (or M ’s less) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">92</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP4C</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 4C </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">oau</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is still more M (or M ’s more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">93</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP5C</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 5C </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">uai / iau</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is now less M (or M ’s less) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">94</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP6C</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 6C </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">uei / ieu</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X is now more M (or M ’s more) than Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">95</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP7C</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 7C </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">uoi / iou</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X was previously as M (or M ’d as much) as Y + </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">96</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font size="-1">CMP8C</font></strong></font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COMPARATIVE 8C </font> </div></td> + <td width="41" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style17">uëi / iëu</div></td> + <td width="364" valign="top"></div> + where X ’s previous state of M-ness (or level of M-ing) relative to Y is unknown, inapplicable or irrelevant + </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3> </h3> +<h3><span class="style11"><a name="Sec6o2o5" id="Sec6o2o5"></a></span></h3> +<h3 class="style11">6.2.5 The COS Suffix </h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Since Level affixes modify a verb directly, there is still a potential for ambiguity due to the fact that Levels and the Comparison cases specify the relationship between two entities being compared, but they do not specify the particular parameter of the term M. In other words, the verb "laugh" in the SURPASSIVE Level might be best translated as "out-laugh," as in <em>Sam out-laughed George</em>, but we still do not know if this means the laugh was louder, longer, or "harder." Therefore, verbs marked for Levels often take the COS suffix as well, to specify the parameters of the quality or act in question. This suffix is found in the list of derivational suffixes in Chapter 7, but is shown here as well, for the sake of convenience. (See <a href="07_suffixes.html">Chapter 7</a> for an explanation of the nine degrees and three suffix-types associated with derivational suffixes).</p> +<p class="style11"><strong>-V<sub>x</sub> ks</strong> <strong>COS</strong> Comparison Specifications</p> +<ol class="style11"> + <li>“more”/“less” = extent/amount/volume</li> + <li>“harder”/“weaker” = degree of intensity or effort</li> + <li>“longer”/“shorter” = duration; time spent being/doing</li> + <li>“better”/“worse” = quality / style</li> + <li>“more efficiently”/“less efficiently” = efficiency / effort relative to outcome</li> + <li>“greater”/“poorer” = relevant outcome / bottom-line result</li> + <li>combo of 4, 5, and 6 </li> + <li>combo of 1, 2, and 3 </li> + <li>combo of 1 through 6 </li> +</ol> +<h3 class="style11"><br /> + 6.2.6 Examples of Level and the Comparison Cases in Use</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">(Note that in the morphological interlinear analysis below, the distinction between absolute versus relative Level is indicated by a small <strong>“a”</strong> versus a small <strong>“r”</strong> attached to the label/abbreviation for the particular Level.) </p> +<blockquote> + <p><span class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/6-2-6a.jpg" width="217" height="44" /><br /> + Ulan-n oxassûg êqil ôqoìl.</strong> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/6-2-6a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/6-2-6a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a><br /> + <span class="style25"><span class="style6"><strong>SURr</strong></span>-ASR/CTX/IPU-FAC STA-‘have.eyesight’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/DPX-FLS1/6-IFL STA-‘woman’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘man’-<span class="style6"><strong>CMP3A</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><span class="style25">-IFL</span><br /> + <em>It is clear the woman’s eyesight has improved, but she still doesn’t see as well<em> as the man</em>, who doesn't see very well either.</em></span></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/6-2-6b.jpg" width="164" height="44" /><br /> + Rril eglalaimļ byoail.</strong> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/6-2-6b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/6-2-6b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a><br /> + <span class="style25">STA-‘cat’-AFF-NRMDEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘sickness/illness’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI<strong>-<span class="style6">SPQa</span></strong>-IFL STA-‘dog’-<span class="style6"><strong>CMP2C</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span>-<span class="style25">IFL</span><br /> + <em>The cat is now at least as sick as the dog, if not more so, whereas previously only the dog was sick.</em></p> + <p> </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><a name="Sec6o3" id="Sec6o3"></a></p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>6.3 ALTERNATE REPRESENTATION OF FORMATIVE CATEGORIES</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">In Chapter 5 we discussed the verbal categories of Mood, Aspect, Bias, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, and Valence, and showed how each of these categories is manifested by various affixes within the structure of a formative. However, the structure of the verbal adjunct, discussed at the beginning of this chapter, allows for each of the aforementioned morphological categories to alternately be displayed via a verbal adjunct rather than a formative. This is often desirable for purposes of phonological euphony or to address the limitations of phonotactic constraints (see <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o4">Section 1.4</a>). The sub-sections below discuss the specifics on the alternate representations of these categories via a verbal adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec6o3o1" id="Sec6o3o1"></a></p> +<p align="justify" class="style17">6.3.1 Alternate Representation of Mood and/or Aspect</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The categories of Mood and Aspect were previously discussed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o2"> Section 5.2</a> and <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o10">Section 5.10</a> respectively. Mood is normally shown (along with Illocution) via the Ci+Vi infix to a formative in Slot IX, although it can alternately be shown along with Aspect via the <strong> Cs</strong> affix to a formative in Slot III. However, the use of the Cs affix in Slot III of a formative, unless required by the presence of affixes in Slots I or II, is generally undesirable as its presence adds two syllables to the length of the formative. Therefore, as an alternative, Aspect and/or Mood can be conveyed by the same <strong>Cs</strong> affix within a verbal adjunct in Slot E. This <strong>Cs</strong> affix is mandatory for all verbal adjunct. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The second syllable of the <strong>Cs</strong> affix (i.e., the second member of one of the dyssyllabic consonant clusters <strong>l-l</strong>, <strong>m-m</strong>, <strong>n-n</strong>, <strong>ň-<strong>ň</strong></strong>, <strong>r-r</strong>, <strong>l-m</strong>, <strong>l-n</strong>, <strong>r-m</strong>, <strong>r-n</strong>, and <strong>r-<strong>ň</strong></strong>) always receives the syllabic stress and tone in a verbal adjunct.</p> +<br /> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">A</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">B</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">C</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">D</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">E</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">F</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">G</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center">H</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="39" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>(((C<span class="style14">L</span>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>Ve)</strong></div></td> + <td width="110" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Cv)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Vm)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="102" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cs</strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Vs</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Cb))</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Valence<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Level</div></td> + <td width="110" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Phase +<br /> + Saction +<br /> + Illocution</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Modality<br /> + <br /> + </div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Aspect</strong></span><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Aspect</strong></span></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Bias</p></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"> + <p><br /> + Extension<br /> + </p> + </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +A second verbal aspect can be shown within a verbal adjunct utilizing the <strong>Vs</strong> affix in Slot F. Each of the 32 aspects, in addition to their consonantal <strong>Cs</strong> form, has a vocalic affixual form <strong>Vs</strong>, shown in the table below.<br /> +</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +<span class="style35">Table 19: Values for Vs Aspectual Markers and Cs Aspect+Mood Markers</span><br /> +</p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="29" colspan="2" valign="middle"> </td> + <td valign="middle"> </td> + <td colspan="9" valign="middle"><div align="center">MOOD</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="30" colspan="2" valign="middle"> </td> + <td valign="middle"> </td> + <td valign="middle"> </td> + <td valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style35">FAC</p></td> + <td valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style35">SUB</p></td> + <td valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style35">ASM</p></td> + <td valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style35">SPC</p></td> + <td valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style35">COU</p></td> + <td valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style35">HYP</p></td> + <td valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style35">IPL</p></td> + <td valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style35">ASC</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="30" colspan="2" valign="middle"><p align="center"><strong>Aspect</strong></p></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><div align="center"><strong>Vs</strong></div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="28" valign="middle"><p align="center"> </p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><p align="center">(none)</p></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">a</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-n</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-m</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-l</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-r</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ň</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-n</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ň</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-ň</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">1</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">RTR</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">RETROSPECTIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">u</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nr</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nt</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nt’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nd</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nţ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ndh</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="31" valign="middle"><p align="center">2</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">PRS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">PROSPECTIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">e</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mr</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mp</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mp’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mb</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mp<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mf</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mv</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">3</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">HAB</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">HABITUAL</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">o</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lr</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lt</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lt’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ld</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lţ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ldh</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">4</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">PRG</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">PROGRESSIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">i</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rn</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rt</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rt’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rd</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rţ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rdh</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="31" valign="middle"><p align="center">5</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">IMM</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">IMMINENT</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ö</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňr</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňk</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňk’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňg</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňk<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňx</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňq</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">6</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">PCS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">PRECESSIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">î/û</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ntw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nt’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ndw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nt<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nţw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ndhw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="33" valign="middle"><p align="center">7</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">REG</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">REGULATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">â</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mpw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mp’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mbw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mp<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mfw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mvw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">8</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">EXP</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">EXPERIENTIAL</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ê</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ltw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lt’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ldw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lt<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lţw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lđw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><p align="center">9</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">RSM</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">RESUMPTIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ô</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rtw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rt’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rdw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rt<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rţw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rdhw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">10</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">CSS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">CESSATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ü/oe</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňkw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňk’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňgw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňk<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňxw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňqw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">11</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">RCS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">RECESSATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ai</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ny</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nty</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nt’y</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ndy</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nt<sup>h</sup>y</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nţy</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ndhy</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">12</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">PAU </div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">PAUSAL</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ei</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-my</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mpy</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mp’y</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mby</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mp<sup>h</sup>y</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mfy</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mvy</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><p align="center">13</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">RGR</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">REGRESSIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ui</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ly</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lty</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lt’y</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ldy</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lt<sup>h</sup>y</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lţy</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ldhy</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="31" valign="middle"><p align="center">14</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">PCL</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">PRECLUSIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">oi</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-ry</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rty</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rt’y</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rdy</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rt<sup>h</sup>y</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rţy</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rdhy</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">15</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">CNT</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">CONTINUATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">iu</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ns</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nsw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">16</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style35">ICS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">INCESSATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">au</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-ms</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-msw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="33" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">17</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>PMP</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">PREEMPTIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">eu</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňs</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňsw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">18</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>CLM</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">CLIMACTIC</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ou</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ls</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lsw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lc<sup>h</sup>’w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">19</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>PTC</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">PROTRACTIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ae</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rs</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rsw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">20</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>TMP</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">TEMPORARY</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ia/ua</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nš </p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nšw </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nžw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nč’ </p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nč’w </p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nč<sup>h</sup>w </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="29" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">21</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>MTV</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">MOTIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ie/ue</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mš </p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mšw </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mžw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mč’ </p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mč’w </p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mč<sup>h</sup>w </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">22</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>CSQ</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">CONSEQUENTIAL</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">io/uo</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňš </p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňšw </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňžw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňč’ </p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňč’w </p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňč<sup>h</sup>w </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">23</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>SQN</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">SEQUENTIAL</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">iù /uì</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lš </p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lšw </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lžw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lč’ </p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lč<sup>h</sup>’ </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lč’w </p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lč<sup>h</sup>w </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">24</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>EPD</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">EXPEDITIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">iö/uö</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rš</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-ršw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-ržw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rč’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rč’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rč<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="27" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">25</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>DC<strong>L</strong></strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">DISCLUSIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ea</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nļ</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňļ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-ntļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mtļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňtļ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ltļ</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rtļ</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="28" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">26</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>CCL</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">CONCLUSIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">oa</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lm</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nl</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňm</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mř</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mt</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňt</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňn</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="27" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">27</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>CUL</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">CULMINATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">eö</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rm</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rl</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-ml</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mn</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-mř</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mt’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňt’</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="31" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">28</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>IMD</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">INTERMEDIATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">öi/öa</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ln</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-nļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lř</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">n-nm</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňř</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">m-mt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ň-ňţ</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="28" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">29</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>TRD</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">TARDATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">öu/öe</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-nw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ny</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lg</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lgw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lx</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lxw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lv</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lcw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="28" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">30</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>TNS</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">TRANSITIONAL</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">eo</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-nw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-my</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rg</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rgw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rx</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rxw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rv</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rcw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="27" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">31</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>ITC</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">INTERCOMMUTATIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ëi</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-mw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-my</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lb</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lbw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lf</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lfw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-ňw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">l-lčw </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="27" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">32</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36"><strong>CSM</strong></div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style36">CONSUMPTIVE</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ëu</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-mw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-ny</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rb</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rbw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rf</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rfw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-ňw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">r-rčw </p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style17"><a name="Sec6o3o2" id="Sec6o3o2"></a></p> +<p align="justify" class="style17">6.3.2 Alternate Representation of Bias</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Bias was previously discussed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o11">Section 5.11</a>, shown by the word-final <strong>Cb</strong> suffix to a formative. As an alternative, however, the same <strong>Cb</strong> suffix can instead be placed in word-final position on a verbal adjunct (in which case a <strong>Vs</strong> affix in Slot F becomes mandatory). The forms of <strong>Cb</strong> used in verbal adjunct are the same as those used with formatives, except that, unlike formatives, there is no preceding glottal stop. See <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Table15">Table 15 in Section 5.11.1</a> for the specific <strong>Cb</strong> suffix for each bias.</p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">A</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">B</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">C</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">D</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">E</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">F</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">G</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center">H</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="39" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>(((C<span class="style14">L</span>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>Ve)</strong></div></td> + <td width="110" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Cv)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Vm)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="102" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cs</strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Vs</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Cb))</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Valences<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Level</div></td> + <td width="110" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Phase +<br /> + Saction +<br /> + Illocution</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Modality<br /> + <br /> + </div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><p align="center" class="style13"><br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Bias</strong></span></p></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"> + <p><br /> + Extension<br /> + </p> + </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec6o3o3" id="Sec6o3o3"></a></p> +<p align="justify" class="style17">6.3.3 Alternate Represenation of Phase, Sanction, and Illocution</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The categories of Phase, Sanction, and Illocution were previously discussed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o5">Sections 5.5</a>, <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o6">5.6</a>, and <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o3">5.3</a> respectively. In a formative, they are shown by a combination affix, <strong>Cv</strong>, placed in Slot V, or if an incorporated stem is present, in Slot I. Alternately, however, they may be shown by the same <strong>Cv</strong> affix in Slot C of a verbal adjunct (which entails the mandatory presence of a <strong>Vm</strong> modality infix in Slot D). The forms of <strong>Cv</strong> for a verbal adjunct are the same as those for formatives, shown in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Table11">Tables 11(a) through (f) in Section 5.5</a>.<br /> + <br /> +</p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">A</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">B</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">C</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">D</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">E</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">F</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">G</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center">H</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="39" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>(((C<span class="style14">L</span>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>Ve)</strong></div></td> + <td width="110" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Cv)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Vm)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="102" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cs</strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Vs</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Cb))</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Valence<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Level</div></td> + <td width="110" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Phase +<br /> + Saction +<br /> + Illocution</strong></span></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Modality<br /> + <br /> + </div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Bias</p></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"> + <p><br /> + Extension<br /> + </p> + </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec6o3o4" id="Sec6o3o4"></a></p> +<p align="justify" class="style17">6.3.4 Alternate Representation of Valence</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The category of Valence was previously discussed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o7">Section 5.7</a>, shown by the vocalic prefix, <strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> in Slot VI, or, if an incorporated stem is present, in Slot II. Alternately, however, Valence may be shown by consonantal counterpart to the <strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> prefix, <strong>C<span class="style14">L</span></strong>, placed in Slot A of a verbal adjunct (which entails the mandatory presence of affixes in Slots B, C, and D). </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">A</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">B</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">C</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">D</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">E</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">F</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11">G</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center">H</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="39" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>(((C<span class="style14">L</span>)</strong><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style20 style11"><strong>Ve)</strong></div></td> + <td width="110" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Cv)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>Vm)</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="102" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cs</strong></div></td> + <td width="84" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Vs</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><font color="#999999"><strong>(Cb))</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="middle"><div align="center"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="105" height="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Valence</strong></span><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="101" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Level</div></td> + <td width="110" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Phase +<br /> + Saction +<br /> + Illocution</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Modality<br /> + <br /> + </div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect<br /> + </div></td> + <td width="84" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Aspect</div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style13"><br /> + Bias</p></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"> + <p><br /> + Extension<br /> + </p> + </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The forms of <strong>C<span class="style14">L</span></strong> for a verbal adjunct are the same as those for formatives, shown in Table 20 below:</p> +<p class="style11"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a name="Table20" id="Table20"></a></strong></font><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 20: C<span class="style14">L</span> Valence Prefixes for Verbal Adjuncts</strong></font><br /> +</p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"> </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>Label</strong></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>Valence name</strong></div></td> + <td width="79" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>C<span class="style14">L</span> </strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">1</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">MNO</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Monoactive</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center">—</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">2</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">PRL</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Parallel</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>h</strong>-</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">3</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">CRO</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Corollary</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>y</strong>-</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">4</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">RCP</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Reciprocal</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>w-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">5</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">CPL</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Complementary</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hw-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">6</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">NNR</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Nonrelational</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hm-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">7</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">DUP</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Duplicative</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hn-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">8</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">DEM</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Demonstrative</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hr-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">9</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">RES</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Resistive</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>lw-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">10</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">IMT</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Imitative</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ly-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">11</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">CNG</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Contingent</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>rw-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">12</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">PTI</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Participative</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ry-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">13</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">IDC</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Indicative</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>řw-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">14</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style40">MUT</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style40">Mutual</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>řy-</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +<a name="Sec6o3o5" id="Sec6o3o5"></a></p> +<p align="justify" class="style17">6.3.5 Alternate Representation of Extension</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The category of Extension is normally shown by means of the <strong>Ca</strong> affix in Slot X of the formative (see Sections <a href="02_morpho-phonology.html#Sec2o1">2.1</a>, <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o4">3.4</a> and <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o5o3">3.5.3</a>). However, in order to simplify the phonological structure of the <strong>Ca</strong> affix for purposes of euphony, Extension may be shown via the tone of the adjacent verbal adjunct. The default tone of a verbal adjunct is falling, which indicates deferral of Extension information to the Ca affix of the formative. Otherwise, Extension is conveyed by the following shifts in tone of the verbal adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +<span class="style35">Table 21: Extension As Shown by Tone Shifts in Verbal Adjunct</span></p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="127" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>Tone</strong></div></td> + <td width="250" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>Extension</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="127" valign="top" class="style40">Falling</td> + <td width="250" valign="top" class="style42">[Extension shown by formative]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="127" valign="top" class="style40">High</td> + <td width="250" valign="top" class="style42">PROXIMAL</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="127" valign="top" class="style40">Rising</td> + <td width="250" valign="top" class="style42">INCEPTIVE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="127" valign="top" class="style40">Low</td> + <td width="250" valign="top" class="style42">TERMINATIVE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="127" valign="top" class="style40">Falling-Rising</td> + <td width="250" valign="top" class="style42">DEPLETIVE</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top" class="style40">Rising-Falling</td> + <td valign="top" class="style42">GRADUATIVE</td> + </tr> +</table> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p> </p> +</blockquote> +<p><a name="Sec6o4" id="Sec6o4"></a></p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>6.4 INCORPORATION AND FORMAT</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p class="style11">Many languages, including English, are able to combine two separate meanings + into a single verb, a process termed <strong>conflation</strong>. This is illustrated +in the following English sentences:</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p>1. <em>He bicycled south. = </em>He traveled south by bicycle.<br /> + 2. <em>She dolled herself up</em>. = She made herself look as pretty as a + doll.<br /> + 3. <em>They’re shelving the books</em>. = They’re putting the + books on the shelf/shelves.<br /> + 4. <em>Slide me a beer</em>. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the + bar).</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry + inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English <em>to bicycle</em> in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb <em>to doll up</em> does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, <em>to shelve</em> means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does <em>slide</em> in sentence (4).</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” + way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, + placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary + sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our + four sentences above as follows:</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify" class="style37"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">He [1: + (TRAVEL+past tense) south] [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) bicycle] <br /> + =<em> <strong>He bicycled south</strong></em>.</font></p> + <p align="justify" class="style37"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">She [1: + (CAUSE-TO-RESEMBLE+past tense+reflexive)] [2: (IN-THE-MANNER-OF) doll] <br /> + = <em><strong>She dolled herself up</strong></em>.</font></p> + <p align="justify" class="style37"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">They [1: + (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves] <br /> + = <em><strong>They’re shelving the books</strong></em>.</font></p> + <p align="justify" class="style37"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">[1: (GIVE+imperative)] + a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me <br /> + = <em><strong>Slide me a beer</strong></em>.</font></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown + by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb + and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English + must learn that <em>to hand</em> means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + but <em>to shoulder</em> does <strong>not</strong> mean to GIVE by MEANS of + one’s shoulder. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity + for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack + of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use + when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Ithkuil systemizes verb conflation into a productive +scheme, in which any formative stem can be incorporated directly into another formative stem. The operational sense of the incorporated stem and its semantic relation to the primary formative stem is conveyed by a morphological category called <strong>format</strong> (discussed in <a href="#Sec6o4o1">Section 6.4.1</a> below). The incorporated stem is is shown via the <strong>Cx</strong> and <strong>Vp</strong> affixes in Slots V and VI, where <strong>Cx</strong> indicates the root and <strong>Vp</strong> its Pattern, Stem and Designation. Format is shown as part of the <strong>Vf</strong> prefix which also shows the category of Context (previously discussed in <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o6">Section 3.6</a>). <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="70" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="60" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="104" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(</font><span class="style6">Cx</span><font color="#999999">/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><span class="style6">Vp</span><font color="#999999">/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="86" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> + OR<br /> + Aspect</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14"><span class="style6"><strong>Incorp.Root</strong></span><br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14"><span class="style6"><strong>Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root</strong></span><br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + Mood +<br /> + Polarity</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + <span class="style6"><strong>Format</strong></span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + If an incorporated stem is present (i.e., <strong>Cx</strong> and <strong>Vp</strong> are present in Slots V and VI) then a <strong>Vf</strong> affix showing the incorporated stem’s Format must also be present in Slot XII (see Section 6.4.1 below for an explanation of Format). </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The values for the <strong>Vp</strong> infix are shown in Table 22 below. </p> +<p><br /> + <span class="style6"><span class="style7"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 22: Vp infixes indicating Pattern, Stem and Designation of an Incorporated Root<br /> + </font></strong></span></span></p> +<table width="418" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="47" colspan="2" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="right"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem Vowel —> </font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Pattern 1</strong></div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Pattern 2</strong></div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Pattern 3</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="92" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Informal <br /> + Designation</font></div></td> + <td width="79" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 1</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">a</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">i</div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">u</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="79" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 2</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">o</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">e</div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">ö</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="79" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 3</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">ai</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">ui</div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">ei</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<table width="418" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="91" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Formal Designation</font></div></td> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 1</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">â</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">î / û</div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style17">ô</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 2</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ê</strong></div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>oi</strong></div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center"><strong><span class="style11">au</span></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="80" valign="top" class="style7"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Stem 3</font></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center"><strong><span class="style11">eu</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center"><strong><span class="style11">iu</span></strong></div></td> + <td width="81" valign="top" class="style7"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>ou</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<p><a name="Sec6o4o1" id="Sec6o4o1"></a></p> +<h3>6.4.1 Format </h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">As described above, a conflated verb in English can convey different senses such as means, manner, or location, the specific sense being learnable only through actual usage and context. In Ithkuil, this sense is overtly identified by the <strong>format</strong> of the verb, shown by the <strong>Vf</strong> affix in Slot XII. The <strong>Vf</strong> affix was previously discussed in <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o6">Section 3.6</a> on Context. + Table 23 below shows the values of <strong>Vf</strong>. </p> +<p align="justify"><br /> + <span class="style9">Tables 23: Vf Affixes: Context & Format </span></p> +<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="28" valign="top" class="style11"> </td> + <td colspan="10" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center">FORMAT</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="184" height="28" valign="top" class="style11"><strong>Context↓ <span class="style37">(</span></strong><span class="style37">see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o6">Sec. 3.6)</a></span></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong>(none)</strong></p></td> + <td width="65" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong> SCH</strong></p></td> + <td width="54" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong>ISR</strong></p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong>ATH</strong></p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong>RSL</strong></p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong>SBQ</strong></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong>CCM</strong></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong>OBJ</strong></p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><p align="center"><strong>PRT</strong></p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>AFI</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="184" height="24" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCFFFF" class="style11"><div class="style39">EXISTENTIAL</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">(a) </p></td> + <td width="65" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">o</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ai</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">â</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">au</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ëi</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">oa</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ea</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">aì</p></td> + <td valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">aù</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="184" height="26" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCFFFF" class="style11"><div class="style39"> FUNCTIONAL </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">i</p></td> + <td width="65" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ö</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ui</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ae</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">iu</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ëu</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">oe</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ia / ua</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">uì</p></td> + <td valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">iù</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="184" height="27" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCFFFF" class="style11"><div class="style39"> REPRESENTATIONAL </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">e</p></td> + <td width="65" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ü / öe</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ei</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ê</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">eu</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">öi</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">eo</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ie / ue</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">eì</p></td> + <td valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">eù</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="184" height="26" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCFFFF" class="style11"><div class="style39">AMALGAMATE</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">u </p></td> + <td width="65" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">öa</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">oi</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ô</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">ou</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">öu</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">iö / uö</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">io / uo</p></td> + <td width="55" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">oì</p></td> + <td valign="top"><p align="center" class="style17">où</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br /> + <span class="style11">The specific interpretation of the nine formats is often dependent on the verb’s Function (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1">Section 5.1</a>). This is explained in the sub-sections below for each format:</span></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>6.4.1.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SCH</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Schematic</strong> </td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">For verbs carrying DYNAMIC Function (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1o2">Sec. 5.1.2</a>), the SCHEMATIC function indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the manner of the primary stem. So for example, when translating the English sentence <em>I’m + speeding through dinner</em> [= eating speedily], the Ithkuil sentence would incorporate the stem corresponding to ‘speed’ into the stem ‘eat’ plus SCHEMATIC function to convey a sentence literally translatable as <em>I'm speed-eating dinner</em> [= eating in a manner characterized by speed.] </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Similarly, the Ithkuil translation of <em>Clouds blanketed + the city</em> would incorporate the stem corresponding to ‘blanket’ into the stem for ‘cover/engulf’ plus SCHEMATIC function to convey a sentence literally translatable as <em>Clouds blanket-cover the city</em> [= cover like a blanket.] </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">For verbs carrying STATIVE Function (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1o1">Sec. 5.1.1</a>), the SCHEMATIC function indicates that the incorporated stem characterizes the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem has the characteristics, behavior, or acts like the incorporated stem.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">For verbs carrying MANIFESTIVE Function (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1o3">Sec. 5.1.3</a>), the SCHEMATIC function indicates that the incorporated is equivalent in identity (i.e., a copula relationship) to the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem is the incorporated stem in an existential sense.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">For verbs carrying DESCRIPTIVE Function (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1o4">Sec. 5.1.4</a>), the SCHEMATIC function indicates that the incorporated has the superficial appearance or physically or (metaphorically) resembles the primary stem, i.e., the primary stem resembles/looks like the incorporated stem.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>6.4.1.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ISR</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Instrumentative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INSTRUMENTATIVE function indicates that the incorporated stem specifies the means, + cause, or instrument of causation of the conflated primary sense, so that the sentence <em>I clubbed him</em> would be translated by incorporating the stem for ‘club’ into the stem for ‘hit/beat’ plus the INSTRUMENTATIVE format, rendering a sentence literally translatable as <em>I club-hit him</em> or <em>I club-beat him</em> [= I hit/beat him with a club].</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>6.4.1.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>OBJ</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Objective </strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The OBJECTIVE function indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the Patient (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="04_case.html#Sec4o1o1">Sec. + 4.1.1</a></font>) of the primary stem. So, for example, the Ithkuil translation of <em>She dusted + the table</em> would incorporate the stem ‘dust’ into the stem ‘remove’ to render a sentence literally translatable as <em>She dust-removed the table</em> [= removed dust]. Similarly the sentence <em>They fish that river each + spring</em> would incorporate the stem ‘fish’ into the stem ‘gather/collect’ to render <em>They fish-gather that river each spring</em> [= gather fish]</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>6.4.1.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ATH</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Authoritive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The AUTHORITIVE function indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies the entity of which the primary stem is the indirect/enabling cause or derivational source. So, for example, the Ithkuil translation of the English sentence <em>He sang her cares away</em> (= + his singing allowed her to forget her cares) would incorporate the verb ‘forget’ into the verb ‘sing’ with AUTHORITATIVE format, the party ‘he’ in the EFFECTUATIVE case, and the party ‘she’ in the AFFECTIVE case.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>6.4.1.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>PRT</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Precurrent</strong> </td> + </tr> + </table> + <span class="style11">The PRECURRENT function indicates that the + incorporated stem specifies an initial event immediately preceding or continuing on into + the main verb , where the initial event is not the cause of the conflated + sense, i.e., the main act/state/event would have occurred anyway, e.g., <em>I + bought some lunch</em> (conflated sense: EAT). First X, then Y (non-causal). </span></div> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>6.4.1.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>RSL</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Resultative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The RESULTATIVE function indicates that the + verb specifies the concurrent result of the conflated sense, i.e., an event + which occurs in conjunction with the conflated sense but is also caused + by it, e.g., <em>The plane crashed into the water</em> (conflated sense: + FLY) First X, then Y as a result; X causes Y</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>6.4.1.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>SBQ</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Subsequent </strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The SUBSEQUENT function indicates that the + verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect purpose (not the + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., <em>I’ll look in + on the stew</em> (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen]) X or the purpose of Y; X in order to Y</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>6.4.1.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>CCM</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Concommitant </strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The CONCOMMITANT function indicates that the + verb specifies an incidental simultaneous event having no causal relationship, + e.g., <em>She wore jeans to church</em> (conflated sense: GO); <em>He sweated + through her recital</em> (Conflated sense: LISTEN) X while Y</p> +<p align="justify"><span class="style11"></span><span class="style11"><br /> +</span></p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"></div> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>6.4.1.9</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>AFI</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Affinitive </strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The AFFINITIVE function indicates that the + incorporated stem is associated with, represents, or acts in behalf of the primary stem. So, for example, the English sentence <em>‘They are a group of sports officiators’</em> would utilize the stem for ‘sport’ incorporated into the stem for ‘officiate’ along with the AFFINITIVE format.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <br /> + 6.4.2 Examples of Incorporation and Format</h3> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-1b.jpg" width="153" height="45" /><br /> + Hëtiun-n ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong> <br /> + <span class="style40"><span class="style14">PRL-</span><span class="style14">ITV</span><span class="style14">-FAC<strong> </strong>DYN-<span class="style6"><strong>[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-IFL</strong></span>-‘ambulate’-NRM-DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-<span class="style6"><strong>ISR</strong></span> 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + </span><em>She and I are planning on taking a walk later on.</em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><img src="images/2-1-1e.jpg" width="117" height="45" /><br /> + <strong>hremsoqaiţsurkoi</strong><span class="style40"><span class="style14"><br /> + PPT-</span><span class="style14">STA</span><span class="style14">-<span class="style6"><strong>[inc.stem: ‘value’]-IFL</strong></span>-‘human.being’-INS-NRM-DEL/A/VAR/CST-MET<sub>1</sub>/9-IFL-AMG/<span class="style6"><strong>ATH</strong></span> </span></span><em><br /> + ‘purportedly by means of the value derived from all the varied attributes of humanity’</em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p><span class="style11"><strong><img src="images/6-4-2a.jpg" width="142" height="44" /><br /> + Xha<strong> </strong> üvôqalsâniú</strong></span>.<br /> + <span class="style25">ua-OBL<strong><strong> </strong></strong> <strong><strong> </strong></strong>MNF-<span class="style6"><strong>[inc.stem: ‘sport’]-FML</strong></span>-‘official’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/DCT-AGC<sub>2</sub>/5-FML-FNC/<span class="style6"><strong>AFI</strong></span> </span><em><br /> + <span class="style11">They are a group of sports officiators.</span></em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + </blockquote> +<h3>6.4.3 Expansion of Format via Specialized Suffixes</h3> +<p class="style11">In addition to the nine formats shown solely by the <strong>V<span class="style37">f</span></strong> vocalic suffix described above in <a href="#Sec6o4o1">Section 6.4.1</a>, the category of Format can be expanded via a set of specialized suffixes, so that an incorporated root can be associated with any of the 72 main noun cases from <a href="04_case.html">Chapter 4</a>. Additionally, these suffixes allow the categories of Configuration (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o1">Sec. 3.1</a>) and Perspective (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o4">Sec. 3.4</a>) to be specified for the incorporated root.</p> +<p class="style11">These Format expansion suffixes are of the type VxC (Slot XI) which will be discussed in <a href="07_suffixes.html">Chapter 7</a>. These Format expansion suffixes allow one to specify the exact meaning of a word like “child-love” using the stem for ‘love’ with an incorporated root ‘child’ so that the resulting combinations can distinguish meanings such as:</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><em>the love one has for a child</em><br /> + <em>the love one has for a group of children</em><br /> + <em>the love one has for children in general</em><br /> + <em>the love one has for a pair of children</em><br /> + <em>the love a child feels</em><br /> + <em>the love that children feel in general</em><br /> + <em>love experienced for the sake of a child</em><br /> + <em>love experienced for the sake of a group of children</em><br /> + <em>love experienced for the sake of children in general</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p class="style11">The specifics of how these suffixes work are described in <a href="07_suffixes.html#Sec7o4o15">Section 7.4.15</a>.</p> +<blockquote> + <blockquote> </blockquote> + + <p align="right"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="07_suffixes.html">Proceed to Chapter 7: Suffixes >></a></strong></p> + <p align="left"> </p> + <p align="left"> </p> + <table width="88%" border="0" align="center"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"> </td> + <td width="4%"> </td> + <td width="19%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style21"><a href="index.htm">Home</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="24"><a href="00_intro.html"><span class="style21">Introduction</span></a></td> + <td><a href="04_case.html"><span class="style21">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="08_adjuncts.html"><span class="style21">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="12_numbers.htm"><span class="style21">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style21"><a href="faqs.html">FAQs</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="01_phonology.html"><span class="style21">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="05_verbs_1.html"><span class="style21">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="09_syntax.html"><span class="style21">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + <td><a href="abbreviations.html"><span class="style21">List of Abbreviations</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style21"><a href="links.html">Links of Interest</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="02_morpho-phonology.html"><span class="style21">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="06_verbs_2.html"><span class="style21">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="10_lexico-semantics.html"><span class="style21">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + <td><a href="lexicon.htm"><span class="style21">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="03_morphology.html"><span class="style21">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="07_suffixes.html"><span class="style21">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="11_script.htm"><span class="style21">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + <td><span class="style21"><a href="texts.html">Texts</a></span></td> + </tr> + </table> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%" height="219"><a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/a-grammar-of-the-ithkuil-language/18672158?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank"><img src="images/front_cover-small.png" alt="Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book" width="164" height="212" border="0" /></a></td> + <td width="66%" valign="top"><p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11">For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar<br /> + in book form, <a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/a-grammar-of-the-ithkuil-language/18672158?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank">it is now available!</a> </p> + <p align="right"><span class="style11">And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-<br /> + wrote</span><span class="style11"> with my twin brother Paul, <a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/beyond-antimony/18666681?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank">also now available!</a> </span></p> + <p align="right"><span class="style11">(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the<br /> + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features<br /> + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)</span></p></td> + <td width="16%" valign="middle"><p class="style11"><a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/beyond-antimony/18666681?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank"><img src="images/front_cover-novel.png" alt="Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada" width="149" height="217" border="0" align="top" /></a></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">©2004-2011 by John Quijada. 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