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diff --git a/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html b/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0bf2b70 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/05_verbs_1.html @@ -0,0 +1,5677 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title>A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 5: Verb Morphology</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +.style2 { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; + font-weight: bold; + color: #999999; +} +.style3 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; font-size: small; color: #0000FF; } +.style5 {color: #000000; font-weight: bold;} +.style6 {color: #FF0000} +.style7 {color: #000000} +.style9 { + font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style10 {font-size: x-small} +.style11 {font-size: large} +.style13 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif} +.style14 {font-size: small} +.style16 {color: #FF0000; 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+ font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; +} +.style46 { font-family: Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; +} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> + +<h2 align="center" class="style2">Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language<br /> + <img src="images/masthead.jpg" width="465" height="50" /></h2> +<table width="88%" border="0" align="center"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"> </td> + <td width="4%"> </td> + <td width="19%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style17"><a href="index.htm">Home</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="24"><a href="00_intro.html"><span class="style17">Introduction</span></a></td> + <td><a href="04_case.html"><span class="style17">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="08_adjuncts.html"><span class="style17">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="12_numbers.htm"><span class="style17">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style17"><a href="faqs.html">FAQs</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="01_phonology.html"><span class="style17">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="05_verbs_1.html"><span class="style17">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="09_syntax.html"><span class="style17">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + <td><a href="abbreviations.html"><span class="style17">List of Abbreviations</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style17"><a href="links.html">Links of Interest</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="02_morpho-phonology.html"><span class="style17">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="06_verbs_2.html"><span class="style17">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="10_lexico-semantics.html"><span class="style17">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + <td><a href="lexicon.htm"><span class="style17">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="03_morphology.html"><span class="style17">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="07_suffixes.html"><span class="style17">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="11_script.htm"><span class="style17">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + <td><span class="style17"><a href="texts.html">Texts</a></span></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="right" class="style46"> </p> +<p align="right"><span class="style36">Update:</span><span class="style46"> <a href="links.html">The Ithkuil Grammar Is Now Available in Book Form</a></span></p> +<p> </p> +<h2 align="center" class="style5">Chapter 5: Verb Morphology </h2> +<table width="59%" border="0" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="45%"><a href="#Sec5o1">5.1 Function</a> </td> + <td width="31%"><a href="#Sec5o5">5.5 Phase</a></td> + <td width="24%"><a href="#Sec5o9">5.9 Validation</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="#Sec5o2">5.2 Mood</a> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec5o6">5.6 Sanction</a></td> + <td><a href="#Sec5o10">5.10 Aspect</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="#Sec5o3">5.3 Illocution</a></td> + <td><a href="#Sec5o7">5.7 Valence</a></td> + <td><a href="#Sec5o11">5.11 Bias</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="#Sec5o4">5.4 Case-Frames & Relation</a></td> + <td><a href="#Sec5o8">5.8 Version</a></td> + <td> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + The Ithkuil verbal formative (termed “verb” in + this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, + inflecting for twenty-two different morphological categories. These include + the seven categories shared by all formatives and already discussed in <a href="03_morphology.html">Chapter + 3</a>: <strong>Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Essence, + Context, </strong>and<strong> Designation</strong>. Additionally the following + fifteen categories apply solely to verbs: <strong><strong>Function, </strong>Mood, Illocution, Case-Frame, Relation, <strong>Phase, + Sanction, </strong><strong>Valence, </strong><strong>Version, </strong>Validation, Aspect, </strong><strong><strong>Format, Modality, </strong></strong><strong>Level, </strong>and<strong> Bias</strong>. Additionally, Ithkuil allows for stem incorporation, i.e., for one formative stem to be incorporated inside of another to expand the latter’s semantic range. The verb can also + theoretically take any number of the approximately 1800 suffixes available to formatives. + Such suffixes are analyzed in <a href="07_suffixes.html">Chapter + 7</a>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The full structure of a Ithkuil verbal formative is in two parts, + i.e., having two distinct words, these being a<strong> valence/modality adjunct</strong> + and the <strong>verb</strong> itself. In simple sentences, the valence/modality adjunct may be missing. The following extreme example of a fully inflected + Ithkuil verb illustrates all 22 of the above-listed categories, as well as demonstrating an incorporated stem:</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<blockquote> + <div align="center"><strong><strong> <img src="images/5-0.jpg" width="174" height="60" align="absmiddle" /> <span class="style39"> </span></strong></strong><span class="style39"> <strong><em>hru<span class="style30">š</span>trul-lyö’ň ˉhnič<sup>h</sup>âçt<strong><em>à</em></strong>u’w<strong><em>a</em></strong>tkwöu</em></strong></span><span class="style6"><strong>​​​​​​</strong> </span> <span class="style11"> </span></div> +</blockquote> +<table width="86%" border="1" align="center" cellpadding="5"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td width="44%"><blockquote class="style11"> + <p><strong>hr.u.<span class="style37">št</span>r.u.l-ly.ö.’ň</strong> </p> + <span class="style20">Valence: DEMONSTRATIVE <br /> +Level: SURPASSIVE-RELATIVE <br /> +Phase: RECURRENT<br /> +Sanction: REFUTATIVE<span class="style21"><br /> +Illocution: DIRECTIVE</span><br /> +Modality: DESIDERATIVE<br /> +Aspect 1: REGRESSIVE <br /> +Apect 2: IMMINENT<br /> +Bias: COINCIDENTAL <br /> + </span></blockquote></td> + <td width="56%"><blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong>ˉ.hn.i.č<sup>h</sup>.â.çt.<strong>à</strong>u.’w<strong>a</strong>.tkw.öu</strong> </p> + <p class="style21">Validation: PRESUMPTIVE 2 <br /> + Function: DYNAMIC<br /> + Pattern/Stem of Main Root:<em> Pattern 1, Stem 1</em><br /> + Incorporated Root: <strong>č<sup>h</sup></strong> <em>‘make/construct’ <br /> + </em>Pattern/Stem of Inc. Root:<em> Pattern 1, Stem 1</em><br /> + Designation of Incorporated Root: FORMAL <br /> + Main Root: <strong>çt</strong> <em>‘chamber; spatial enclosure’</em><br /> + Case-Frame: CONCESSIVE<br /> + Mood: SUBJUNCTIVE<br /> + Essence: REPRESENTATIVE <br /> + Extension: PROXIMAL<br /> + Perspective: ABSTRACT<br /> + Configuration: COMPOSITE<br /> + Affiliation: COALESCENT<br /> + Context: AMALGAMATIVE <br /> + Format: SUBSEQUENT<br /> + Version: COMPLETIVE<br /> + Designation: FORMAL<br /> + Relation: + FRAMED </p> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the + above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ithkuil phrase as possible, would + be: ‘<em>…despite presumably being on the verge, contrary to the allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in maybe ordering a periodic return to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others to follow by example.</em>’ </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Of the 15 morphological + categories particular to verbal formatives, we will examine in this chapter those eleven of them which usually constitute part of the verbal formative itself (Function, Mood, Illocution, Case-Frame, Relation, Phase, Sanction, Valence, Version, Validation and Aspect). The remaining categories specific to valence/modality adjuncts (Modality, Level, and Bias) will be described in <a href="06_verbs_2.html">Chapter + 6</a>. Additionally, the category of Format, while displayed within the formative, is closely tied to the phenomenon of stem incorporation, which is also discussed in Chapter 6. Therefore, Format will be discussed in that chapter. </p> +<p align="justify"><br /> + <a name="Sec5o1" id="Sec5o1"></a><br /> +</p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>5.1 FUNCTION </strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Function refers to the general relationship a verb has to its noun participants based on whether the verb represents an existential or psychological state, a dynamic action or event, a mere statement of X = Y identification, or a description. Without + a standardized system for the lexico-semantic function of verbs, the meaning of such a form could only be + learned from hearing others using it in context.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Note that, although Function is being described here in the chapter on Verbs, Ithkuil nouns, too, carry a Function, specifically the STATIVE function, in that they manifest an inherent, existential (i.e., non-dynamic) state of matter/energy. Because a formative’s Function changes only for verbs, not nouns, Function is being discussed in this chapter.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">As previously described in <a href="02_morpho-phonology.html#Sec2o2o2">Section 2.2.2</a>, Function is shown by the <strong>Vr</strong> affix in Slot IV, which also conveys the main root’s Stem and Pattern. </p> +<br /> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="52" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="49" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="37" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="32" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="70" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="72" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> +OR<br /> +Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center"><span class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +</span><span class="style29"><br /> + Function</span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + Mood</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The values of <strong>Vr</strong>- by Stem and Pattern and Function are shown in Table 8 below. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +<span class="style37">Table 8: Values of Vr by Stem, Pattern, and Function </span><span class="style11">(see <a href="02_morpho-phonology.html#Sec2o2o2">Section 2.2.2</a> for a discussion of Stem and Pattern)</span></p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> + <td colspan="3" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Pattern 1</strong></p></td> + <td colspan="3" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Pattern 2</strong></p></td> + <td colspan="3" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Pattern 3</strong></p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 3</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 3</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 3</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>Function</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="left">STATIVE</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">(a-)</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">e-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">u-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">o- </p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ö-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">î- / û-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">â-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ê-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ô-</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="left">DYNAMIC</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">i-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ai-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ei-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">au-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">eu-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">iu-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ia- / ua-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ie- / ue-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">io- / uo-</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="left">MANIFESTIVE</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ui-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ü- / ou-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ëi-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ae-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ea-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">oa-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">üa- / aì-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">iù- / uì-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">iö- / uö-</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="left">DESCRIPTIVE</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">oi-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">eo-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">eö-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">oe-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">öe-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">ëu- </p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">üo- / oì-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">üe- / eì-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style37">üö- / aù-</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +The four Functions are the STATIVE, DYNAMIC, MANIFESTIVE, and DESCRIPTIVE. They are described in the following sections. Note that the previous version of Ithkuil, as well as Ilaksh, had additional functions (previously called Conflations) than the current four. Due to Ithkuil’s new stem-incorporation abilities (described in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o4">Section 6.4</a>), those additional functions are no longer necessary.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p><a name="Sec5o1o1" id="Sec5o1o1"></a><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>5.1.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>STA</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Stative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The STATIVE function indicates a stative manifestation, + i.e. to be in a non-causal, non-dynamic (temporary or permanent) state, including states of mind, non-dynamic or affictive physical states (e.g., something being warm, but not making something warm), as well as being the Function associated with all formatives acting as nouns. However, it does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of X=Y copula identification as in “I am John.”</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec5o1o2" id="Sec5o1o2"></a></p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.1.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DYN</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Dynamic</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">DYNAMIC function indicates that the verb refers to a tangible or physical act or cause-and-effect event: to perform the action + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function. Note that the choice of whether a particular situation is to be considered STATIVE or DYNAMIC can be subjective. For example, if a person is chronically coughing due to an illness, one can describe the coughing using either the DYNAMIC (to focus for example on the paroxysmal movements and physical processes undergone by the person during each cough), or the STATIVE (to let the reader/listener know you consider the coughing to be merely a manifestation of an existential state, e.g., an illness, in which the physical motions and processes associated with each cough are not the relevant issue. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">In the examples from <a href="04_case.html#Sec4o3o12">Section 4.3.12</a> involving anger-inducing clowns and burning trees, we likewise saw the difference in meaning between using STATIVE versus DYNAMIC function for otherwise identical sentences.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec5o1o3" id="Sec5o1o3"></a></p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.1.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>MNF</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Manifestive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p class="style11">MANIFESTIVE function indicates that the verb represents a manifestion or naming of the identity of a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the X=Y “be” + copula of identification in Western languages, as in <em>She is a manager, That man is secretly a clown, Dogs are mammals, Mrs. Beasly is a fat crone.</em></p> +<p> </p> +<p class="style11"><a name="Sec5o1o4" id="Sec5o1o4"></a></p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"></div> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.1.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DSC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Descriptive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">DESCRIPTIVE function indicates descriptive manifestation, + i.e., to appear or manifest in the manner of. This sense is the nearest + Ithkuil equivalent to English adjectives.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3> 5.1.5 Examples of Function </h3> +<p class="style11">Here follow examples of the four functions applied to the same stem <strong>egrá-</strong> ‘prepare(d) food’:</p> +<blockquote> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="7%" height="34"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STA</font></strong></td> + <td width="18%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STATIVE</font></td> + <td width="75%"><span class="style11"><strong>egrá-</strong> <em> ‘(to be in) a state of preparing food’</em></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="32"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DYN</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DYNAMIC</font></td> + <td><span class="style11"><strong>ai<strong><strong>grá-</strong></strong></strong> <em> ‘prepare food’</em></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="34"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MNF</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MANIFESTIVE</font></td> + <td><span class="style11"><strong><strong><strong><strong>ügr<strong><strong><strong>á</strong></strong></strong>-</strong></strong></strong></strong> <em>‘to be prepared food’</em></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="32"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DSC</font></strong></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DESCRIPTIVE</font></td> + <td><span class="style11"><strong>eogr<strong><strong><strong><strong>á-</strong></strong></strong></strong></strong> <em>‘to be like prepared food’</em></span></td> + </tr> + </table> +</blockquote> +<p class="style11"><br /> +Additional examples of Function:</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-1-5a.jpg" width="139" height="36" /><br /> + Iek’ás to p<sup>h</sup>el.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25"><span class="style6"><strong>DYN</strong></span>-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML 1M-ERG STA-‘tree’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span></span></span><br /> + <em>I burn the tree.</em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-1-5a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-1-5a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-1-5b.jpg" width="97" height="29" /><br /> + Êk’ás p<sup>h</sup>el.</strong><em><br /> + </em><span class="style25"><span class="style6"><strong>STA</strong></span>-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML <span class="style16">STA</span>-‘tree’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><em><br /> + <em>The tree is burning / The tree is in flames.</em></em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-1-5b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-1-5b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><sup><img src="images/5-1-5c.jpg" width="143" height="41" /><br /> + –</sup>Qa<strong> uip<sup>h</sup>al </strong><strong>ê</strong>k’àî’sa.</strong><em><br /> + </em><span class="style25">mi-OBL <span class="style6"><strong>MNF</strong></span>-‘tree’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL FRAMED-FML-<strong></strong><span class="style6"><strong>STA</strong></span>-‘burn’-COR-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI </span><em><br /> + <em>It is a burning tree / It is a tree in flames.</em></em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-1-5c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-1-5c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><sup><img src="images/5-1-5d.jpg" width="100" height="45" /><br /> + –</sup>Qa<strong> </strong>üek’<strong>á</strong>s.</strong><em><br /> + </em><span class="style25">mi-OBL <strong></strong><span class="style6"><strong>DSC</strong></span>-‘burn’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML </span><em><br /> + <em>It is flame-like / It reminds one of burning flames.</em></em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-1-5d.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-1-5d.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<p><span class="style11"><a name="Sec5o2" id="Sec5o2"></a><br /> +</span></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td class="style11"><div><strong>5.2 MOOD</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., <em>Go now!, Sing it for + us!</em> ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., <em>She would travel + if she could</em>), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., <em>I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here</em>), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., <em>May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!</em>).</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">We will see later in <a href="#Sec5o3">Section 5.3 + </a> that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders a total of eight moods in Ithkuil.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The eight moods are FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE, and ASCRIPTIVE. +They are shown in conjunction with the morphological category of Illocution (see <a href="#Sec5o3">Section 5.3</a>) by the <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix placed in Slot IX. The <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix is of the form consonant <strong>Ci</strong> followed by a vowel <strong>Vi</strong>. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">(NOTE: Under certain circumstances, as an alternate to the <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix in Slot IX, Mood can be shown via the <strong>Cs</strong> prefix in Slot III usually used to show the category of Aspect. These circumstances are described later in <a href="#Sec5o10">Section 5.10</a> on Aspect.)<br /> + <br /> +</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="52" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="49" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="37" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="32" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="70" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="72" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFF99"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> + OR<br /> + Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFF99"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Mood</strong></span><br /> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> +<span class="style11">The consonant half of the infix, <strong>Ci</strong>, has three different forms: -<strong>w</strong>-, -<strong>y</strong>-, and -<strong>h</strong>-.</span> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><strong>NOTE</strong>: If the formative’s <strong>Vc</strong> case affix is a diphthong ending in -<strong>u</strong> (i.e., au, eu, iu, ou, öu, ëu), the -<strong>w</strong>- value of <strong>Ci</strong> changes to -<strong>hw</strong>- and the final -<strong>u</strong> of the Vc diphthong is deleted. Thus, adding the <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix -<strong>wa</strong>- to the formative <em>daus</em> results in <em>dahwas</em>, not <em>dauwas</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Also, if the formative’s <strong>Vc</strong> case affix is a diphthong ending in -<strong>i</strong> (i.e., ai, ei, oi, ui, öi, ëi), the -<strong>y</strong>-value of <strong>Ci</strong> changes from to -<strong>hw</strong>- (while the <strong>Vc</strong> diphthong is left intact). Thus, adding the <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix -<strong>ya</strong>- to the formative <em>dais</em> results in <em>daihwas</em>, not <em>daiyas</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Table 9 below shows the values of the <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix by Illocution and Mood. </p> +<p align="justify"><a name="Table9" id="Table9"></a><br /> +<span class="style31">Table 9: Ci + Vi infix values indicating 6 Illocutions x 8 Moods </span></p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td colspan="8" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>MOOD</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="215" height="40" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13"> + <div> + <div align="left"><span class="style9">ILLOCUTION</span> + (see <a href="#Sec5o3">Sec. 5.3</a>) <br /> + ↓ </div> + </div> + </div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"> FAC</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"> SUB</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"> ASM</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"> SPC</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"> COU</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"> HYP</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"> IPL</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"> ASC</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="215" height="29" valign="middle"><div class="style40">1 ASSERTIVE</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">(-wë)*</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wa</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yë</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-ya</div></td> + <td width="117" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yû</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hë</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-ha</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hû / -hî</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="28" valign="middle"><div class="style40">2 DIRECTIVE </div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-we</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wö</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-ye</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yö</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yeu / -wei</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-he</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hö</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hei</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="215" height="30" valign="middle"><div class="style40">3 INTERROGATIVE </div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wu</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wâ</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yu</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yâ</div></td> + <td width="117" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yau / -wai</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hu</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hâ</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hai</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="215" height="31" valign="middle"><div class="style40">4 ADMONITIVE </div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wo</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wê</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yo</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yê</div></td> + <td width="117" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-you / -woi</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-ho</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hê</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hoi</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="29" valign="middle" class="style40">5 HORTATIVE</td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wi</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wô</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yi</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yô</div></td> + <td width="117" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-yiu / -wui</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hi</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hô</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-hui</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="28" valign="middle" class="style40">6 DECLARATIVE <strong>**</strong></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">-wî</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">—</div></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">—</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">—</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">—</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">—</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">—</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style37">—</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<span class="style25"><span class="style27">*</span> The combination of FACTUAL Mood + ASSERTIVE Illocution is usually unmarked. It is marked by the infix -<strong>wë</strong>- only in certain cases where Slots V and VI are filled by the <strong>Cv</strong> and <strong>V<span class="style10">L</span></strong> affixes (see note in <a href="#Sec5o5">Section 5.5</a> for details).<br /> +<span class="style27">* * </span>The DECLARATIVE Illocution can only be used in the FACTUAL mood.</span><br /> +<br /> +<p class="style11">NOTE: The category of Mood (along with the category of Aspect) can alternately be shown via the <strong>Cs</strong> affix in Slot III; this will be discussed in <a href="#Sec5o10">Section 5.10</a>. Additionally the <strong>Cs</strong> Mood/Aspect affix can be placed into a verbal adjunct rather than being shown in the formative; this will be discussed in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o3o1">Section 6.3.1</a>.</p> +<p class="style11">The function of the eight moods is described in the sections immediately below. <br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.2.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>FAC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Factual</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The FACTUAL mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. + Examples:</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-1a.jpg" width="149" height="45" /><br /> + Eglas âmmiļ qê.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘illness’-[<span class="style6"><strong>FAC</strong></span>]-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL ma-GEN</span><br /> + <em>His kids are ill.</em> [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill] <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-2-1a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-2-1a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><strong><img src="images/5-2-1b.jpg" width="153" height="45" /></strong><br /> + Hëtiun-n ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong> <br /> + <span class="style20"><span class="style14">PRL-ITV-<strong><span class="style6">FAC</span> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + </span><span class="style11"><em>She and I are taking a walk later on. </em>[i.e., it is our intention and we have the opportunity to do so] <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-2-1b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-2-1b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a><br /> + </span></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-1c.jpg" width="147" height="37" /><br /> + Uzlas gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-[<span class="style6"><strong>FAC</strong></span>]-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘wife’-POS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML</span><br /> + <em>His wife’s clothes are inside-out.</em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-2-1c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-2-1c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p align="justify" class="style11"><span class="style11"><br /> + </span><br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.2.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SUB</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Subjunctive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The SUBJUNCTIVE mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-2a.jpg" width="148" height="46" /><br /> + Eglawas âmmiļ qê.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘illness’-<span class="style6"><strong>SUB</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL ma-GEN</span><br /> + <em>Maybe his kids are ill.</em> [i.e., it is known that he has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]</p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-2b.jpg" width="154" height="45" /><br /> + Hëtium-m ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">PRL-ITV-<strong><span class="style6">SUB</span> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + <em>She and I may take a walk later on. </em>[i.e., it is known that the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose to]</p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-2c.jpg" width="146" height="42" /><br /> + Uzlawas gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-<span class="style6"><strong>SUB</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI<strong>-</strong>IFL STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML</span><br /> + <em>His wife’s clothes may be inside-out.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.2.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ASM</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Assumptive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ASSUMPTIVE mood functions identically to the FACTUAL except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-3a.jpg" width="148" height="44" /><br /> + Eglayës âmmiļ qê.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘illness’-<span class="style6"><strong>ASM</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL ma-GEN</span><br /> + <em>His kids’ll be ill</em> <strong>OR</strong> <em>If he has kids, they are ill.</em> [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, but if he does, they are certainly ill.]<br /> + </p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><img src="images/5-2-3b.jpg" width="153" height="44" /><br /> + <strong>H<strong>ë</strong>tiul-l ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">PRL-ITV-<strong><span class="style6">ASM</span> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + <em>She and I will take a walk later on</em> [i.e., if we can] <strong>OR</strong> <em>We intend to take a walk.</em> [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to] </p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-3c.jpg" width="147" height="42" /><br /> + Uzlayës gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-<span class="style6"><strong>ASM</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-</span><span class="style25">FML</span><br /> + <em>If he has a wife her clothes are inside-out.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.2.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SPC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Speculative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The SPECULATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-4a.jpg" width="148" height="45" /><br /> + Eglayas âmmiļ qê.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘illness’-<span class="style6"><strong>SPC</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL ma-GEN</span><br /> + <em>Maybe his kids are ill</em> [i.e., it is unknown if he has kids but if he does, they may be ill].</p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-4b.jpg" width="153" height="45" /><br /> + Hëtiur-r ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">PRL-ITV-<strong><span class="style6">SPC</span> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + <em>She and I may take a walk later on</em> [i.e., it is unknown whether we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether we will choose to].</p> + <p> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-4c.jpg" width="145" height="42" /><br /> + Uzlayas gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-<span class="style6"><strong>SPC</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA- ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><span class="style25">-FML</span><br /> + <em>If he has a wife her clothes may be inside-out.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.2.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>COU</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Counterfactive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The COUNTERFACTIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-5a.jpg" width="148" height="46" /><br /> + Eglayûs âmmiļ qê.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘illness’-<span class="style6"><strong>COU</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL ma-GEN</span><br /> + <em>His kids would be (would have been) ill</em> [i.e., if he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-5b.jpg" width="153" height="45" /><br /> + Hëtiuň-ň ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">PRL-ITV-<strong><span class="style6">COU</span> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + <em>She and I would take (would have taken) a walk later on</em> [i.e., it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].<br /> + <br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-5c.jpg" width="145" height="42" /><br /> + Uzlayûs gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-<span class="style6"><strong>COU</strong></span>-IFL STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><span class="style25">-FML</span><br /> + <em>If he were to have a wife her clothes would be inside-out.</em></p> + <p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> + <p align="justify" class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-6-10a.jpg" width="133" height="45" /><br /> + T<sup>h</sup>em-mp<strong><sup>h</sup></strong>âmnas osmuil.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">ASR/CTX/ALG-PRL-PRS/<span class="style6"><strong>COU</strong></span>-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> + <em>The valley would've been awe-inspiring to you, too </em>[i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it]<em>.</em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-2-5.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-2-5.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.2.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>HYP</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Hypothetical</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The HYPOTHETICAL mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-6a.jpg" width="149" height="46" /><br /> + Eglahës âmmiļ qê.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘illness’-<span class="style6"><strong>HYP</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL ma-GEN</span><br /> + <em>His kids might’ve been ill</em> [if he had kids, but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].</p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-6b.jpg" width="153" height="45" /><br /> + Hëtiur-n ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">PRL-ITV-<strong><span class="style6">HYP</span> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + <em>She and I might’ve taken a walk later on</em> [i.e., but we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot]. </p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-6c.jpg" width="147" height="43" /><br /> + Uzlahës gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-<span class="style16">HYP</span>-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> + <em>If he were to have a wife her clothes might be inside-out.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.2.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IPL</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Implicative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The IMPLICATIVE mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below. </p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-7a.jpg" width="149" height="46" /><br /> + Eglahas âmmiļ qê.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘illness’-<span class="style6"><strong>IPL</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL ma-GEN</span><br /> + <em>His kids are (must be) ill</em> [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].</p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-7b.jpg" width="153" height="45" /><br /> + Iul-n ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">PRL-ITV-<strong><span class="style6">IPL</span> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + [If she wears a blue dress,] <em>we’ll be taking a walk later on. </em> [the dress implies something has happened that will make the walk a certainty] </p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-7c.jpg" width="146" height="42" /><br /> + Uzlahas gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-<span class="style6"><strong>IPL</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA- ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> + <em>His wife’s clothes must be inside-out.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p><br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.2.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ASC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Ascriptive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ASCRIPTIVE mood functions identically to the IMPLICATIVE immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples: </p> +<blockquote> + <p><br /> + <img src="images/5-2-8a.jpg" width="149" height="47" /><br /> + <span class="style11"><strong>Eglahîs âmmiļ qê.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘illness’-<span class="style6"><strong>ASC</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘child.offspring’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL ma-GEN</span><br /> + <em>His kids may be ill</em> [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].</span></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-8b.jpg" width="153" height="45" /><br /> + Iur-ň ivogwařļokkai ţei.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">PRL-ITV-<strong><span class="style6">ASC</span> </strong>DYN-[inc.stem: ‘recreation.leisure’]-‘ambulate’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/CPN-TPP<sub>1</sub>/7-IFL-ISR 1+ma-ACT</span><br /> + [If she wears a blue dress,] <em>we might be taking a walk later on. </em>[the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility]</p> + <p align="left" class="style11"> </p> + <p align="left" class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-2-8c.jpg" width="147" height="41" /><br /> + Uzlahîs gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-<span class="style6"><strong>ASC</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG-IFL STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> + <em>That means his wife’s clothes are inside-out. </em></p> +</blockquote> +<h3 align="justify"><br /></h3> +<p align="justify"><br /> +</p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><a name="Sec5o3" id="Sec5o3"></a><strong><font size="4">5.3 + ILLOCUTION</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Illocution refers to what in linguistics is usually termed + types of speech acts, i.e., the general purpose of a statement such as whether + it is an assertion, a command, a declaratory pronouncement, a question, a warning, + etc. This is a category which is not generally marked within Western languages + in any consistent grammatical sense, the nearest equivalent grammatical category + usually being Mood. As was seen above in Section 5.1, Mood functions in a much narrower grammatical range than in Western languages. + When the moods of Western language actually relate to types of speech acts, + the equivalent function in Ithkuil is shown by the category of Illocution.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">There are six illocutions in Ithkuil: ASSERTIVE, INTERROGATIVE, DIRECTIVE, ADMONITIVE, HORTATIVE and DECLARATIVE. + They distinguish the type of speech act being performed by the speaker, with + a specific focus on the type of commitment being made on the part of either + the speaker or the hearer to the truth or purpose of the utterance. Illocution is + marked along with the category of Mood (see <a href="#Sec5o2">Section 5.2</a>) by a consonant+vowel <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix to the formative, as previously shown in <a href="#Table9">Table 9</a> above.</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="71" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="53" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="63" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="51" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="79" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="125" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="37" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="32" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="70" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="102" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="39" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="72" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> +OR<br /> +Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14"><span class="style16">Illocution</span> +<br /> + Mood<br /> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> + <span class="style11">Illocution can alternately be shown via the <strong>Cv</strong> affix (Slots I or V) as discussed in <a href="#Sec5o5">Section 5.5</a> below on Phase. Additionally, in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o3o3">Section 6.3.3</a> we will see that Illocution can be shown by an affix within a verbal adjunct. </span></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The six illocutions are described below.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.3.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ASR</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Assertive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ASSERTIVE is used to express propositions + which purport to describe or name some act, event, or state in the real world, + with the purpose of committing the hearer to the truth of the proposition. Thus, + an utterance in the ASSERTIVE illocution is one that can + be believed or disbelieved, and is either true or false. Such utterances would + include general statements, descriptions, and explanations. </p> +<p class="style11"> </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%" class="style11"><strong>5.3.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>DIR</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%" class="style11"><strong>The Directive</strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing + the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where + the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of + the speaker. Thus, an utterance in the DIRECTIVE is one + that is neither true nor false because it is not describing something that purports + to exist in the real world; rather, it describes an act or situation which can + potentially be made real, i.e., that can be fulfilled or carried out. Such utterances + include commands, orders, and requests and would generally be marked in Western + languages by either the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The commitment + on the part of the hearer is not belief or disbelief, but rather whether to + obey, comply with, or grant. The DIRECTIVE is also used for “commissive” types of statements such as promises, vows, pledges, + oaths, contracts, or guarantees, where the + statement is a wish or command directed at oneself.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <strong><a name="Sec5o3o3" id="Sec5o3o3"></a></strong><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.3.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IRG</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Interrogative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INTERROGATIVE is used for utterances corresponding to questions in other languages. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE is one of compliance or non-compliance in divulging the information sought, + and the truth value of the utterance is neutral pending the reply.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.3.4</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ADM</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Admonitive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ADMONITIVE is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur + unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree + of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy + the utterance. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.3.5</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>HOR</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Hortative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The HORTATIVE is used for statements that are untrue or unreal, but wished to be true or real, corresponding to English phrases such + as ‘if only…’, or ‘were it that….’</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.3.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DEC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Declarative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DECLARATIVE is used for utterances + whose purpose is to themselves effect a change upon the real world, based upon + convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority + or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of + recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, + proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would + be: <em>I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty + null and void!</em></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<h3 class="style11"><br /> + <span class="style7">5.3.7 Examples of Illocution in Use</span></h3> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-3-7a.jpg" width="58" height="37" /><br /> + Aidhawél.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">DYN-‘water.as.nourishment’-<span class="style6"><strong>DIR</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML</span><br /> + <em>Drink some water!</em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-3-7a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-3-7a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"><strong> </strong></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-3-7b.jpg" width="107" height="37" /><br /> + Ükšoàwîl âmmell.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">MNF-‘clown’-TFM-<span class="style6"><strong>DEC</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘child’-ABS-DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL</span><br /> + <em>The pair of children are hereby turned into clowns!</em> <img src="images/Clown2.jpg" width="87" height="69" align="top" /> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-3-7b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-3-7b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="texttop" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-3-7c.jpg" width="131" height="40" /><br /> + Iolmawóţ êļneilüükt.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">DYN-‘sing.a.song’-<span class="style6"><strong> ADM</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘bird’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DEF<sub>1</sub>/8-FML</span><br /> + <em>Be aware that this pet bird sings. </em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-3-7c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-3-7c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-3-7d.jpg" alt="" width="74" height="40" /><br /> + Aigrawutļáun?</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">DYN-‘prepared.food’-<span class="style6"><strong>IRG</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DCT-AGC<sub>2</sub>/2-FML</span><br /> + <em>Will the cook prepare some meals? </em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-3-7d.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-3-7d.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-3-7e.jpg" width="135" height="46" /><br /> + Igrawileiţrar oi eglulôn.</strong><br /> +<span class="style25">DYN-‘eat food’-FAC-<span class="style6"><strong>HOR</strong></span>-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT<sub>2</sub>/6-NA1<sub>1</sub>/5-IFL PCL STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC<sub>2</sub>/7-IFL</span><br /> + <em>If only the physician wouldn’t eat his food in one gulp like that.</em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-3-7e.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-3-7e.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> +</blockquote> +<p><a name="Sec5o4" id="Sec5o4"></a></p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td class="style11"><div><strong>5.4 CASE-FRAMES AND RELATION</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed <strong>subordination</strong>. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify"> <em>The dog <strong>that ate my hat</strong> belongs to + them.<br /> + I want <strong>him to stop shouting</strong>.<br /> + The committee voted <strong>to fire the superintendant</strong>.<br /> + We demand <strong>(that) you give us equal pay</strong>.<br /> + <strong>Although he’s a college graduate</strong>, he acts like a child.<br /> + This is the slot<strong> through which the letter is passed</strong>.<br /> + <strong>In case you’re unaware</strong>, I’ll be leaving next + month.<br /> + The boy <strong>walking toward us</strong> is my nephew.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a <strong>case-frame</strong>, or simply, <strong>frame</strong>. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify"><em>She and I were working together. <br /> + The two nations were at war.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in <em>She and I were working together while the two nations were at war</em>. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in <em>She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE (see <a href="04_case.html#Sec4o6o3">Sec. 4.6.3</a>). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify"><em>She and I were working together during the summer.<br /> + She and I were working together at the time of the famine.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence + such as <em>The two nations were at war</em> can be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 96 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec5o4o1" id="Sec5o4o1"></a></h3> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"> 5.4.1 Relation and the Placement of Frames</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. The actual case of the second-order sentence is indicated in the verbal +formative the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., via the <strong>Vc</strong> affix in Slot VII. Additionally, the syllabic stress of the formative will change to show <strong>FRAMED Relation</strong>, explained in the next paragraph. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><strong>Relation</strong> is a binary category in Ithkuil, having two values. The main verbal formative of an Ithkuil sentence is in UNFRAMED Relation, marked by penultimate (second-to-last) syllabic stress or by ultimate (final) stress if the formative has FORMAL Designation (see Section 3.7). Once a verbal formative is subordinated within a case-frame, it takes FRAMED relation, shown by antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllabic stress or by preantepenultimate (fourth-from-last) syllabic stress if the formative has FORMAL Designation. </p> +<br /> +<span class="style31">Table 10: Relation x Designation</span><br /> +<br /> +<table height="84" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="147" rowspan="3" valign="middle"><p align="center"><strong>STRESS =</strong><br /> + <strong>2 relations x <br /> + 2 designations</strong></p></td> + <td height="25" colspan="2" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">UNFRAMED Relation</p></td> + <td colspan="2" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">FRAMED Relation</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="147" height="28" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">IFL Designation</p></td> + <td width="147" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">FML Designation</p></td> + <td width="147" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">IFL Designation</p></td> + <td width="175" valign="middle"><p align="center">FML Designation</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="147" valign="middle"><p align="center">penultimate stress</p></td> + <td width="147" valign="middle"><p align="center">ultimate stress</p></td> + <td width="147" valign="middle"><p align="left">antepenultimate stress</p></td> + <td width="175" valign="middle"><p align="center">pre-antepenultimate stress</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +If the formative does not have enough syllables to allow for penultimate or pre-antepenultimate stress, any morphophonological Slot (see <a href="02_morpho-phonology.html#Sec2o1o1">Section 2.1.1</a>) which is unfilled due to having its unmarked default value, can instead be marked by its alternate default value, e.g., the affix -<strong>a</strong>- in Slot IV (see <a href="02_morpho-phonology.html#Sec2o2o2">Section 2.2.2</a>), and/or the infix -<strong>wë</strong>- in Slot IX (see <a href="#Sec5o5">Section 5.5</a>), and/or the affix -<strong>a</strong>- in Slot XII (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o6">Section 3.6</a>), in order to create a sufficient number of syllables.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">If the case-frame is inserted at the beginning or + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame will usually + carry a special suffix, <strong>-t’</strong> (see details in <a href="07_suffixes.html#Sec7o4o13">Section 7.4.13</a>), which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main +sentence. A case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the ABSTRACT, which has the effect of + deferring all <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o3">Perspective</a> information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main +verb of the sentence.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +</p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"> 5.4.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify" class="style11">RESTRICTED CLAUSE<br /> + (1) <em>Lions <strong>that like chasing their tails</strong> can be seen at + any circus.</em><br /> + (2) <em>That book <strong>(that) I just finished reading</strong> was written + by a priest.</em></p> + <p align="justify" class="style11">UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE<br /> + (3) <em>Lions<strong>, which like chasing their tails,</strong> can be seen + at any circus.</em><br /> + (4) <em>That book<strong>, which I just finished reading,</strong> was written + by a priest.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <strong>5.4.2.1 Restricted Clauses</strong>. Ithkuil treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify" class="style11"><em>That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)<br /> + I just finished reading that book.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see <a href="04_case.html">Chapter + 4</a>) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See <a href="04_case.html#Sec4o1o2">Sec. + 4.1.2</a>), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE case (See <a href="04_case.html#Sec4o3o1">Section 4.3.1</a>). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify">A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H. </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see <a href="04_case.html#Sec4o3o1">Sec. + 4.3.1</a>).</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify">A priest wrote [OBL]. I just finish + reading that book-H. </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">As described in <a href="#Sec5o4o1">Sec. 5.4.1</a> above, the verb + of the secondary sentence takes + the relevant case marker (OBLIQUE).</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify">A priest wrote I just finished reading-OBL that book-H.</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: <em>A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book</em>. However, this is how Ithkuil translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Similarly, the other example sentence from above, <em>Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus</em> would become in + Ithkuil: <em>At any circus one can see certain lions-</em>H<em> like to chase-</em>OBL<em> their tails</em>. A literal + translation into English would be: <em>At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.</em></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <strong>5.4.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses</strong>. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p align="justify"><em>One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.<br /> + A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec5o4o2o3" id="Sec5o4o2o3"></a><br /> + <span class="style7"><strong>5.4.2.3 Use of the CORRELATIVE Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses</strong>. The CORRELATIVE case (discussed in <a href="04_case.html#Sec4o5o25">Section + 4.5.25</a>) is used to create case-frames which are semantically equivalent to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ Such </span>a case-frame would be used in conjunction with specific Functions (see <a href="#Sec5o1">Section 5.1</a>) to convey whether the relationship of the relativized clause to the main clause is one of description, copula identification, etc. </p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"> </h3> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"> 5.4.3 Example of Case-Frames in Use</h3> +<blockquote><span class="style11"><br /> + <img src="images/5-4-3a.jpg" width="365" height="48" /><br /> + <strong>Âffapka gvilevum ‾xhéi’<strong>ai</strong>ca ekšaéţ odralek<sup>h</sup>á gvoecuaţ.</strong></span><span class="style11"> </span><br /> +<span class="style25">STA-‘cry’-NRM/ICP/U/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘article.of.clothing’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-CAP<sub>1</sub>/3-ROL<sub>1</sub>/9-IFL <br /> +<span class="style6"><strong>FRAMED</strong></span>/DYN-‘know’-<span class="style16">PCR</span>-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-CPT-IFL STA-‘clown’-OGN-NRM/DEL/N/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘rule’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-TPP<sub>1</sub>/3-FML STA-‘article.of.clothing’-REF-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-DEV<sub>2</sub>/1-IFL</span><br /> + <span class="style11"><em><img src="images/Clown3.jpg" width="70" height="87" align="middle" /> The incompetent tailor began to cry after finding out about the clowns’ new directive on nakedness.</em></span> + <p class="style11"></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + </strong></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-4-3b.jpg" alt="" width="182" height="44" /><br /> + N-nsaixtáš qu íkau’šurdûž.</strong> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-4-3b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-4-3b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a><br /> + <span class="style25">CNT-DYN-‘job/employment’-NRM/PRX/M/ASO/UNI-FML ma-IND <span class="style6"><strong>FRAMED</strong></span>-FML-DYN-‘travel’-<span class="style6"><strong>CON</strong></span>-NRM/PRX/M/ASO/UNI-EXD<sub>1</sub>/9-CNS<sub>1</sub>/6</span><br /> + <em>He keeps on working despite his reluctance to having to travel more and more.</em></p> + <p> </p> + <p><em><br /> + </em> </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><a name="Sec5o5" id="Sec5o5"></a></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td class="style11"><div><strong>5.5 PHASE</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o4">Sec. + 3.4</a>, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The nine phases are the CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE, + and FLUCTUATIVE. They are marked by the <strong>Cv</strong> affix to a formative, depending on the sanction + (and potentially the illocution) of the verb (discussed in <a href="#Sec5o6">Sections 5.6</a> and <a href="#Sec5o3">5.3</a> respectively). The <strong>Cv</strong> affix is normally placed in Slot V of the formative’s morphological structure, unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o4">Section 6.4</a>), in which case <strong>Cv</strong> is placed in Slot I. (In <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o3o3">Section 6.3.3</a> we will see that <strong>Cv</strong> can alternately be placed within a verbal adjunct.)</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><strong><a name="Sec5o5note" id="Sec5o5note"></a></strong></p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="75" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="31" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="29" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="111" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="37" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="69" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="65" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((</font><span class="style6">Cv<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/</font><span class="style6">Cv</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><p align="center" class="style14"> <span class="style6"><strong>Phase</strong></span> +<br /> + Sanction<br /> +(+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> +OR<br /> +Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Phase</strong></span> + <br /> + Sanction <br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + Mood</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +The presence of a<strong> Cv</strong> infix in Slot V requires the presence of a <strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> affix in Slot VI (See <a href="#Sec5o6">Section 5.6</a> below on Valence). However, if the categories of Phase, Sanction, Illocution, and Valence are all in their default modes (i.e., CONTEXTUAL phase, PROPOSITIONAL Sanction, ASSERTIVE illocution, and MONOACTIVE valence), then they normally remained unmarked, i.e., the <strong>Cv</strong> and <strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> affixes are deleted and Slots V and VI will be unfilled.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><strong> NOTE</strong>: If Slots V and VI are filled (whether by the <strong>Cv + V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> infixes or by the <strong>Cx</strong> + <strong>Vp</strong> infixes discussed in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o4">Section 6.4</a>), it becomes necessary to be able to distinguish them from the <strong>Cr</strong> + <strong>Vc</strong> root + case infixes in Slots VII and VIII (so the reader/listener will be able to tell which consonants and vowels belong to which morpho-phonological slot). This is accomplished in either of two ways:</p> +<ol> + <li class="style11">The <strong>Vr</strong> vocalic affix in Slot IV must be filled and must be followed by an additional glottal stop <strong>’</strong>. It is this inserted glottal stop that clues the reader/listener that Slots V and VI are filled.<br /> + <br /> + </li> + <li class="style11">Or, if the formative is unmarked for Mood and Illocution (i.e., the formative has FACTUAL mood and ASSERTIVE illocution), then this Mood/Illocution combination becomes marked by the infix -<strong>wë</strong>- in Slot IX. This option is available only where Slots V and VI are filled by <strong>Cx</strong> + <strong>Vp</strong> infixes, not <strong>Cv + V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> infixes.</li> +</ol> +<p align="justify"><span class="style11">The values for the <strong>Cx</strong> affix are +shown in Tables 11(a) through 11(f) below. Note that if the formative’s Illocution is already shown by the <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix in Slot IX, then illocution is NOT shown via the <strong>Cv</strong> infix. In such a case, the <strong>Cv</strong> infix will display ASSERTIVE illocution only (as a default), i.e., only the values from Table 11(a) below will be utilized for <strong>Cv</strong>.</span><br /> +</p> +<p class="style9"><a name="Table11" id="Table11"></a><br /> +Tables 11(a)-(f): C<font size="-1">v</font> infixes: 9 Sanction x 9 Phases x 6 Illocutions</p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="152" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF <br /> + ILLOCUTION</font></div></td> + <td width="55" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PHASE<br /> + LABEL</font></div></td> + <td width="100" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF PHASE</font></div></td> + <td colspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SANCTION</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1<br /> + PPS</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2<br /> + EPI</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">3<br /> + ALG</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4<br /> + IPU</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">5<br /> + RFU</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">6<br /> + REB</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">7<br /> + THR</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">8<br /> + EXV</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">9<br /> + AXM</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="152" rowspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASSERTIVE</font></div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASR</font></div></td> + <td width="55" height="26" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CTX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Contextual</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">t</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">t’</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">t<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">l</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">tr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">tl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">tř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">tw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Punctual</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">k</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">k’</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">k<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">x</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ky</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Iterative</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">p</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">p’</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">p<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">vv</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">př</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">py</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>REP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Repetitive</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">q</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">q’</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">q<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ql</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xl</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Intermittent</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">b</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">v</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">vr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">vl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">br</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">by</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>RCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Recurrent</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">d</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dh</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ż</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">żż</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Frequentative</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">g</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xh</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">j</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">jj</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fragmentative</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">m</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">mm</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">r</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">rr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">mr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ml</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">mř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">mw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">my</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="26" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FLC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fluctuative</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">n</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">nn</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ddh</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ll</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">nr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">nl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">nř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">nw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ny</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="151" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF <br /> + ILLOCUTION</font></div></td> + <td width="55" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PHASE<br /> + LABEL</font></div></td> + <td width="100" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF PHASE</font></div></td> + <td colspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SANCTION</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1<br /> + PPS</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2<br /> + EPI</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">3<br /> + ALG</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4<br /> + IPU</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">5<br /> + RFU</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">6<br /> + REB</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">7<br /> + THR</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">8<br /> + EXV</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">9<br /> + AXM</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="151" rowspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INTERROGATIVE</font></div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /> + IRG</font></div></td> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CTX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Contextual</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">s</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ss</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sm</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sn</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Punctual</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">š</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šš</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šm</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šn</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Iterative</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ç</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çç</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çm</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çn</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ly</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>REP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Repetitive</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">c</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cc</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cm</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cn</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Intermittent</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">č</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čč</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čm</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čn</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>RCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Recurrent</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">z</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zz</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zm</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zn</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Frequentative</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ž</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žž</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žm</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žn</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fragmentative</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">f</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ff</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">fw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">fy</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">fr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">fl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">fř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">vw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">vy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="26" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FLC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fluctuative</font></div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ţ</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ţţ</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ţw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ţy</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ţr</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ţl</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ţř</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dhw</p></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dhy</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="152" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF <br /> + ILLOCUTION</font></div></td> + <td width="55" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PHASE<br /> + LABEL</font></div></td> + <td width="100" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF PHASE</font></div></td> + <td colspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SANCTION</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1<br /> + PPS</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2<br /> + EPI</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">3<br /> + ALG</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4<br /> + IPU</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">5<br /> + RFU</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">6<br /> + REB</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">7<br /> + THR</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">8<br /> + EXV</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">9<br /> + AXM</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="152" rowspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DIRECTIVE</font></div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DIR</font></div></td> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CTX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Contextual</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sk</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sk’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sk<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zg</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">skr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">skl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">skř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">skw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sky</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Punctual</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">st</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">st’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">st<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zd</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">str</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">stl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">stř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">stw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Iterative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sp</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sp’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sp<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zb</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">spr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">spl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">spř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">spw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">spy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>REP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Repetitive</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sq</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sq’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sq<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xx</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sqr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sql</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sqw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">řř</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Intermittent</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šk</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šk’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šk<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žg</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">škr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">škl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">škř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">škw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šky</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>RCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Recurrent</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">št</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">št’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">št<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žd</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">štr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">štl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">štř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">štw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Frequentative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šp</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šp’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šp<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">žb</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">špr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">špl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">špř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">špw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">špy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fragmentative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šq</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šq’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šq<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xxh</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šqr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šql</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xhw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šqw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">řw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FLC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fluctuative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ň</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ňň</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">rw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ry</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ňr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ňl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ňř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ňw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">řy</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="151" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF <br /> + ILLOCUTION</font></div></td> + <td width="55" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PHASE<br /> + LABEL</font></div></td> + <td width="100" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF PHASE</font></div></td> + <td colspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SANCTION</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1<br /> + PPS</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2<br /> + EPI</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">3<br /> + ALG</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4<br /> + IPU</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">5<br /> + RFU</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">6<br /> + REB</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">7<br /> + THR</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">8<br /> + EXV</font></div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">9<br /> + AXM</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="151" rowspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ADMONITIVE </font></div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ADM</font></div></td> + <td width="55" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CTX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Contextual</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ks</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kss</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ksm</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ksn</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ksr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ksl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ksř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ksw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ksy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Punctual</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kš</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kšš</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kšm</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kšn</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kšr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kšl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kšř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kšw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kšy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Iterative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ps</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pss</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">psm</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">psn</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">psr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">psl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">psř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">psw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">psy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>REP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Repetitive</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pš</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pšš</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pšm</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pšn</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pšr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pšl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pšř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pšw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pšy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Intermittent</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gz</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gzz</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gzm</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gzn</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gzr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gzl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gzř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gzw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gzy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>RCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Recurrent</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gž</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gžž</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gžm</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gžn</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gžr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gžl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gžř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gžw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gžy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Frequentative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bz</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bzz</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bzm</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bzn</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bzr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bzl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bzř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bzw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bzy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fragmentative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bž</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bžž</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bžm</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bžn</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bžr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bžl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bžř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bžw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bžy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FLC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fluctuative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sx</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sxh</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šx</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šxh</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zgr</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zgl</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zgř</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zgw</p></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">zgy</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="150" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center" class="style13">NAME OF <br /> + ILLOCUTION</div></td> + <td width="55" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center" class="style13">PHASE<br /> + LABEL</div></td> + <td width="100" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center" class="style13">NAME OF PHASE</div></td> + <td colspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center" class="style13">SANCTION</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">1<br /> + PPS</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">2<br /> + EPI</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">3<br /> + ALG</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">4<br /> + IPU</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">5<br /> + RFU</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">6<br /> + REB</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">7<br /> + THR</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">8<br /> + EXV</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center" class="style13">9<br /> + AXM</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="150" rowspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">HORTATIVE</font></div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">HOR</font></div></td> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CTX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Contextual</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çt</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çt’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sţ</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çtr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çtl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çtř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çtw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Punctual</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çk</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çk’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çk<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šţ</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çkr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çkl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çkř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çkw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çky</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Iterative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çp</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çp’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çp<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sf</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çpr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çpl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çpř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çpw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çpy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>REP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Repetitive</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çq</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çq’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çq<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šf</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çqr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çql</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çqř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çqw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">çč</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Intermittent</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kt</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kt’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gd</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ktr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ktl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ktř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ktw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>RCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Recurrent</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pt</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pt’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">bd</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ptr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ptl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ptř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ptw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Frequentative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qt</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qt’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">tk</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qtr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qtl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qtř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qtw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="26" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fragmentative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sc</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sc’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">sc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">db</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">żr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">żl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">żř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">żw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ży</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FLC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fluctuative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šč</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šč’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">šč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">dg</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">jr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">jl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">jř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">jw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">jy</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="150" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF <br /> + ILLOCUTION</font></div></td> + <td width="55" rowspan="2" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PHASE<br /> + LABEL</font></div></td> + <td width="100" rowspan="2" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF PHASE</font></div></td> + <td colspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SANCTION</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1<br /> + PPS</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2<br /> + EPI</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">3<br /> + ALG</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4<br /> + IPU</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">5<br /> + RFU</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">6<br /> + REB</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">7<br /> + THR</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">8<br /> + EXV</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">9<br /> + AXM</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="150" rowspan="9" valign="top" bgcolor="#999999"><div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"> </div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DECLARATIVE</font></div> + <div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEC</font></div></td> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>CTX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Contextual</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ct</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ct’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ct<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">tm</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ctr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ctl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ctř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ctw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>PCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Punctual</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ck</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ck’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ck<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">km</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ckr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ckl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ckř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">ckw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cky</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Iterative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cp</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cp’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cp<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pm</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cpr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cpl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cpř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cpw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cpy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>REP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Repetitive</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cq</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cq’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cq<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qm</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cqr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cql</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gm</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">cqw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xm</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="27" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ITM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Intermittent</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čt</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čt’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">tn</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čtr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čtl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čtř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čtw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čty</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="28" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>RCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Recurrent</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čk</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čk’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čk<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">kn</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čkr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čkl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čkř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čkw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čky</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="26" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Frequentative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čp</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čp’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čp<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pn</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čpr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čpl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čpř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čpw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čpy</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="30" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FRG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fragmentative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čq</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čq’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čq<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">qn</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čqr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čql</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">gn</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">čqw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xn</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="55" height="29" valign="top"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>FLC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="100" valign="top"><div><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fluctuative</font></div></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xt</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xt’</p></td> + <td width="42" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">pk</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xtr</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xtl</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xtř</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xtw</p></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style21">xty</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br /> + <span class="style11">The nine phases + are explained in the following sections. The Category of Sanction is explained in <a href="#Sec5o6">Section 5.6</a>.</span></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CTX</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Contextual</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The CONTEXTUAL is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can +be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">—</font></strong></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"></p><br /> + +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PUN</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Punctual</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PUNCTUAL describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It +can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">•</font></strong></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"></p><br /> + +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ITR</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Iterative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ITERATIVE refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the PUNCTUAL above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• + • • •</strong></font></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"></p><br /> + +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>REP</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Repetitive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The REPETITIVE refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>— — +——</strong></font></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ITM</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Intermittent</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INTERMITTENT is similar to the ITERATIVE above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a PUNCTUAL event, however, unlike the ITERATIVE, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> • <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> • <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> • <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> •</strong></font><br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RCT</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Recurrent</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The RECURRENT is to the REPETITIVE as the INTERMITTENT is to the ITERATIVE. + It indicates a slow repetition of a CONTEXTUAL event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">——</font> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> —</strong></font><br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>FRE</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Frequentative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The FREQUENTATIVE indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>• + • •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> • • + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> • • + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> • • + • </strong></font><br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>FRG</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Fragmentative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>• + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> • • • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>• + • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>• • • + • •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>• + • </strong></font><br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.5.9</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>FLC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Fluctuative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Visual representation:<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>— + • •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font></strong></font> •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> —</strong></font> • •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>• + • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>— </strong></font>• + • • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>• + •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font> —</strong></font>— • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>—</strong></font> • •</strong></font></p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style7 style11">5.5.10 Examples of Phase in Use</h3> +<blockquote><br /> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-5-10a.jpg" width="62" height="42" /><br /> + Hwe’maklás. (OR Hweklàsürn.)</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">INF-STA-ASR/<span class="style6"><strong>FRG</strong></span>/PPS-‘rain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FM</span><span class="style25">L</span><br /> + <em>It may be raining.</em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-5-10b.jpg" width="133" height="45" /><br /> + Ia<strong>’</strong>qantas altaelgôn.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">DYN-ASR/<span class="style6"><strong>REP</strong></span>/PPS-MNO-‘sound’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘inscribe’-OGN-NRM/PRX/U/ASO/DCT-AGC<sub>2</sub>/7-IFL</span><br /> + <em>The sound coming from the banks of printers keeps on steadily repeating.</em></p> + <p class="style11"><strong> </strong></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-5-10c.jpg" width="116" height="41" /><br /> + Ilarburn êļnuļ.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">DYN-‘voice’-NRM/PRX/U/VAR/AGG-<span class="style6"><strong>FLC</strong></span>-IFL STA-‘bird’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL</span><br /> + <em>Birds are chirping, tweeting, and calling.</em></p> + <p align="justify"> </p> + <p align="justify"><a name="Sec5o6" id="Sec5o6"></a><br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td class="style11"><div><strong>5.6 SANCTION</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">There are nine sanctions: the PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE, + and AXIOMATIC. Sanction is shown by the <strong>Cv</strong> affix to a formative, depending on the phase + (and potentially the illocution) of the verb (discussed in <a href="#Sec5o5">Sections 5.5</a> and <a href="#Sec5o3">5.3</a> respectively). The <strong>Cv</strong> affix is normally placed in Slot V of the formative’s morphological structure, unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o4">Section 6.4</a>), in which case <strong>Cv</strong> is placed in Slot I. (In <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o3o3">Section 6.3.3</a> we will see that <strong>Cv</strong> can also be placed within a vebal adjunct.)</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="75" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="82" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="132" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="31" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="29" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="62" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="111" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="37" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="69" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="65" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((</font><span class="style6">Cv</span></strong><strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/</font><span class="style6">Cv</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Sanction</strong></span><br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> +OR<br /> +Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + <br /> + <span class="style16">Sanction</span> <br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + Mood</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">As previously noted in the section on Phase, the presence of a<strong> Cv</strong> infix entails several other morpho-phonological structural requirements potentially affecting Slots IV, VI and IX. See <a href="#Sec5o5">Section 5.5</a> above for details of these requirements.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Each sanction is explained in the sections below.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PPS</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Propositional</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PROPOSITIONAL sanction is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be <em>That is a mountain</em>, or <em>I’m +hungry</em>.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EPI</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Epistemic</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The EPISTEMIC sanction identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be <em>That mountain is Mount Fuji</em> or <em>The +U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World</em>.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ALG</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Allegative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The ALLEGATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be <em>That mountain is beautiful</em> or <em>No +one in the United States goes hungry</em>.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IPU</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Imputative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The IMPUTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be <em>He knows + how to drive</em> [e.g., because he owns a car] or <em>She can’t be hungry +now</em> [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant]. <br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RFU</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Refutative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The REFUTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically +objective fact.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>REB</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Rebuttative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The REBUTTATIVE sanction identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, +or interpretation.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>THR</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Theoretical</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The THEORETICAL sanction identifies an utterance +as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EXV</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Expatiative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The EXPATIATIVE sanction identifies an utterance +as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.6.9</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>AXM</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Axiomatic</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The AXIOMATIC sanction identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be <em>Gravity + is ubiquitous</em>, or <em>Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food</em>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <span class="style11">5.6.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use</span></h3> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-6-10a.jpg" width="133" height="45" /><br /> + T<sup>h</sup>em-mp<strong><sup>h</sup></strong>âmnas osmuil.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">ASR/CTX/<span class="style6"><strong>ALG</strong></span>-PRL-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> +<em>The valley would've been awe-inspiring to you, too </em>[i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it]<em>.</em></p> + <p class="style11"><strong> </strong></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-6-10b.jpg" width="106" height="40" /><br /> + Tlan-nsac<sup>h</sup>as ômmil.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">ASR/CTX/<span class="style6"><strong>REB</strong></span>-MNO-CNT-STA-‘sadness’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘female.child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span>-<span class="style25">IFL</span><br /> + <em>On the contrary, the girl is still sad.</em></p> + <p class="style11"><strong> </strong></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-6-10c.jpg" width="198" height="46" /><br /> + Pšei’ùlûrţ lên-nsa hwaixtasár öqeil.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">STA-‘incident’-PCR-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXT<sub>1</sub>/6-FML <span class="style6"><strong>IPU</strong></span>-CPC-CNT INF-DYN-‘job/employment task’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-NA1<sub>1</sub>/5-FML STA-‘man’-ACT-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> + <em>After an incident like that, it's a fair guess the man won’t be able to work any longer.</em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-6-10c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-6-10c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p> </p> +</blockquote> +<p><a name="Sec5o7" id="Sec5o7"></a></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>5.7 VALENCE</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">In Ithkuil, the term <strong>Valence</strong> is used to refer + to the manner of participation of two separate entities or parties to any given + verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by + another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, + or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly + shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate + the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:</p> +<table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%" class="style11">1a) <em>I found an old man.</em></td> + <td width="5%" class="style11"><strong>→</strong></td> + <td width="67%" class="style11">1b) <em>I found an empty can.</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="style11">2a) <em>I threw the ball at Sam.</em></td> + <td class="style11"><strong>→</strong></td> + <td class="style11">2b) <em>I threw the ball at the window.</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="style11">3a) <em>I performed in front of her.</em></td> + <td class="style11"><strong>→</strong></td> + <td class="style11">3b) <em>I performed in front of the wall.</em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Note that the first member of each sentence pair has an animate + object of the verb (<em>an old man, Sam, </em>and<em> her</em>), while the second + member of each pair has an inanimate object (<em>an empty can, the window, </em>and<em> the wall</em>). Now compare this set of sentence pairs to the similar set below: </p> +<table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="23%" class="style11">1c) <em>I met an old man.</em></td> + <td width="5%" class="style11"><strong>→</strong></td> + <td width="72%" class="style11">1d) <em>* I met an empty can.</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="style11">2c) <em>I threw Sam the ball.</em></td> + <td class="style11"><strong>→</strong></td> + <td class="style11">2d) <em>* I threw the window the ball.</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="style11">3c) <em>I entertained her.</em></td> + <td class="style11"><strong>→</strong></td> + <td class="style11">3d) <em>* I entertained the wall.</em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The asterisk * indicates that the second sentence of these + pairs is semantically unacceptable to English speakers. Why?The second set of sentence pairs parallel the first set except + that the verbs <em>find</em>, <em>throw at</em>, and <em>perform</em> have been + replaced by the semantically similar <em>meet</em>, <em>throw</em>, and <em>entertain</em>. + Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can <em>find</em> an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even + being aware of it, I cannot <em>meet</em> an old man without the old man also + meeting me. I can <em>throw a ball at Sam</em> without Sam noticing, but if + I <em>throw Sam a ball</em> it implies that he is expected to participate by + catching it. Similarly, I can <em>perform</em> in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t <em>entertain</em> them unless they are participating + in the situation by observing me. The participatory relationship involving the second party of + a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship + (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb + ‘together’ in <em>He and I jog together</em>, or a reciprocal relationship + as in the sentence <em>I met the old man</em> (i.e., and so he met me) or in + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in <em>We + love each other</em>. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in <em>I + played along with him</em> (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship + as in <em>I threw Sam the ball</em> (i.e., and so he caught it).Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is + the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ithkuil into + the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in <em>out-perform</em> are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly + specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as <em>find/meet, + throw at/throw, perform/entertain</em>, etc. In Ithkuil, co-activity is explicitly shown morphologically, + and the types of co-active relationships, i.e., the valences of the verb, are + systematic and fully productive for all verbs. As a result, no mono-active versus + co-active lexical distinctions are necessary, i.e., all verbs can function monoactively + as well as co-actively.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">There are fourteen valences in Ithkuil: the MONOACTIVE, + PARALLEL, COROLLARY, RECIPROCAL, COMPLEMENTARY, NONRELATIONAL, DUPLICATIVE, + DEMONSTRATIVE, RESISTIVE, IMITATIVE, CONTINGENT, PARTICIPATIVE, INDICATIVE, + and MUTUAL. Valence is shown by the <strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> affix to a formative, normally placed in Slot VI of the formative’s morphological structure (following the <strong>Cv</strong> affix in Slot V), unless the formative contains an incorporated root (see <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o4">Section 6.4</a>) or a <strong>Cs</strong> aspect/mood infix in Slot III, in which case <strong><strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong></strong> is placed in Slot II following the <strong>Cv</strong> affix in Slot I. As per the <a href="#Sec5o5note">Note in Section 5.5</a>, the presence of <strong>Cv</strong> and <strong><strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong></strong> in Slots V and VI require that the <strong>Vr</strong> infix in Slot IV be followed by a glottal stop <strong>’</strong>.</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="70" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="60" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="104" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv</font></strong>)</div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style6 style14"><strong>Valence</strong></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> +OR<br /> +Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Valence</strong></span></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + Mood</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +(In <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o3o4">Section 6.3.4</a> we will see that Valence can also be shown via a cosonantal prefix to a verbal adjunct.)</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Table 12 below shows the values for the <strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> affix for each of the fourteen valences.</p> +<p class="style11"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a name="Table12" id="Table12"></a></strong></font><br /> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 12: V<span class="style14">L</span> Valence Prefixes</strong></font><br /> +</p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"> </div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>Label</strong></div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div><strong>Valence name</strong></div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>V<span class="style14">L</span> </strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">1</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">MNO</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Monoactive</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#000000">a</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">2</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">PRL</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Parallel</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#000000">e</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">3</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">CRO</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Corollary</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#000000">o</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">4</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">RCP</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Reciprocal</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#000000">i</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">5</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">CPL</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Complementary</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#000000">u</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">6</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">NNR</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Nonrelational</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>â</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">7</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">DUP</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Duplicative</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ê</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">8</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">DEM</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Demonstrative</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ô</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">9</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">RES</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Resistive</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>û / î</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">10</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">IMT</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Imitative</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ai / au</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">11</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">CNG</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Contingent</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ei / eu</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">12</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">PTI</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Participative</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>oi / ou</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">13</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">IDC</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Indicative</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ui / iu</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="30" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="left">14</div></td> + <td width="55" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style20">MUT</div></td> + <td width="129" valign="top" class="style11"><div class="style20">Mutual</div></td> + <td width="78" valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ö</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p class="style11">The fourteen corresponding consonantal prefixes for Valence used with verbal adjuncts are given in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o3o4">Section 6.3.4</a>. </p> +<p class="style11"> The fourteen valences are explained as follows:<br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.1</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>MNO</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Monoactive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The MONOACTIVE valence is the default + valence and indicates a lack of co-activity, i.e., no participation by a second + party is implied.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.2</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRL</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Parallel</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PARALLEL valence indicates that a + second party is engaging in the same activity as the first party at same time. + It would be used in translating sentences such as <em>The children all sang + together, We both went jogging on the parkway</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.3</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CRO</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Corollary</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The COROLLARY valence is similar to the PARALLEL, except that the second party engages in related + activity at the same time as the first party, rather than the same activity. + It would be used in translating sentences such as <em>The children played in + the yard </em>(i.e., each child engaged in a different play activity) or <em>The + band played my favorite song</em> (implying that not everyone in the band was + playing the same instrument, or perhaps that someone in the band sang as opposed + to playing an instrument).</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><strong><a name="Sec5o7o4" id="Sec5o7o4"></a></strong></p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.4</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RCP</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Reciprocal</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical + activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in <em>They + looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.5</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CPL</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Complementary</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that + the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + such as <em>The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, + The clown read the children a story, My back itches so I scratch it</em>, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, ‘read’ + implies a reader and an audience, and ‘itches’ implies scratching.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.6</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>NNR</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Nonrelational</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The NONRELATIONAL valence indicates that + a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., + an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify + this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in <em>He shaved + while she did something else</em>. The way an Ithkuil sentence would utilize + this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.7</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DUP</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Duplicative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the + sentences <em>Let’s draw a picture</em> (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + then you draw the same picture), <em>They both read that book</em> (i.e., first + one, then the other), <em>I bought a new car</em> (i.e., and now someone else + is buying a new car, too).</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.8</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DEM</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Demonstrative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that + the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what + to do. Thus an Ithkuil sentence constructed as <em>We played chess</em> with + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as <em>They + fought us</em> in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><strong>5.7.9</strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RES</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Resistive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The RESISTIVE valence indicates that + the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity + of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as <em>We took the + children to see the clowns anyway</em> (i.e., they didn’t want to go), <em>They fed me liver just the same</em> (i.e., I can’t stand liver), <em>Nevertheless, he told us the story</em> (i.e., despite our not wanting to + hear it).</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.7.10</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IMT</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Imitative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The IMITATIVE valence indicates that + the second party mimics, imitates, or attempts to duplicate the activity of + the first party. The Ithkuil sentence <em>The clown juggled three balls for + the child</em> in the IMITATIVE valence implies that the + child attempted to juggle the balls as well.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.7.11</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CNG</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Contingent</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The CONTINGENT valence indicates that + the second party engages in the next or dependent phase of a multi-part activity, + the specific activity being dependent on context. Thus the Ithkuil sentence <em>I started the campfire for my friend</em> in the CONTINGENT implies that the friend then performed the next logical step, i.e., he cooked + the food.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.7.12</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PTI</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Participative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that + the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence <em>They raced </em>in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.7.13</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IDC</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Indicative</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INDICATIVE valence indicates that + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + activity. Thus the sentence <em>I looked at her</em> in the INDICATIVE would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence <em>I spoke to them</em> would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.7.14</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>MUT</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Mutual</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The MUTUAL valence indicates that both + parties alternate performing an activity, as in <em>She and I take turns cleaning</em> or <em>They both alternate teaching the beginning and advanced classes</em>.</p> +<h3 class="style11"><br /> + <br /> + <strong>5.7.</strong>15 Examples of Valence in Use</h3> +<blockquote> + <p><span class="style11"><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-7-15a.jpg" width="246" height="52" /><br /> + Tö ¯um-mixhakc’éçt eglelôn ükšàleač.</strong> <br /> + <span class="style25">1M-EFF <span class="style6"><strong>CPL</strong></span>-SUB-DYN-‘study’-NRM/GRA/M/CSL/UNI-FML-CVT<sub>1</sub>/3-CPT STA-‘illness’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC<sub>2</sub>/7-IFL<br /> + FRAMED-FML-MNF-‘clown’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-QUA<sub>2</sub>/8</span><br /> + <em>I may secretly teach the doctor to be a truly oustanding clown.</em></span> <span class="style11"><span class="style25"> <img src="images/Clown4.jpg" width="83" height="96" align="top" /> </span></span></p> + <p class="style11"><img src="images/5-7-15b.jpg" width="120" height="35" /><br /> + <span class="style11"><strong> Il-lrazgall eqill.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25"><span class="style6"><strong>RCP</strong></span>-HAB-STA-‘smile’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL STA-‘person’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL</span><br /> + <em>The couple are always smiling at each other.</em></span> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-7-15b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-7-15b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-7-15c.jpg" width="162" height="44" /><br /> + Uin-ntixal ömmul ekšíl.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25"><span class="style6"><strong>IDC</strong></span>-SUB/RTR-DYN-‘see’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘father’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘clown’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML</span><br /> + <em>Maybe the clown understood the meaning of father’s look.</em></p> + <p class="style11"><br /> + </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-7-15d.jpg" width="117" height="44" /><br /> + Ailtac wëtöin-n qeiwi.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL <span class="style6"><strong>RCP</strong></span>-PPS/CTX/ASR-DVR-FAC ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX</span><br /> + <em>The two of them like writing to each other.</em></p> + <p class="style11"><strong> </strong><br /> + </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-7-15e.jpg" width="175" height="42" /><br /> + Em-mrigradh ekšóll âmmeļ.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25"><span class="style6"><strong>PRL</strong></span>-PRS-DYN-‘eat/drink food’-NRM/PRX/N/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘clown’-ERG-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-FML STA-‘child’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/AGG-IFL</span><em><br /> + <em>The pair of clowns will make the children eat together from now on.</em></em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <img src="images/4-3-12e.jpg" width="146" height="41" /><br /> + <strong> <span class="style11">A’tukças<strong> </strong> t<strong>ê </strong> oxnall</span><br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-PPS/CTX/ASR-<span class="style6"><strong>CPL</strong></span>-‘itch’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 1m-GEN STA-‘back’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL</span><em><br /> + My back itches so I scratch it.</em><span class="style11"> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-7-15f.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-7-15f.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></span><br /> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-6-10a.jpg" width="131" height="46" /><br /> + T<sup>h</sup>em-mp<strong><sup>h</sup></strong>âmnas osmuil.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">ASR/CTX/ALG-<span class="style6"><strong>PRL</strong></span>-PRS/COU-STA-‘awe’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘valley’-DER-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><span class="style14">-<span class="style21">IFL</span></span><br /> + <em>You, too, would've found the valley to be awe-inspiring </em>[i.e., if you had seen/visited/been to it]<em>.</em> </p> + <p class="style11">NOTE: The example sentence immediately above is interesting in that there is no overt reference in the Ithkuil sentence to any subject “you.” The idea that there are two parties involved, i.e., the speaker and the listener(s), is conveyed solely by the presence of PARALLEL valence. Without PRL valence, the sentence would simply mean <em>‘the valley would have been awe-inspiring’</em>; the added PRL valence implies the speaker is alleging to another party (i.e., the listener/reader) that the latter would have also enjoyed the valley's awesomeness.</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong></strong></p> +<p> </p> +<p><a name="Sec5o8" id="Sec5o8"></a></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>5.8 VERSION</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating + whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + initial intention. Like many Ithkuil morphological categories, version addresses + semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation + (i.e., word choice) in other languages. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Version is shown by the formative’s tone (see <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o3o2">Section 1.3.2</a> for an explanation of how tone functions in Ithkuil formatives). The six versions are PROCESSUAL, COMPLETIVE, INEFFECTUAL, INCOMPLETIVE, POSITIVE and EFFECTIVE. </p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="70" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="60" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="104" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv</font></strong>)</div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> +OR<br /> +Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + Mood </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style29">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> The six versions are explained below:<br /> + <br /> + <br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.8.1</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRC</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Processual</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The PROCESSUAL version is marked by falling tone. It is the default version and describes all acts, conditions, + or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not + focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive + effort is being made. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.8.2</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CPT</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Completive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The COMPLETIVE version is marked by high tone. It describes acts, conditions, + or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, + i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or + final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western + languages. The dynamism of Version can be seen in the following comparisons:</p> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p><strong>PROCESSUAL → COMPLETIVE</strong></p> + <p><em>hunt → to hunt down <br /> + to be losing → to lose <br /> + to study → to learn <br /> + to be winning → to win<br /> + to strive for → to accomplish, achieve <br /> + to risk → to defeat the odds; win<br /> + to work → to build, construct, make <br /> + to displace; infiltrate → infest, to take over; vanquish<br /> + to pour out → to drain <br /> + to remove (incrementally) → to eliminate<br /> + to increase → to maximize <br /> + to read → to read to the end; finish reading<br /> + to decrease → minimize <br /> + to flank → to surround<br /> + to enlarge → to make gigantic <br /> + to spread upon or over → to cover, engulf, envelop<br /> + to shrink → miniaturize <br /> + to chase → to catch up to<br /> + to eat → eat + all up <br /> + to pursue → to capture<br /> + to compete → to win <br /> + to be pregnant → to give birth<br /> + to throw at → to hit (with a throw) <br /> + to run low on → to run out of, deplete<br /> + to grow → to grow up <br /> + to use → use + up<br /> + to possess, hold → to keep <br /> + to tear/ rip → to tear/rip up or to pieces<br /> + to join together → to unify <br /> + to accelerate, speed up → to achieve maximum speed<br /> + to pour into → to fill (up) <br /> + to bleed → to bleed to death<br /> + to run → to + run all the way <br /> + to descend, go down → to get to the bottom<br /> + to brighten → to illuminate <br /> + to decelerate, slow down → to stop<br /> + to search for, seek → to find <br /> + to polish → to burnish<br /> + to practice → to perfect <br /> + to darken → to make dark<br /> + to ascend, rise → to reach the top <br /> + to explore → to discover</em></p> +</blockquote> +<span class="style11"><br /> +</span> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%" class="style11"><strong>5.8.3</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>INE</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%" class="style11"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%" class="style11"><strong>The Ineffectual</strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INEFFECTUAL version is marked by rising tone. It, and the INCOMPLETIVE which follows, operate in parallel fashion to + the PROCESSUAL and the COMPLETIVE versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially + expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, + desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb + (see <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o1">Section 6.1</a>). Such “unrealized” + verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: <em>I want to dance, She needs + to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate</em>. Each + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + she in fact will work, etc.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence <em>I want to dance</em> in the INEFFECTUAL would be translated as <em>I want to dance but I’m not going to</em>, + while the sentence <em>I tried to eat</em> in the INEFFECTUAL means <em>I tried to eat but couldn’t</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.8.4</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>INC</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Incompletive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The INCOMPLETIVE version is marked by low tone. It indicates that + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, + except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated + in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE version. Thus, the sentence <em>I tried to eat</em> in the INCOMPLETIVE means <em>I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><strong>5.8.5</strong></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PST</strong></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="65%"><strong>The Positive</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The POSITIVE version is marked by rising-falling tone. Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence <em>I want + to dance</em> in the POSITIVE would be translated as <em>I + want to dance and so I’m going to</em>, while the sentence <em>I tried + to eat</em> in the POSITIVE means <em>I succeeded in eating + something</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%"><strong>5.8.6</strong></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EFC</strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong>The Effective</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Likewise, the EFFECTIVE version complements + the INCOMPLETIVE, indicating the same successful effort + implied by the POSITIVE version, only applied to goal-/result-oriented + verbs. Thus <em>I wanted to finish</em> in the EFFECTIVE implies that the desire was successfully carried out; <em>I tried to eat</em> in the EFFECTIVE means <em>I succeeded in eating it all + up</em>. The EFFECTIVE is marked by falling-rising tone.</p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <span class="style7">5.8.7 Examples of Version in Use</span></h3> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><br /> + <strong><img src="images/5-8-7a.jpg" width="245" height="52" /></strong><br /> + ˇIxhát’ êpal Iţkuil efneil tê.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">DYN-‘study’-NRM/TRM/M/CSL/UNI-FML<strong>-<span class="style6">EFC</span></strong> STA-[carrier stem]-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI “Ithkuil” STA-‘male cousin’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL 1M-GEN </span><br /> +<em>My cousin has finally learned Ithkuil.</em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-8-7a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-8-7a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-8-7b.jpg" width="117" height="45" align="absmiddle" /><em> </em> <strong> → </strong> <img src="images/5-8-7c.jpg" width="117" height="45" align="absmiddle" /><br /> + Uakal egruláun. → ¯Uakal egruláun.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">[<span class="style6"><strong>PRC</strong></span>]-DYN-‘come’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL <strong> </strong> STA-‘prepare.food’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC<sub>2</sub>/2-FML <strong> <br /> + <strong> </strong>→ </strong> <span class="style6"><strong>CPT</strong></span>-DYN-‘come’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘prepare.food’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC<sub>2</sub>/2-FML </span><br /> + <em>The cook is on his way. </em> <strong> → </strong> <em>The cook has arrived.</em> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-8-7b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-8-7b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> + <p> </p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong><a name="Sec5o9" id="Sec5o9"></a><br /> +</strong></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td class="style11"><div><strong>5.9 VALIDATION</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"> Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. There are 14 validations in Ithkuil, five refer to non-hearsay types of evidence, while nine refer to hearsay situations. These nine hearsay categories are distinguished by a two-fold matrix of whether the source of the hearsay is considered by the speaker to be trustworthy and whether the statement/information is potentially verifiable. The exactitude of Ithkuil evidential categories is impossible to capture in English translation except through cumbersome paraphrase, but can be approximated in a rough way using phrases such as <em>reportedly, presumably, supposedly, purportedly, allegedly, rumour has it, I have a feeling that,</em> etc. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The 14 validations are shown by a consonantal prefix<strong> Cg</strong> in Slot III.</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="70" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="60" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="104" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14"><span class="style6"><strong>Validation</strong></span><br /> + OR<br /> + Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + Mood</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + The values for the <strong>Cg</strong> prefix are shown in Table 13 below as well as the meaning (description of evidential basis) of each validation.<br /> +</p> +<span class="style24"><strong><br /> +Table 13(a) and (b): Cg Validation Prefixes</strong></span><span class="style11"><br /> +<br /> +</span> +<table width="949" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="23" height="36" valign="middle" class="style11"> </td> + <td width="48" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Label</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="139" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Name</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="56" valign="middle" class="style31"><div align="center">Cg</div></td> + <td width="439" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Evidential Basis </font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="36" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style9">CNF</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style24"><font color="#000000">CONFIRMATIVE</font></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">(<strong>h</strong>-)<strong>*</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11">direct observation/knowledge and verifiable by others </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="36" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style9">AFM</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style24">AFFIRMATIVE</td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>y</strong>-</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11">direct observation/knowledge but unknown verifiability by others </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="37" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">3</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style9">RPT</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style24"><font color="#000000">REPORTIVE</font></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>w-</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11">direct observation/knowledge but unverifiable by others </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" height="37" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">4</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style9">INF</div></td> + <td width="139" valign="middle" class="style24"><font color="#000000">INFERENTIAL</font></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hw-</strong></div></td> + <td width="439" valign="middle" class="style11"><div>inference</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23" height="37" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">5</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style9">ITU</div></td> + <td width="139" valign="middle" class="style24"><font color="#000000">INTUITIVE</font></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hh-</strong></div></td> + <td width="439" valign="middle" class="style11"><div>intuition/feeling</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +* The CONFIRMATIVE Validation is unmarked unless the formative displays a <strong>V<span class="style14">L</span></strong> value in Slot II, in which case <strong>Cg</strong> is <strong>h</strong>-. +<p class="style11"><br /> + <strong>Hearsay Categories</strong> <br /> +</p> +<table width="734" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td height="60" valign="top" class="style11"> </td> + <td valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Label</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Name</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Source<br /> + Trustworthy?</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="top" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Verifiable?</font> </strong></div> + <div align="center"></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="36" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">6</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">PSM</div></td> + <td width="168" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="left" class="style20"><font color="#000000">PRESUMPTIVE</font></div></td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hm-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="38" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">7</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">PSM2</div></td> + <td width="168" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="left" class="style20"><font color="#000000">PRESUMPTIVE 2 </font></div></td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hn-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="38" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">8</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">PPT</div></td> + <td width="168" valign="middle" class="style20">PURPORTIVE</td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>hr-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">No</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="37" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">9</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">PPT2</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style20">PURPORTIVE 2 </td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>lw-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="38" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">10</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">CJT</div></td> + <td width="168" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="left" class="style20"><font color="#000000">CONJECTURAL </font></div></td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ly-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="36" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">11</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">DUB</div></td> + <td width="168" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="left" class="style20"><font color="#000000">DUBITATIVE</font> </div></td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>rw-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">No</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="39" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">12</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">TEN</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="left" class="style20"><font color="#000000">TENTATIVE</font> </div></td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>ry-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">No</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Yes</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="37" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">13</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">PUT</div></td> + <td width="168" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="left" class="style20"><font color="#000000">PUTATIVE</font></div></td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>řw-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">No</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">Unknown</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="29" height="36" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">14</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center" class="style34">IPB</div></td> + <td valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="left" class="style20">IMPROBABLE</div></td> + <td width="74" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center"><strong>řy-</strong></div></td> + <td width="194" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">No</div></td> + <td width="158" valign="middle" class="style11"><div align="center">No</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"><br /> + <br /> + <span class="style7">5.9.1 Examples of Validation in Use</span></h3> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong> <span class="style25"> <strong><strong><strong><img src="images/5-9-1a.jpg" width="229" height="49" /> </strong></strong></strong> <strong> </strong></span><strong><span class="style25"><strong> </strong></span></strong><img src="images/Clown8.jpg" width="76" height="88" align="absbottom" /><br /> + Qö ¯uhmixhákc’ eglelôn ükšàwëla.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">ma-EFF CPT-CPL-<span class="style6"><strong>PSM</strong></span>-DYN-‘study’-GRA/M/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘illness’-ABS-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC<sub>2</sub>/7-IFL FRAMED/FML-MNF-‘clown’-OBL-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span><br /> + <em>Presumably he is teaching the doctor to be a clown.</em> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong> </strong></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-9-1b.jpg" width="136" height="37" /><br /> + Ihrazgallamz eqill.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">RCP-<span class="style6"><strong>PPT</strong></span>-STA-‘smile’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-MOT<sub>2</sub>/5-IFL STA-‘person’-AFF-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/DPX-IFL</span><br /> + <em>Purportedly, the couple can’t help smiling at each other.</em> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong> </strong></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-9-1c.jpg" width="96" height="45" /><br /> + Irwailtac qeiwi.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">RCP-<span class="style6"><strong>DUB</strong></span>-DYN-‘write.message’-NRM/DEL/A/CSL/UNI-IFL ma-ACT-CSL-NRM/DPX</span><br /> + <em>Supposedly the two of them write to each other but who knows if it’s true or not.</em> </p> + <p class="style11"> </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"></p> +<p align="justify"><a name="Sec5o10" id="Sec5o10"></a><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><font size="4"><strong>5.10 + ASPECT</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o3">Sec. 3.3</a>), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects in Ithkuil. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Generally, Aspect is usually shown by affixes to a verbal adjunct, since such adjuncts allow for a second aspect to be conveyed, and any other morphological information carried by the adjunct requires the adjunct to carry an aspectual marker as well. However, it is also possible to show a single aspect within the formative itself, by means of the <strong>Cs</strong> consonantal prefix in Slot III. Such an alernative would be available when Slots I and II of the formative are filled, thus requiring the presence of either <strong>Cg</strong> or <strong>Cs</strong> in Slot III.<br /> +</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="70" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="60" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="104" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> + OR<br /> + <span class="style6"><strong>Aspect</strong></span> ( + Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Illocution +<br /> + Mood</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +The <strong>Cs</strong> consonantal affix will always contain one of the specialized dyssyllabic geminate clusters described in <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o2o1o3">Section 1.2.1.3</a>, written <strong>n-n</strong>, <strong>m-m</strong>, <strong>l-l</strong>, <strong>r-r</strong>, etc. or various other syllabic consonant clusters, e.g.,<strong> l-m</strong>, <strong>l-n</strong>, <strong>r-m</strong>, <strong>r-n</strong>, and <strong>r-<strong>ň</strong></strong>. The only appearance in Ithkuil of these specialized consonantal clusters is in the <strong>Cs</strong> affix used in Slot III of formatives (as well as in Slot D of verbal adjuncts, discussed in <a href="06_verbs_2.html">Section 6.0</a>). In this way, the reader/listener can always distinguish whether the consonantal form in Slot III represents <strong>Cs</strong> showing Aspect as opposed to <strong>Cg</strong> showing Validation (see <a href="#Sec5o9">Section 5.9</a> above).</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Besides showing Aspect, <strong>Cs</strong> also shows Mood. If the formative’s Mood is already shown via the <strong>Ci+Vi</strong> infix in Slot IX (see <a href="#Sec5o2">Section 5.2)</a>, then <strong>Cs</strong> will show a FACTUAL mood solely as a placeholder/default value, and only the Aspect value of <strong>Cs</strong> will be semantically active.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The values for <strong>Cs</strong> are shown in Table 14 below. (The forms of alternate vocalic affixes used for showing Aspect within verbal adjuncts will be discussed in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o3o1">Section 6.3.1</a>.)</p> +<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /> + Table + 14: Values for Cs (32 Aspects x 8 Moods)</font></strong></p> +<p> </p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="29" colspan="2" valign="middle"> </td> + <td valign="middle"> </td> + <td colspan="8" valign="middle"><div align="center">MOOD</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="30" colspan="2" valign="middle"><p align="center">Aspect</p></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">FAC</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">SUB</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ASM</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">SPC</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">COU</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">HYP</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">IPL</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ASC</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="28" valign="middle"><p align="center"> </p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><p align="center">none </p></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"> </td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-n</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-m</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-l</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-r</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ň</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-n</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ň</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-ň</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">1</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">RTR</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">RETROSPECTIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nr</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nt</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nt’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nd</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nţ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ndh</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="31" valign="middle"><p align="center">2</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">PRS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">PROSPECTIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mr</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mp</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mp’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mb</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mp<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mf</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mv</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">3</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">HAB</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">HABITUAL</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lr</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lt</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lt’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ld</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lţ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ldh</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">4</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">PRG</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">PROGRESSIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rn</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rt</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rt’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rd</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rţ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rdh</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="31" valign="middle"><p align="center">5</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">IMM</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">IMMINENT</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňr</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňk</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňk’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňg</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňk<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňx</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňq</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňh</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">6</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">PCS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">PRECESSIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ntw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nt’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ndw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nt<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nţw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ndhw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="33" valign="middle"><p align="center">7</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">REG</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">REGULATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mpw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mp’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mbw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mp<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mfw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mvw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">8</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">EXP</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">EXPERIENTIAL</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ltw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lt’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ldw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lt<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lţw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ldhw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><p align="center">9</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">RSM</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">RESUMPTIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rtw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rt’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rdw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rt<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rţw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rdhw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">10</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">CSS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">CESSATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňkw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňk’w</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňgw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňk<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňxw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňqw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňhw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">11</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">RCS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">RECESSATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ny</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nty</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nt’y</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ndy</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nt<sup>h</sup>y</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nţy</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ndhy</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">12</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">PAU </div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">PAUSAL</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-my</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mpy</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mp’y</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mby</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mp<sup>h</sup>y</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mfy</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mvy</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><p align="center">13</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">RGR</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">REGRESSIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ly</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lty</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lt’y</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ldy</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lt<sup>h</sup>y</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lţy</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ldhy</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="31" valign="middle"><p align="center">14</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">PCL</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">PRECLUSIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-ry</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rty</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rt’y</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rdy</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rt<sup>h</sup>y</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rţy</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rdhy</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">15</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">CNT</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">CONTINUATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ns</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nsw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><p align="center">16</p></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">ICS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">INCESSATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-ms</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-msw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="33" valign="middle"><div align="center">17</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">PMP</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">PREEMPTIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňs</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňsw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center">18</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">CLM</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">CLIMACTIC</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ls</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lsw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="32" valign="middle"><div align="center">19</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">PTC</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">PROTRACTIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rs</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rz</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rsw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rzw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rc’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rc<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rc’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rc<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center">20</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">TMP</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">TEMPORARY</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nš </p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nšw </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nžw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nč’ </p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nč’w </p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nč<sup>h</sup>w </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="29" valign="middle"><div align="center">21</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">MTV</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">MOTIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mš </p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mšw </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mžw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mč’ </p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mč’w </p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mč<sup>h</sup>w </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center">22</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">CSQ</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">CONSEQUENTIAL</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňš </p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňšw </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňžw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňč’ </p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňč’w </p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňč<sup>h</sup>w </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center">23</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">SQN</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">SEQUENTIAL</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lš </p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lšw </p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lžw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lč’ </p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lč’w </p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lč<sup>h</sup>w </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="30" valign="middle"><div align="center">24</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">EPD</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">EXPEDITIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rš</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rž</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-ršw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-ržw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rč’</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rč<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rč’w</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rč<sup>h</sup>w</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="27" valign="middle"><div align="center">25</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">DCL</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">DISCLUSIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nļ</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňļ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-ntļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mtļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňtļ</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ltļ</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rtļ</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="28" valign="middle"><div align="center">26</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">CCL</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">CONCLUSIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lm</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nl</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňm</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mř</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mt</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňt</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňn</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="27" valign="middle"><div align="center">27</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">CUL</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">CULMINATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rm</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rl</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-ml</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mn</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-mř</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mt’</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňt’</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňç</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="31" valign="middle"><div align="center">28</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">IMD</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">INTERMEDIATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ln</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-nļ</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lř</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">n-nm</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňř</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">m-mt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňt<sup>h</sup></p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">ň-ňţ</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="28" valign="middle"><div align="center">29</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">TRD</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">TARDATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-nw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ny</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lg</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lgw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lx</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lxw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lv</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lcw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="28" valign="middle"><div align="center">30</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">TNS</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">TRANSITIONAL</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-nw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-my</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rg</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rgw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rx</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rxw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rv</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rcw</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="27" valign="middle"><div align="center">31</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">ITC</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">INTERCOMMUTATIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-mw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-my</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lb</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lbw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lf</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lfw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-ňw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">l-lčw </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="42" height="27" valign="middle"><div align="center">32</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style36">CSM</div></td> + <td width="171" valign="middle"><div class="style21">CONSUMPTIVE</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-mw</p></td> + <td width="69" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-ny</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rb</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rbw</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rf</p></td> + <td width="75" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rfw</p></td> + <td width="71" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-ňw</p></td> + <td width="79" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style21">r-rčw </p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br /> +</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11">The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below. </p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RTR</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> RETROSPECTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o3">Sec. 3.3</a>) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in <em>I’ve already done it</em>. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb. </p> + <p><a name="Sec5o10o2" id="Sec5o10o2"></a><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRS</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> PROSPECTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Like the RETROSPECTIVE above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.</p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>HAB</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> HABITUAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in <em>She used to come see me on Wednesdays</em>.</p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PRG</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> PROGRESSIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IMM</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> IMMINENT</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in <em>I + think Carl is about to cry</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PCS</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> PRECESSIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in <em>We just + saw a clown in the toy store</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>REG</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> REGULATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in <em>Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EPR</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> EXPERIENTIAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in <em>Does he ever shut up?</em> Note the EXPERIENTIAL does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in <em>Ever does he seek his destiny</em> nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in <em>Was she ever tired</em>. <br /> + </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.10.9</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RSM</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> RESUMPTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in <em>The girl resumed singing</em>, or <em>He is starting to laugh + again</em>. <br /> + </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.10</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CSS</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CESSATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in T<em>hey stopped dancing at midnight</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.11</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RCS</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> RECESSATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in <em>Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.12</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PAU</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> PAUSAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in <em>Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + her friends</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.13</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RGR</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> REGRESSIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be <em>Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.14</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PCL</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> PRECLUSIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in <em>Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp</em>.</p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.15</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CNT</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CONTINUATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in <em>She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore</em>.</p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.16</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ICS</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> INCESSATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in <em>They danced the night away</em> or <em>They’ve been battling + on and on since last year</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.17</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PMP</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> PREEMPTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’ </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.18</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CLM</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CLIMACTIC</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.19</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PTC</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> PROTRACTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the CONTEXTUAL or PUNCTUAL phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the PROTRACTIVE conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: <em>It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.20</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>TMP</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> TEMPORARY</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in <em>This will be sufficient + for now</em> or <em>For the time being you’ll have to drink water</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.21</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>MTV</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> MOTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in <em>Dad’s off hunting</em> or <em>They went off to cavort with the clowns</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.22</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CSQ</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CONSEQUENTIAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in <em>She went + ahead and bought the furniture</em> or <em>I decided to go there anyway</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.23</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SQN</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> SEQUENTIAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in <em>He's checking off each item as it is inventoried</em>, + or <em>The sheep died off from the disease</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.24</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EPD</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> EXPEDITIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in <em>Hurry up and finish</em> or <em>They ate + in a hurry</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.25</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DCL</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> DISCLUSIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’ </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.26</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CCL</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CONCLUSIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in <em>I ended up crashing the car</em> or <em>He drank to the point where he passed out</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.27</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CUL</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CULMINATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE aspect above: <em>In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.28</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IMD</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> INTERMEDIATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’ </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.29</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>TRD</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> TARDATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.30</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>TNS</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> TRANSITIONAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in <em>I’m planning to take up golf</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.31</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ITC</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> INTERCOMMUTATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in <em>The boy threw it back</em> or <em>She stared back at the men ogling + her</em>. </p> + <p><br /> + </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.10.32</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>CSM</strong></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CONSUMPTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in <em>Mother spends her life + worrying</em> or <em>He’s pining away</em>. </p> + <p> </p> +</div> +<h3 align="justify"><a name="Sec5o10o33" id="Sec5o10o33"></a><br /> +<span class="style7">5.10.33 Examples of Aspect In Us</span>e</h3> +<blockquote class="style11"> + <p><strong><br /> + <img src="images/5-10-33a.jpg" width="153" height="46" /><br /> + Al-lsinyat eqţulisqa tê.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">MNO-<span class="style6"><strong>CLM</strong></span>-DYN-‘choose’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL STA-‘brother’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-DCS<sub>2</sub>/1-IFL 1M-GEN</span><br /> +<em>My indecisive brother made a choice once and for all.</em></p> + <p><strong> </strong></p> + <p><strong><img src="images/5-10-33b.jpg" alt="" width="112" height="43" /><br /> + Al-lyuolmát êqul.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">MNO-<span class="style6"><strong>RGR</strong></span>-DYN-‘sing.a.song’-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘woman’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> + <em>The woman returned to singing.</em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-10-33c.jpg" width="133" height="46" /><br /> + Çtar-ryo igraleiţrar eglulôn.</strong><br /> + <span class="style20"><span class="style14">HOR/CTX/PPS-<span class="style6"><strong>PCL</strong></span>-<span class="style6"><strong>HAB</strong></span></span> <span class="style14"> DYN-‘eat.food’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-NA1<sub>1</sub>/5-EXT<sub>2</sub>/6-IFL STA-‘illness’-IND-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-AGC<sub>2</sub>/7-IFL</span><br /> + </span><em>If only the physician wouldn’t always eat his food in one gulp like that.</em></p> + <p> </p> + <p><strong><img src="images/5-10-33d.jpg" width="142" height="46" /><br /> + Lêr-rwia hwaixtasár öqeil.</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">ASR/CTX/IPU-CPC-<span class="style6"><strong>RSM</strong></span>-<span class="style6"><strong>TMP</strong></span> INF-DYN-‘job/employment.task’-PRX/M/ASO/UNI-NA1<sub>1</sub>/5-FML STA-‘man’-ACT-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> + <em>I’d venture to say the man won't be able to resume working anytime soon.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="justify"><a name="Sec5o11" id="Sec5o11"></a><br /> +</p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td class="style11"><div><strong>5.11 BIAS</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p class="style11">Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which +often warrants a change in English translation. </p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Sec5o11o1" id="Sec5o11o1"></a><br /> + 5.11.1 Bias Categories and Usage</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style11">Bias is shown as a word-final consonantal suffix to formative with a glottal stop being infixed between the suffix and the Vf mood/context suffix, +e.g., <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>uprexalo’ss</strong>.</font> (The glottal stop is necessary so that the reader/listener does not confuse it with a word-final VxC suffix in Slot XI.<br /> +<br /> +</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="70" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="60" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="104" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style14">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style14">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>V<span class="style7">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style11"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style14"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Validation<br /> +OR<br /> +Aspect (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14"> + <p>Illocution +<br /> + Mood</p> + </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style29">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style14">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p class="style11"><br /> +NOTE: We will see in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o3o2">Section 6.3.2</a> that, as an alternative to the <strong>Cb</strong> bias suffix on a formative, Bias can instead be shown via a word-final consonantal suffix to to a verbal adjunct.</p> +<p class="style11">These <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Cb </font></strong>affix forms are shown in Table 15 below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms +described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><a name="Table15" id="Table15"></a><br /> + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 15: Morpho-Phonological + Markers for Bias</font></strong></p> +<table width="43%" border="1"> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LABEL</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAME OF BIAS </font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="-1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C<font size="-2">b</font> AFFIX → <br /> + C<font size="-2">b</font> INTENSIVE AFFIX </font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="5%">1</td> + <td width="13%"><div align="center" class="style9">ASU</div></td> + <td width="42%" class="style13">ASSURATIVE</td> + <td width="40%" class="style11 style21">n → nn</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>2</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">HPB</div></td> + <td class="style13">HYPERBOLIC</td> + <td class="style11 style21">m → mm </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>3</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">COI</div></td> + <td class="style13">COINCIDENTAL</td> + <td class="style11 style21">ň → ňň</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>4</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">ACP</div></td> + <td class="style13">ACCEPTIVE</td> + <td class="style11"><p class="style21">ţ → ţţ</p> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>5</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">RAC</div></td> + <td class="style13">REACTIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">ç → çç</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>6</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">STU</div></td> + <td class="style13">STUPEFACTIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">s → ss</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>7</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">CTV</div></td> + <td class="style13">CONTEMPLATIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">z → zz </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>8</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">DPV</div></td> + <td class="style13">DESPERATIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">š → šš</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>9</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">RVL</div></td> + <td class="style13">REVELATIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">l → ll</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>10</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">GRT</div></td> + <td class="style13">GRATIFICATIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">r → rr</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>11</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">SOL</div></td> + <td class="style13">SOLICITIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">ř → řř</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>12</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">SEL</div></td> + <td class="style13">SELECTIVE</td> + <td><span class="style36">ļ → ļļ</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>13</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">IRO</div></td> + <td class="style13">IRONIC</td> + <td class="style11 style21">kç → kçç</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>14</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">EXA</div></td> + <td class="style13">EXASPERATIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">p<span class="style21">ļ</span> → p<span class="style21">ļļ</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>15</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">LTL</div></td> + <td class="style13">LITERAL</td> + <td class="style11 style21">pç → pçç</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>16</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">CRR</div></td> + <td class="style13">CORRECTIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">x → xx</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>17</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">EUP</div></td> + <td class="style13">EUPHEMISTIC</td> + <td class="style11 style21">xh → xxh</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>18</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">SKP</div></td> + <td class="style13">SKEPTICAL</td> + <td class="style11 style21">ks → kss</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>19</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">CYN</div></td> + <td class="style13">CYNICAL</td> + <td class="style11 style21">f → ff</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>20</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">CTP</div></td> + <td class="style13">CONTEMPTIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">kš → kšš</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>21</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">DSM</div></td> + <td class="style13">DISMISSIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">kf → kff</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>22</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">IDG</div></td> + <td class="style13">INDIGNATIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">pš → pšš</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>23</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">SGS</div></td> + <td class="style13">SUGGESTIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">ps → pss</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td>24</td> + <td><div align="center" class="style9">PPV</div></td> + <td class="style13">PROPOSITIVE</td> + <td class="style11 style21">pf → pff</td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style11"><br /> +</p> +<div align="justify" class="style11"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.11.1.1</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ASU</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> ASSURATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by <em>I told you so!</em> or <em>You see?!</em></p> + <p> </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.11.1.2</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>HPB</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> HYPERBOLIC</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in <em>I + so don’t care!</em> or <em>That is totally not what I wanted.</em> The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression <em>That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!</em></p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.11.1.3</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>COI</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> COINCIDENTAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in<em> I happened to run into Jane</em> or <em>It + just so happens that I’m busy</em>. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.11.1.4</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>ACP</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> ACCEPTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.11.1.5</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RAC</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> REACTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.11.1.6</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>STU</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> STUPEFACTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in <em>It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall</em>. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.11.1.7</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CTV</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CONTEMPLATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong>5.11.1.8</strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DPV</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> DESPERATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%"><strong>5.11.1.9</strong></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>RVL</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> REVELATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.10</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>GRT</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> GRATIFICATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.11</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SOL</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> SOLICITIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence <em>So dance already! </em></p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.12</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SEL</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> SELECTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.13</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IRO</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> IRONIC</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.14</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EXA</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> EXASPERATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.15</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>LTL</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> LITERAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in <em>Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka</em> (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in <em>Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka</em> (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.16</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CRR</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CORRECTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.17</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>EUP</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> EUPHEMISTIC</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.18</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SKP</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> SKEPTICAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.19</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CYN</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CYNICAL</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.20</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>CTP</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> CONTEMPTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.21</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>DSM</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> DISMISSIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.22</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>IDG</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> INDIGNATIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.23</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>SGS</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> SUGGESTIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p>This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’</p> + <p><br /> + </p> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="20%"><strong>5.11.1.24</strong></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong>PPV</strong></div></td> + <td width="63%"><strong> PROPOSITIVE</strong></td> + </tr> + </table> + This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences <em>How about going for a stroll?</em>, <em>We + could meet the clowns behind the barn if you want</em>, or <em>You can sit on my lap</em>. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’ </div> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + <span class="style11">5.11.2 Examples of Bias in Use</span></h3> +<blockquote> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-11-2a.jpg" width="208" height="46" /><br /> + Isvala’kss êzguirs èkšôt âmmit.</strong> <span class="style14"><a href="sound_files/5-11-2a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/5-11-2a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" alt="" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a><br /> + <span class="style25">DYN-‘fear’-NRM/DEL/M/CSL/UNI-EXS-IFL-<span class="style6"><strong>SKP<strong>+</strong></strong></span> STA-‘sound.of.laughter’-DER-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/AGG-IFL STA-‘clown’-ATT-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-FML STA-‘child’-AFF-NRM/DEL/U/CSL/UNI-IFL</span><br /> + <em>You can hardly expect us to believe that the sound of the clowns’ laughter frightens the children.</em> <img src="images/Clown7.jpg" width="72" height="88" align="top" /></p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-11-2b.jpg" width="167" height="37" /><br /> + Uzlasa’nn gvarl âpcââl.<br /> + </strong><span class="style25">STA-‘inside-out’-PRX/M/CSL/UNI-EXS-IFL-<span class="style6"><strong>ASU+</strong></span> ‘article.of.clothing’-OBL-DEL/M/ASO/AGG STA-‘wife’-POS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-FML</span><br /> + <em>You see?! I told you his wife’s clothes are inside-out!</em></p> + <p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11"><strong><img src="images/5-11-2c.jpg" width="85" height="42" /><br /> + Hwe’maklasá’ň. (<span class="style14">OR</span> Hweklasürná’ň.)</strong><br /> + <span class="style25">INF-STA-ASR/FRG/PPS-‘rain’-NRM/PRX/M/CSL/UNI-FML-<span class="style6"><strong>COI</strong></span></span><br /> + <em>It may just so happen to be raining.</em></p> + <p align="justify"> </p> +</blockquote> +<p></p> +<p align="justify"><br /> +</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="right"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="06_verbs_2.html">Proceed to Chapter 6: More Verb Morphology >></a></strong></p> + <p align="left"> </p> + <p align="left"> </p> + <table width="88%" border="0" align="center"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"> </td> + <td width="4%"> </td> + <td width="19%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style17"><a href="index.htm">Home</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="24"><a href="00_intro.html"><span class="style17">Introduction</span></a></td> + <td><a href="04_case.html"><span class="style17">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="08_adjuncts.html"><span class="style17">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="12_numbers.htm"><span class="style17">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style17"><a href="faqs.html">FAQs</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="01_phonology.html"><span class="style17">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="05_verbs_1.html"><span class="style17">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="09_syntax.html"><span class="style17">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + <td><a href="abbreviations.html"><span class="style17">List of Abbreviations</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style17"><a href="links.html">Links of Interest</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="02_morpho-phonology.html"><span class="style17">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="06_verbs_2.html"><span class="style17">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="10_lexico-semantics.html"><span class="style17">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + <td><a href="lexicon.htm"><span class="style17">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="03_morphology.html"><span class="style17">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="07_suffixes.html"><span class="style17">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="11_script.htm"><span class="style17">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + <td><span class="style17"><a href="texts.html">Texts</a></span></td> + </tr> + </table> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%" height="219"><a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/a-grammar-of-the-ithkuil-language/18672158?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank"><img src="images/front_cover-small.png" alt="Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book" width="164" height="212" border="0" /></a></td> + <td width="66%" valign="top"><p class="style11"> </p> + <p class="style11">For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar<br /> + in book form, <a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/a-grammar-of-the-ithkuil-language/18672158?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank">it is now available!</a> </p> + <p align="right"><span class="style11">And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-<br /> + wrote</span><span class="style11"> with my twin brother Paul, <a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/beyond-antimony/18666681?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank">also now available!</a> </span></p> + <p align="right"><span class="style11">(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the<br /> + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features<br /> + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)</span></p></td> + <td width="16%" valign="middle"><p class="style11"><a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/beyond-antimony/18666681?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank"><img src="images/front_cover-novel.png" alt="Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada" width="149" height="217" border="0" align="top" /></a></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">©2004-2011 by John Quijada. 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