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diff --git a/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html b/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c5a015 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/02_morpho-phonology.html @@ -0,0 +1,1124 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title>A Grammar of the Ithkuil Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +.style13 {font-size: large} +.style23 {font-weight: bold; color: #999999; font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;} +.style27 {color: #000000} +.style31 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; font-size: small; } +.style32 {font-size: medium} +.style33 {font-size: small} +.style34 { + color: #999999; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style36 {font-size: large; font-weight: bold; } +.style38 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; } +.style39 { + font-size: small; + color: #FF0000; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style3 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; font-size: small; color: #0000FF; } +.style40 {font-size: small; color: #FF0000; } +.style46 { font-family: Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style47 {font-weight: bold; font-family: Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> + +<h2 align="center" class="style23">Ithkuil: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language<br /> + <img src="images/masthead.jpg" alt="" width="465" height="50" /></h2> +<table width="88%" border="0" align="center"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"> </td> + <td width="4%"> </td> + <td width="19%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + <td width="20%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style31"><a href="index.htm">Home</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="24"><a href="00_intro.html"><span class="style31">Introduction</span></a></td> + <td><a href="04_case.html"><span class="style31">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="08_adjuncts.html"><span class="style31">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="12_numbers.htm"><span class="style31">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style31"><a href="faqs.html">FAQs</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="01_phonology.html"><span class="style31">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="05_verbs_1.html"><span class="style31">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="09_syntax.html"><span class="style31">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + <td><a href="abbreviations.html"><span class="style31">List of Abbreviations</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style31"><a href="links.html">Links of Interest</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="02_morpho-phonology.html"><span class="style31">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="06_verbs_2.html"><span class="style31">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="10_lexico-semantics.html"><span class="style31">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + <td><a href="lexicon.htm"><span class="style31">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="03_morphology.html"><span class="style31">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="07_suffixes.html"><span class="style31">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="11_script.htm"><span class="style31">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + <td><span class="style31"><a href="texts.html">Texts</a></span></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="right" class="style46"> </p> +<p align="right"><span class="style47">Update:</span><span class="style46"> <a href="links.html">The Ithkuil Grammar Is Now Available in Book Form</a></span></p> +<p align="right" class="style46"> </p> +<h2 align="center">Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology </h2> +<table width="50%" border="0" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="57%" class="style13"><a href="#Sec2o1" class="style32">2.1 Grammatical Typology</a> </td> + <td width="43%" class="style13"><a href="#Sec2o4" class="style32">2.4 Parts of Speech</a> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="style13"><a href="#Sec2o2" class="style32">2.2 Root and Stem Formation</a> </td> + <td class="style13"><a href="#Sec2o5" class="style32">2.5 Note On Terminology</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="style13"><a href="#Sec2o3" class="style32">2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems</a></td> + <td class="style13"> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><br /> + Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., +singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><strong><a name="Sec2o1" id="Sec2o1"></a></strong></p> +<div align="justify" class="style13"> + <table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="19" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div><strong>2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY</strong></div></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily agglutinative and secondarily + synthetic. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily +via the joining of one or more affixes (including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes) to a semantic root, where the affixes themselves are highly synthetic (i.e., combining numerous morphological categories together into a single phonological form). </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><a name="Sec2o1o1" id="Sec2o1o1"></a><br /> +<strong>2.1.1 The Structure of Ithkuil Words</strong></p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">As will be discussed later in <a href="#Sec2o4">Section 2.4</a>, the part of speech in Ithkuil which corresponds to nouns and verbs in Western languages is called a <em>formative</em>. The morphological structure of the Ithkuil formative can be shown by the following formula:<br /> +</p> +<p align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999"><br /> + (((Cv +) V<span class="style33">L</span> +) Cg/Cs<strong><font color="#999999"> +</font></strong>) </font>Vr +<font color="#999999"> (Cx/Cv + Vp/V<span class="style33">L</span> +) </font>Cr + V<span class="style27">c</span><strong> <font color="#999999">(+ Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong>) </font></strong> + Ca <font color="#999999">(+ VxC ) (+ Vf (+ Cb))</font> [+ tone] [+ stress]</strong><br /> + <br /> +</p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"> The above terms, other than <strong>Cr, [tone]</strong> and<strong> [stress],</strong> refer to various consonantal or vocalic affixes. <strong>Cr</strong> corresponds to the word-root itself which is dicussed below in <a href="#Sec2o2">Section 2.2</a>. All of the terms shown in gray are optional. However, as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the formula, the presence of certain terms requires the presence of others. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">The above morphological formula can be looked at as a series of numbered “slots” which will perhaps facilitate explanation of each term:</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="70" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="60" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="104" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style33">L<span class="style13">)</span></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style33">L<span class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>V<span class="style27">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"> <p align="center" class="style33"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p> </td> + <td valign="top"> <div align="center" class="style33">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Validation<br /> + OR<br /> + Aspect<br /> +(+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"> <div align="center" class="style33">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Illocution +<br /> + Mood</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p class="style13"><br /> +A brief, preliminary explanation of these terms is given in Table 3 below. Detailed explanation of these terms are found in succeeding sections or subsequent chapters.</p> +<p class="style13"><br /> + <strong>Table 3: Explanation of Terms within the Morphological Formula for Ithkuil Formatives</strong></p> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td height="109" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#999999">Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">An word-initial consonantal prefix which indicates the categories of Phase (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o5">Section 5.5</a>) and Sanction (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o6">Section 5.6</a>). Both Phase and Sanction are mandatory categories, however the presence of <strong>Cv</strong> in a formative is optional (i.e., unmarked) if both the Phase and Sanction of the formative have their default values. If <strong>Cv</strong> is present in Slot I, then Slot II through IV (see below) must be filled and Slot III must be filled by <strong>Cs</strong>, not <strong>Cg</strong>.</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="5%" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="8%" height="90" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center" class="style34">V<span class="style33">L</span></div></td> + <td width="87%" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">A vocalic affix which shows a verbal category called Valence, discussed in Section <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o7">Section 5.7</a><font color="#FF0000">. </font> Valence is a mandatory category, however the presence of <strong>V<span class="style33">L</span></strong> is optional (i.e., unmarked) if the formative’s valence has its default value <em><strong>and</strong></em> Slot I (<strong>Cv</strong>) is unfilled/unmarked. If <strong>V<span class="style33">L</span></strong> is present, then Slots III and IV below must also be filled.</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td height="354" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center" class="style34">Cg/Cs</div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><p align="justify">A consonantal affix which indicates either of two categories: (1) Validation (see Section <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o9">Section 5.9</a>), in which case this term is referred to as <strong>Cg</strong>, or (2) Aspect, in which case this term is referred to as <strong>Cs</strong>. The actual phonological forms of <strong>Cg</strong> and <strong>Cs</strong> are distinct from one another so there is no confusion when interpreting which category is being conveyed. The presence of <strong>Cv</strong> in Slot I (see above) requires that Slot III be filled by <strong>Cs</strong>, not <strong>Cg</strong>. </p> + <p align="justify">Aspect (<strong>Cs</strong>) is an optional category. It is possible for a formative to not carry any particular aspect, in which case the value of <strong>Cs</strong> (if present) will simply be a placeholder consonantal form.</p> + <p align="justify">Validation (shown by <strong>Cg</strong>) is a mandatory category, however the presence of <strong>Cg</strong> is optional if the formative's valence has its default category. If the formative's validation is <strong><em>not</em></strong> its default value, but the presence of <strong>Cg</strong> is not allowed due to Slot III already being filled by <strong>Cs</strong>, then the word must be restructured to remove <strong>Cv</strong> from Slot I and to remove <strong>Cs</strong> from Slot III in order to allow the presence of <strong>Cg</strong>. The formative's Phase and Sanction (<strong>Cv</strong>) and Aspect (<strong>Cs</strong>) will instead be shown either by use of an adjunct (see <a href="#Sec2o4o2">Section 2.4.2</a> below), or by moving <strong>Cv</strong> and <strong>Cs</strong> to Slots V and XI respectively (if possible - see explanation for Slots V and XI below). </p> + <p align="justify">The presence of either <strong>Cg</strong> or <strong>Cs</strong> in Slot III requires that Slot IV be filled.</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td height="121" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">A vocalic “portmanteau” affix (i.e., conveying multiple types of morphological information), indicating the following morphological categories: Pattern and Stem (see <a href="#Sec2o2o2">Section 2.2.2</a> below), and Function (discussed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1">Section 5.1</a>). Pattern and Stem are mandatory for all formatives, whereas Format occurs only if the formative carries an incorporated stem (see <strong>Cx</strong> in Slot V below). </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td height="201" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center" class="style34">Cx/Cv</div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><p align="justify">Slot V serves two possible functions: (1) <strong>Cx</strong>, a consonantal form indicating an incorporated root (discussed in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o4">Section 6.4</a>) or, in the absence of an incorporated root, it becomes (2) the slot for <strong>Cv</strong> showing the formative’s Phase and Sanction (thus moving it from Slot I above). The presence of <strong>Cx</strong> or <strong>Cv</strong> in Slot V requires that Slot VI also be filled. </p> + <p align="justify">If functioning as <strong>Cx</strong>, the formative must carry Format information shown by the term <strong>Vf</strong> in Slot XII below. If there is no Format shown in Slot XII, then any term in Slot V must be <strong>Cv</strong>, not <strong>Cx</strong>.</p> + <p align="justify">If there is no incorporated root and the formative's Phase and Sanction have their default values or are already shown in Slot I, then Slot V is left empty (as well as Slot VI).</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td height="117" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center" class="style34">Vp/V<span class="style33">L</span></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">Slot VI serves two possible functions: (1) <strong>Vp</strong>, a vocalic affix indicating the Stem and Pattern (see <a href="#Sec2o2o2">Section 2.2.2</a> below) as well as Designation + (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o7">Section 3.7</a>) of the incorporated root <strong>Cx</strong> in Slot V above, or, in the absence of an incorporated root, it becomes (2) the slot for <strong>V<span class="style33">L</span></strong> showing the formative’s Valence (thus moving it from Slot II above). If there is no incorporated root then Slot VI is left empty along with Slot V.</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td height="67" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">A mandatory consonantal form (from one to five consonants in length) which represents the semantic root of the formative (see <a href="#Sec2o2">Section 2.2</a> below). <strong>Cr</strong> cannot be -<strong>w</strong>-, -<strong>y</strong>-, -<strong>h</strong>-, -<strong>hw</strong>-, -<strong>hr</strong>-, -<strong>hh</strong>-, -<strong>hn</strong>-, -<strong>hm</strong>-, -<strong>lw</strong>-, -<strong>ly</strong>-, -<strong>rw</strong>-, -<strong>ry</strong>-, -<strong>řw</strong>-, or -<strong>řy</strong>-. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td height="47" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center"><strong>Vc </strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">This is a mandatory vocalic affix indicating the case of the formative. The category of Case is discussed in <a href="04_case.html">Chapter 4</a>. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td height="113" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">This is a consonant + vowel term consisting of one of four consonantal forms (<strong>w</strong>-, <strong>y</strong>-, <strong>h</strong>-, or <strong>hw</strong>-) plus a vocalic form, the whole of which indicates the Mood and Illocution of the formative (see Sections <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o2">5.2</a> and <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o3">5.3</a> respectively). Mood and Illocution are mandatory categories but both have default forms. If Mood and Illocution are in their default forms, then Slot IX is usually left unfilled/unmarked.</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td height="78" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">A mandatory consonantal portmanteau affix indicating the following five categories: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence. These categories are all discussed in <a href="03_morphology.html">Chapter 3</a>. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td height="114" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center" class="style34">Vx+C</div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">An optional derivational suffix of the form vowel<strong>+</strong>consonant(s) which conveys additional morpho-semantic information. There are approximately 200 such suffixes which can be combined with a formative to expand the meaning of a word. These suffixes can also be multiply added to a stem, i.e., two or more such affixes can appear on a stem. These suffixes are analyzed at length in <a href="07_suffixes.html">Chapter 7</a>. </div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td height="129" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center" class="style34">Vf</div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">A vocalic suffix which conveys the categories of Context (discussed in <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o6">Section 3.6</a>) and Format (discussed in <a href="06_verbs_2.html#Sec6o4">Section 6.4</a>). The presence of Format information requires that an incorporated root be present in the formative (i.e., the <strong>Cx</strong> term in Slot V above). In the absence of an incorporated root, <strong>Vf</strong> conveys the category of Context only. While Context is mandatory, it has a default value which, in the absence of Format and a Bias suffix in Slot XIII, is unmarked (i.e., Slot XII is left empty).</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td height="93" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center" class="style34">’Cb</div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">A consonantal word-final suffix of the form glottal stop + consonant which indicates one of 48 Bias categories (discussed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o11">Section 5.11</a>). Bias is an optional category and is left unmarked (i.e., unfilled) if not present. However, if present, then Slot XII must also be filled.</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td height="70" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">The six morphologically relevant tones (see <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o3o2">Section 1.3.2</a>) of an Ithkuil formative indicate the category of Version (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o8">Section 5.8</a>), a mandatory category.</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + <td height="78" bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="center"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + <td bordercolor="#999999" class="style13"><div align="justify">As previously described in <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o3o3">Section 1.3.3</a>, there are four possible stress patterns for an Ithkuil formative, which convey the categories of Designation (see <a href="03_morphology.html#Sec3o7">Section 3.7</a>) and Relation (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o4">Section 5.4</a>). </div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<span class="style13"><br /> +<br /> +</span> +<p class="style13">Based on the above morphological formula, we can see that the simplest structure for a formative is </p> +<p align="center" class="style36">Vr + Cr + Vc + Ca + tone+stress</p> +<p class="style13">as illustrated by the examples <strong>p<sup>h</sup>al</strong>, <strong>eqoec</strong>, and ‾<strong>üaklaršlá</strong> below: </p> +<p class="style13"> </p> +<p class="style13"><img src="images/2-1-1a.jpg" width="43" height="29" /><br /> + <strong>p<sup>h</sup>al</strong> <em>‘tree’</em> <span class="style33"><a href="sound_files/2-1-1a.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/2-1-1a.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style13"> Vr = (<strong>a-</strong>),* indicating Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root plus <span class="style33">STATIVE</span> function<br /> + Cr = -<strong>p<sup>h</sup>-</strong>, indicating the root: ‘branched/leaved plant’<br /> + Vc = -<strong>a-</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">OBLIQUE</span> case<br /> + Ca = -<strong>l</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">NORMAL</span> essence, <span class="style33">DELIMITIVE</span> extension, <span class="style33">MONADIC</span> perspective, <span class="style33">UNIPLEX</span> configuration, and <span class="style33">CONSOLIDATIVE</span> affiliation<br /> + tone = falling, indicating <span class="style33">PROCESSUAL</span> version<br /> + stress = penultimate**, indicating <span class="style33">INFORMAL</span> designation and <span class="style33">UNFRAMED</span> relation</p> + <p class="style13">*Note that the full form is <strong>ap<sup>h</sup>al</strong>, however when the value of <strong>Vc</strong> is word-initial <strong>a</strong>- for a formative with penultimate stress, this initial <strong>a</strong>- can be deleted.</p> + <p class="style13">**As explained in <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o3o3">Section 1.3.3</a>, monosyllabic words are considered to have penultimate stress for morpho-phonological purposes.</p> +</blockquote> +<p class="style13"><strong> </strong></p> +<p class="style13"><img src="images/2-1-1b.jpg" width="41" height="29" /><br /> +<strong>eqoec</strong> <em>‘regarding humankind’</em> <span class="style33"><a href="sound_files/2-1-1b.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/2-1-1b.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style13">Vr = <strong>e-</strong>, indicating Pattern 1, Stem 2 of the root plus <span class="style33">STATIVE</span> function<br /> + Cr = -<strong>q-</strong>, indicating the root: ‘higher order life-form’<br /> + Vc = -<strong>oe-</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">REFERENTIAL</span> case<br /> + Ca = -<strong>c</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">NORMAL</span> essence, <span class="style33">DELIMITIVE</span> extension, <span class="style33">ABSTRACT</span> perspective, <span class="style33">UNIPLEX</span> configuration, and <span class="style33">CONSOLIDATIVE</span> affiliation<br /> + tone = falling, indicating <span class="style33">PROCESSUAL</span> version<br /> + stress = penultimate, indicating <span class="style33">INFORMAL</span> designation and <span class="style33">UNFRAMED</span> relation</p> +</blockquote> +<p class="style13"> </p> +<p class="style13"><img src="images/2-1-1c.jpg" width="54" height="42" /><br /> + ‾<strong>üaklaršlá</strong> <em>‘it is/being a representation of the man-made courses/channels of a river that has dried up’</em> <span class="style33"><a href="sound_files/2-1-1c.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/2-1-1c.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style13">Vr = <strong>üa-</strong>, indicating Pattern 3, Stem 1 of the root plus <span class="style33">MANIFESTIVE</span> function<br /> + Cr = -<strong>kl-</strong>, indicating the root: ‘water in natural motion’<br /> + Vc = -<strong>a-</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">OBLIQUE</span> case<br /> + Ca = -<strong>ršl(a)</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">REPRESENTATIVE</span> essence, <span class="style33">DEPLETIVE</span> extension, <span class="style33">MONADIC</span> perspective, <span class="style33">AGGREGATIVE</span> configuration, and <span class="style33">ASSOCIATIVE</span> affiliation<br /> + tone = high, indicating <span class="style33">COMPLETIVE</span> version<br /> + stress = ultimate, indicating <span class="style33">FORMAL</span> designation and <span class="style33">UNFRAMED</span> relation</p> +</blockquote> +<p class="style13"> </p> +<p class="style13">From the simpler formative structures above, we can examine the structure of increasingly complex words, e.g.,</p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style13"><strong>Vr + Cr + Vc + Ci +Vi + Ca + Vx+Cs + Vf + ’Cb </strong>+ <strong>tone</strong> +<strong> stress</strong>, as in:</p> +</blockquote> +<p class="style13"><br /> + <img src="images/2-1-1d.jpg" width="74" height="39" /><br /> +<strong>Uip<sup>h</sup>awâtļûxe’ň?</strong> <em>‘Might it happen to be a large symbolic grove of trees?’</em> <span class="style33"><a href="sound_files/2-1-1d.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/2-1-1d.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style13">Vr = (<strong>ui-</strong>), indicating Pattern 1, Stem 1 of the root plus <span class="style33">MANIFESTIVE</span> function<br /> + Cr = -<strong>p<sup>h</sup>-</strong>, indicating the root: ‘branched/leaved plant’<br /> + Vc = -<strong>a-</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">OBLIQUE</span> case<br /> + Ci+Vi = <strong>w</strong>+<strong>â</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">INTERROGATIVE</span> illocution plus <span class="style33">SUBJUNCTIVE</span> mood<br /> + Ca = -<strong>tļ</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">NORMAL</span> essence, <span class="style33">DELIMITIVE</span> extension, <span class="style33">MONADIC</span> perspective, <span class="style33">DISCRETE</span> configuration, and <span class="style33">CONSOLIDATIVE</span> affiliation<br /> + Vx+Cs = <strong>û</strong>+<strong>x</strong>, the <span class="style33">SIZE</span> suffix in 6th degree, translatable as ‘big, large’<br /> + Vf = <strong>e</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">REPRESENTATIONAL</span> context<br /> + Cb = <strong>ň</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">COINCIDENTAL</span> bias<br /> + tone = falling, indicating <span class="style33">PROCESSUAL</span> version<br /> + stress = penultimate, indicating <span class="style33">INFORMAL</span> designation and <span class="style33">UNFRAMED</span> relation</p> + <br /> +</blockquote> +<p class="style13">or <strong>Cg + Vr + Cx + Vp + Cr + Vc + Ca + Vx+Cs + Vf </strong>+ <strong>tone </strong>+ <strong>stress</strong>, as in:</p> +<p class="style13"><strong> </strong><br /> + <img src="images/2-1-1e.jpg" width="117" height="45" /><br /> +<strong>hremsoqaiţsurkoi</strong> <em>‘purportedly by means of the value derived from all the varied attributes of humanity’</em> <span class="style33"><a href="sound_files/2-1-1e.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/2-1-1e.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style13">Cg = <strong>hr</strong>-, indicating <span class="style33">PURPORTIVE</span> validation<br /> + Vr = <strong>e</strong>-, indicating Pattern 1, Stem 2 of the root plus <span class="style33">STATIVE</span> function <br /> + Cx = -<strong>ms</strong>-, indicating the incorporated root: ‘value/cost’<br /> + Vp = <strong>o</strong>, indicating Pattern 2, Stem 1, and <span class="style33">INFORMAL</span> designation of the incorporated root<br /> + Cr = -<strong>q</strong>-, indicating the main root: ‘higher order life-form’<br /> + Vc = -<strong>ai</strong>-, indicating <span class="style33">INSTRUMENTAL</span> case<br /> + Ca = -<strong>ţs</strong>-, indicating <span class="style33">NORMAL</span> essence, <span class="style33">DELIMITIVE</span> extension, <span class="style33">ABSTRACT</span> perspective, <span class="style33">COMPOSITE</span> configuration, and <span class="style33">VARIATIVE</span> affiliation<br /> + Vx+Cs = <strong>u</strong>+<strong>rk</strong>, the <span class="style33">METONYMIC</span> suffix in 9th degree, indicating the attributes/characteristics of the formative<br /> + Vf = <strong>oi</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">AMALGAMATIVE</span> context and <span class="style33">AUTHORITATIVE</span> format<br /> + tone = falling, indicating <span class="style33">PROCESSUAL</span> version<br /> + stress = penultimate, indicating <span class="style33">INFORMAL</span> designation and <span class="style33">UNFRAMED</span> relation</p> +</blockquote> +<p class="style13"><br /> +or a deliberately extreme example,</p> +<p class="style13"> <strong>Cv + V<span class="style33">L</span> + Cs + Vr + Cx + Vp + Cr + Vc + Ca + Vx + Cs + Vf + ’Cb</strong> + tone + stress, as in:</p> +<p class="style13"><br /> + <img src="images/2-1-1f.jpg" width="124" height="40" /> <img src="images/Clown6.jpg" width="70" height="88" align="absmiddle" /> <br /> + <strong><em>/</em>q<sup>h</sup>ûl-lyai’svukšei’arpîptó’ks </strong><br /> +<em>‘...being hard to believe, after allegedly trying to go back to repeatedly inspiring fear using rag-tag groups of suspicious-looking clowns, despite resistance’</em> <span class="style33"><a href="sound_files/2-1-1f.mp3" target="_blank">LISTEN</a></span> <a href="sound_files/2-1-1f.mp3" target="_blank"><img src="images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle" /></a></p> +<blockquote> + <p class="style13">Cv = <strong>q<sup>h</sup></strong>, indicating <span class="style33">ALLEGATIVE</span> sanction plus <span class="style33">REPETITIVE</span> phase<br /> + V<span class="style33">L</span> = <strong>û</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">RESISTIVE</span> valence<br /> + Cs = <strong>l-ly</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">REGRESSIVE</span> aspect<br /> + Vr = <strong>ai’</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">DYNAMIC</span> function plus Pattern 1, Stem 2 for the main root<br /> + Cx = <strong>sv</strong>, indicating the incorporated root: ‘fear’<br /> + Vp = <strong>u</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">INFORMAL</span> designation plus Pattern 3, Stem 1 for the incorporated root<br /> + Cr = <strong>kš</strong>, indicating the main root: ‘fool/clown’<br /> + Vc = <strong>ei’a</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">POSTCURSIVE</span> case<br /> + Ca = <strong>rp</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">NORMAL</span> essence, <span class="style33">DELIMITIVE</span> extension, <span class="style33">UNBOUNDED</span> perspective, <span class="style33">AGGREGATIVE</span> configuration, and <span class="style33">VARIATIVE</span> affiliation<br /> + Vx + Cs = <strong>îpt</strong>-, the <span class="style33">GENUINENESS/VERACITY</span> suffix in 4th degree, indicating a suspicious-looking nature<br /> + Vf = <strong>o</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">SCHEMATIC</span> format and <span class="style33">EXISTENTIAL</span> context<br /> + Cb = <strong>’ks</strong>, indicating <span class="style33">SKEPTICAL</span> bias<br /> + tone = rising, indicating <span class="style33">INEFFECTUAL</span> version<br /> + stress = ultimate, indicating <span class="style33">FORMAL</span> designation for the main root</p> +</blockquote> +<div class="style13"></div> +<h3 class="style13"><a name="Sec2o1o2" id="Sec2o1o2"></a><br /> +2.1.2 Disambiguation of Specific Affixes Within Words</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Because many of the terms in the above morphological formula are optional, the reader might easily wonder how a speaker/reader of Ithkuil, when looking at or hearing an Ithkuil word, can possibly know which terms are actually shown in any given word, i.e., how to interpret from the given consonants and vowels in a particular word which of the optional morphological categories is being displayed or spoken. Or, in other words, how can one tell which slots are filled? In fact, such interpretation is indeed possible and is unambiguous due to the specific allowable consonant or vowel combinations allowed for each term, i.e., the specific consonantal or vocalic values allowed for one term are distinct from those allowed for another term which might occupy the same sequential position in a specific word. Also, as previously stated in <a href="#Sec2o1o1">Section 2.1.1</a> above and as indicated by the pattern of parentheses in the <strong>(((Cv +) V<span class="style33">L</span> +) Cg/Cs<strong> +</strong>) Vr + (Cx/Cv + Vp/V<span class="style33">L</span> +) Cr + Vc<strong> (+ Ci +<strong><strong>Vi</strong></strong>) </strong> + Ca (+ VxC ) (+ Vf (+ Cb)) [+ tone] [+ stress] </strong>morphological formula, the presence of certain terms e.g., <span class="style27"><strong>V</strong></span><strong><span class="style33">L</span></strong>, requires the presence of other terms (<strong>Ci + Vc</strong>), in order to maintain a discernible sequence which can be unambiguously differentiated. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><a name="Sec2o2" id="Sec2o2"></a></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13"><div><strong>2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13">All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic <strong>stem</strong>, which + in turn derives from a semantically abstract <strong>root</strong>. This process + is explained in the sections below.</p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style13"><a name="Sec2o2o1" id="Sec2o2o1"></a><br /> + 2.2.1 The Root </h3> +<p align="justify" class="style13">The <strong>root</strong> in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a consonantal form, <strong>Cr</strong>, comprised of one to four consonants (e.g., -<strong>k</strong>-, -<strong>st</strong>-, -<strong>ntr</strong>-, -<strong>pstw</strong>-).Given Ithkuil phonotactic constraints (see <a href="01_phonology.html#Sec1o4">Section 1.4</a>) this gives approximately 3600 possible roots. (Note: roots of five consonants, e.g., -<strong>rpskw</strong>- are also phonotactically possible and available, but currently remain unassigned.) <strong>Cr</strong> cannot be a single glottal stop, nor <strong>w</strong>, <strong>y</strong>, <strong>h</strong>, <strong>hw</strong>, <strong>hr</strong>, <strong>hh</strong>, <strong>hn</strong>, <strong>hm</strong>, <strong>lw</strong>, <strong>ly</strong>, <strong>rw</strong>, <strong>ry</strong>, <strong>řw</strong>, or <strong>řy</strong>. The root occupies Slot VII of a formative’s morpho-phonological structure, as shown below.</p> +<table width="982" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="70" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="59" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>IV</strong></div></td> + <td width="85" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="142" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center"><strong>VII</strong></div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>VIII</strong></div></td> + <td width="60" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="104" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="64" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style33">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style33">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>V<span class="style27">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style33"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Validation<br /> + OR<br /> + Aspect<br /> +(+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style40">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Illocution +<br /> + Mood </div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13"> </p> +<p align="justify"><span class="style13">The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, <strong>d</strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">- </font>is a root whose semantic referent is </span>‘NAME/DESIGNATION<span class="style13">’. + Functional word-stems (or simply <strong>stems</strong>) are generated from the + root via instantiation of the <strong>Vr- </strong>vocalic affix, as described below.</span></p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style13"><a name="Sec2o2o2" id="Sec2o2o2"></a><br /> + 2.2.2 Stem and Pattern</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style13">There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate <strong>Patterns</strong>. Both Pattern and Stem are shown by changes to the <strong>Vr-</strong> vocalic affix. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">The three patterns are labeled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a holistic stem and two complementary sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem <em>spouse</em>, with its two complementary + sub-stems <em>husband</em> and <em>wife</em>. This holistic versus complementary distinction is discussed at length below in <a href="#Sec2o3">Section 2.3</a>. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while +having such a small number of semantic word roots.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">A formative’s Pattern and Stem are shown by the <strong>Vr</strong> affix in Slot IV, as previously described in <a href="#Sec2o1o1">Section 2.1.1</a>. Besides showing a formative’s Pattern and Stem, <strong>Vr</strong> shows the morphological category of Function, discussed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1">Section 5.1</a>.<br /> +</p> +<table width="966" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="68" height="31" valign="top"><div align="center">I</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">II</div></td> + <td width="57" valign="top"><div align="center">III</div></td> + <td width="54" valign="top"><div align="center">IV</div></td> + <td width="76" valign="top"><div align="center">V</div></td> + <td width="144" valign="top"><div align="center">VI</div></td> + <td width="30" valign="top"><div align="center">VII</div></td> + <td width="28" valign="top"><div align="center">VIII</div></td> + <td width="61" valign="top"><div align="center">IX</div></td> + <td width="105" valign="top"><div align="center">X</div></td> + <td width="36" valign="top"><div align="center">XI</div></td> + <td width="65" valign="top"><div align="center">XII</div></td> + <td width="47" valign="top"><div align="center">XIII</div></td> + <td width="46" valign="top"><div align="center">XIV</div></td> + <td width="71" valign="top"><div align="center">XV</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="51" valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(((Cv)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">V<span class="style33">L)</span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">Cg/Cs)</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Vr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(Cx/Cv</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">Vp/V<span class="style33">L<strong><font color="#999999">)</font></strong></span></font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Cr</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>V<span class="style27">c</span></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><strong><font color="#999999">Ci +<strong><strong><font color="#999999">Vi</font></strong></strong></font></strong></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>Ca</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">VxC</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999">(Vf</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong><font color="#999999"> (’Cb))</font></strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>[tone]</strong></div></td> + <td valign="middle"><div align="center" class="style13"><strong>[stress]</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="105" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style33"> Phase +<br /> + Sanction (+ Illocution)</p></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Validation<br /> + OR<br /> + Aspect<br /> + (+ Mood)</div></td> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#FFFFCC"><div align="center" class="style39">Pattern +<br /> + Stem +<br /> + Function</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Incorp.Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Phase + Sanction<br /> + (+ Illocution)</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Pattern + Stem + Designation of Incorp. Root<br /> + OR<br /> + Valence</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Root</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Case</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Illocution +<br /> + Mood</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Essence +<br /> + Extension +<br /> + Perspective +<br /> + Configuration + Affiliation</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Deriv.<br /> + Suffix</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Context + Format</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Bias</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Version</div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="center" class="style33">Designa-<br /> + tion + Relation</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">The values of <strong>Vr</strong>- by Stem and Pattern and Function are shown in Table 4 below. <br /> +</p> +<p align="justify" class="style36"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style36">Table 4: Values of Vr by Stem, Pattern, and Function</p> +<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> + <td colspan="3" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Pattern 1</strong></p></td> + <td colspan="3" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Pattern 2</strong></p></td> + <td colspan="3" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Pattern 3</strong></p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 3</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 3</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center">Stem 3</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td valign="top"><div align="center"><strong>Function</strong> (see <a href="05_verbs_1.html#Sec5o1">Sec. 5.1</a>)</div></td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="left">STATIVE</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">(a)</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">e</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">u</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">o </p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ö</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">î / û</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">â</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ê</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ô</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="left">DYNAMIC</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">i </p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ai</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ei</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">au</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">eu</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">iu</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ia / ua</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ie / ue</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">io / uo</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="left">MANIFESTIVE</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ui</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ü / ou</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ëi</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ae</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ea</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">oa</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">üa / aì</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">iù / uì</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">iö / uö</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="174" valign="top"><p align="left">DESCRIPTIVE</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">oi</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">eo</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">eö</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">oe</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">öe</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">ëu </p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">üo / oì</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">üe / eì</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="top"><p align="center" class="style36">üö / aù</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13">In the sections below where we analyze the semantics of stems, all examples are given in the <span class="style33">STATIVE</span> function, as this corresponds to the most common (or default) function of a formative. Thus, the forms we will analyze are:</p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr valign="middle"> + <td height="28" colspan="3"><p align="center" class="style31">Pattern 1</p></td> + <td colspan="3"><p align="center" class="style31">Pattern 2</p></td> + <td colspan="3"><p align="center" class="style31">Pattern 3</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="80" height="28" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 3</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="90" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 3</p></td> + <td width="78" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 1</p></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 2</p></td> + <td width="70" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style38">Stem 3</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="80" height="47" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">(a)C-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">eC-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">uC-</p></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">oC- </p></td> + <td width="80" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">öC-</p></td> + <td width="90" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">îC- / ûC-</p></td> + <td width="78" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">âC-</p></td> + <td width="82" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">êC-</p></td> + <td width="70" valign="middle"><p align="center" class="style36">ôC-</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13">where <strong>C</strong>- represents the root consonant form <strong>Cr</strong>.</p> +<p class="style13"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13"><div><a name="Sec2o3" id="Sec2o3"></a><strong>2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13">We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. We will start with the three stems associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.</p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style13"><br /> + 2.3.1 Holistic Stems</h3> +<p align="justify"><span class="style13">The three stems for Pattern 1 are designated by the <strong>Vr</strong> affixes (<strong>a</strong>-), <strong>e</strong>-, and <strong>u</strong>- respectively. Thus, + the root <strong><font color="#000000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>d-</strong></font></strong> ‘</span>NAME/DESIGNATION<span class="style13">’ generates the following stems:</span></p> +<blockquote class="style13"> + <p> 1. (<strong>a)d-</strong><em>‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’</em><br /> +2. <strong>ed-</strong> <em>‘designation or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’</em><br /> +3. <strong>ud- </strong><em>‘a (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><span class="style13">The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship between the individual stems for the root <strong>-d-</strong> above with that of the root <strong>-x-</strong> (‘</span>VISION/SIGHT<span class="style13">’) below.</span></p> +<blockquote class="style13"> + <p>1. <strong>(a)x- </strong><em>‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’</em><br /> + 2. <strong>ex-</strong> <em>‘an eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’</em><br /> + 3. <strong>ux-</strong> <em>‘an image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology. </p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style13"><a name="Sec2o3o2" id="Sec2o3o2"></a><br /> + 2.3.2 Complementary Stems</h3> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two <strong>complementary</strong> stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts or aspects of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as <em>male</em>, <em>night</em>, <em>speech</em>, <em>sit</em>, + and <em>happen</em> are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word <em>male</em> has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, <em>female</em>, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as <em>living being</em>. Similarly, + the word <em>night(time)</em> derives along with its complement <em>day(time)</em> from the underlying concept translatable as <em>day</em> (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of <em>speak(ing)</em> divides into complementary concepts + of <em>talking</em> (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus <em>saying/telling</em> (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between <em>sit</em> and <em>seat</em>; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word <em>happen</em> or <em>occur</em>, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of <em>consequence</em> or <em>result</em>, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as <em>event</em> or <em>situation</em>.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"> <strong><br /> + 2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems</strong>. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by shifting the values of <strong>Vr</strong> to Pattern 2, i.e., <strong>o</strong>-, <strong>ö</strong>-, and <strong>î</strong>- (or <strong>û</strong>-), while the second complementary stem is derived by shifting <strong>Vr</strong> to Pattern 3, i.e., <strong>â</strong>-, <strong>ê</strong>-, and <strong>ô</strong>-. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:</p> +<table width="101%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="49%" class="style13"><table width="94%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39%" height="31" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="66%"><p><strong>eq-</strong>: human being, person</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="31" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td width="66%"><p><strong>öq-</strong>: male person </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="33" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </font></td> + <td width="66%"><p><strong>êq-</strong>: female person</p></td> + </tr> + </table></td> + <td width="1%" class="style13"> </td> + <td width="50%" class="style13"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%" height="30" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="67%"><p><strong>aklá-</strong>: a river </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="37" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td width="67%"><p><strong>oklá-</strong>: the water in a river </p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="29" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td width="67%"><p><strong>âklá-</strong>: a riverbed, river channel</p></td> + </tr> + </table></td> + </tr> +</table> +<span class="style13"><br /> +<br /> +</span> +<table width="101%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="49%" height="168" class="style13"><table width="95%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="31%" height="67" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="68%"><p><strong>ult-</strong>: an act of written composition; to compose something in writing</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="66" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td width="68%"><p><strong>ûlt-</strong>: the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="55" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </font></td> + <td width="68%"><p><strong>ôlt-</strong>: the written content or message of a composition; to create written content</p></td> + </tr> + </table></td> + <td width="1%" class="style13"> </td> + <td width="50%" class="style13"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="31%" height="52" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="69%"><p><strong>ax-</strong>: sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing seen)</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="76" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td width="69%"><p><strong>ox-</strong>: an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="58" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td width="69%"><p><strong>âx-</strong>: a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image</p></td> + </tr> + </table></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><br /> + <strong>2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation</strong>. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is +counterintuitive to Western semantic notions. </p> +<p align="justify"><span class="style13">For example, let us analyze the root<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> -mm- </font></strong>‘</span>NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER<span class="style13">’. While most languages + would consider the concept <em>parent</em> as fundamentally opposite from the + concept <em>child</em> and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-mm-</font></strong>. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-mm-</font></strong> is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes one as being problematical, perhaps even nonsensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> -mm-</font></strong>.</span></p> +<br /> +<table width="87%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13"> </td> + <td class="style13"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></div></td> + <td class="style13"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Complementary Stem</font></div></td> + <td class="style13"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Complementary Stem</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="8%" height="39" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">Stem 1</td> + <td width="37%"><p class="style13"><strong>amm</strong>- nuclear family member </p></td> + <td width="27%"><p class="style13"><strong>omm</strong>-: parent</p></td> + <td width="28%"><p class="style13"><strong>âmm</strong>-: child (offspring)</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="34" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">Stem 2</td> + <td width="37%"><p class="style13"><strong>emm</strong>-: male nuclear family member </p></td> + <td width="27%"><p class="style13"><strong>ömm</strong>-: father </p></td> + <td width="28%"><p class="style13"><strong>êmm</strong>-: son</p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="36" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">Stem 3</td> + <td width="37%"><p class="style13"><strong>umm</strong>-: female nuclear family member </p></td> + <td width="27%"><p class="style13"><strong>ûmm</strong>-: mother </p></td> + <td width="28%"><p class="style13"><strong>ômm</strong>-: daughter</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p class="style13"> <br /> + Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:</p> +<br /> +<table width="72%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="33%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Concept</font></div></td> + <td colspan="2" class="style13"><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Complementary + Concepts </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="33" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">eating</td> + <td width="32%" class="style13">food</td> + <td width="35%" class="style13">ingestion</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="37" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">think, act of thinking</td> + <td class="style13">a thought (thing considered)</td> + <td class="style13">process of consideration</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="35" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">liquid</td> + <td class="style13">fluid (= ontological nature)</td> + <td class="style13">wet[ness] (=defining attribute) </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="34" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">measuring </td> + <td class="style13">a measurement</td> + <td class="style13">process of measuring</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="35" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">transference of possession</td> + <td class="style13">giving</td> + <td class="style13">taking</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="37" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">traversal between points</td> + <td class="style13">coming, arrival </td> + <td class="style13"> going, departure</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="34" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13">commercial transaction </td> + <td class="style13">buying</td> + <td class="style13">selling</td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 class="style13"><br /> +</h3> + +<p align="justify" class="style13"> </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><strong><a name="Sec2o4" id="Sec2o4"></a></strong></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13"><div><strong>2.4 + PARTS OF SPEECH</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: <em>formatives</em> and <em>adjuncts</em>. While there are words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term <em>formative</em>. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.4.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.</p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will of course + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).</p> +<h3 align="justify" class="style13"><a name="Sec2o4o1" id="Sec2o4o1"></a><br /> + 2.4.1 Formatives </h3> +<p align="justify" class="style13">The stem formed as per the discussion in <a href="#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3</a> above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the <em>formative</em>. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its morpho-syntactic + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative <strong><font color="#000000">aklá-</font> </strong>illustrated above in <a href="#Sec2o3o2">Section 2.3.2</a> means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form +is arbitrary. </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13"> The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either <em>spatially “reify”</em> this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to<em> temporally “activize”</em> it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:</p> +<blockquote class="style13"> + <p align="center"> <br /> + <img src="images/2-4-1.jpg" width="792" height="272" /> </p> +</blockquote> +<p class="style13"><a name="Sec2o4o2" id="Sec2o4o2"></a></p> +<h3 class="style13">2.4.2 Adjuncts </h3> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Besides formatives, the other part of speech is the <em>adjunct</em>. Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). </p> +<p align="justify" class="style13">Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, described in detail in <a href="06_verbs_2.html">Chapter 6</a> and <a href="08_adjuncts.html">Chapter +8</a>. These include:</p> +<ul class="style13"> + <li><strong align="justify">Personal Reference Adjuncts</strong>: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship. (See <a href="08_adjuncts.html#Sec8o1">Section 8.1</a>.)<br /> + <br /> + </li> + <li><strong>Verbal Adjuncts</strong>: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Level, Phase, Sanction, Illocution, Modality, Aspect and Bias. Each of these categories is discussed in <a href="05_verbs_1.html">Chapter + 5</a> or <a href="06_verbs_2.html">Chapter 6</a>.<br /> + </li> +</ul> +<p align="justify" class="style13"><br /> + <font color="#FF0000"><strong><a name="Sec2o5" id="Sec2o5"></a></strong><br /> +</font></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC" class="style13"><div><strong>2.5 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify" class="style13">While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with <a href="03_morphology.html">Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology</a>, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity +of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.</p> +<p align="left" class="style13"> </p> +<blockquote class="style13"> + <p align="right" class="style32"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="03_morphology.html">Proceed to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >></a></strong></p> + <p align="left" class="style32"> </p> + <p align="left" class="style32"> </p> + <table width="92%" border="0" align="center"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"> </td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="20%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="24%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="21%"> </td> + <td width="19%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style31"><a href="index.htm">Home</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="24"><a href="00_intro.html"><span class="style31">Introduction</span></a></td> + <td><a href="04_case.html"><span class="style31">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="08_adjuncts.html"><span class="style31">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="12_numbers.htm"><span class="style31">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style31"><a href="faqs.html">FAQs</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="01_phonology.html"><span class="style31">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="05_verbs_1.html"><span class="style31">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="09_syntax.html"><span class="style31">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + <td><a href="abbreviations.html"><span class="style31">List of Abbreviations</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><span class="style31"><a href="links.html">Links of Interest</a></span></td> + <td> </td> + <td height="18"><a href="02_morpho-phonology.html"><span class="style31">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="06_verbs_2.html"><span class="style31">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="10_lexico-semantics.html"><span class="style31">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + <td><a href="lexicon.htm"><span class="style31">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="03_morphology.html"><span class="style31">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="07_suffixes.html"><span class="style31">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="11_script.htm"><span class="style31">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + <td><span class="style31"><a href="texts.html">Texts</a></span></td> + </tr> + </table> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%" height="219"><a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/a-grammar-of-the-ithkuil-language/18672158?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank"><img src="images/front_cover-small.png" alt="Cover of Ithkuil Grammar book" width="164" height="212" border="0" /></a></td> + <td width="66%" valign="top"><p class="style13"> </p> + <p class="style13">For those who would like a copy of the Ithkuil Grammar<br /> + in book form, <a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/a-grammar-of-the-ithkuil-language/18672158?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank">it is now available!</a> </p> + <p align="right"><span class="style13">And while you’re at it, you can check out the novel I co-<br /> + wrote</span><span class="style13"> with my twin brother Paul, <a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/beyond-antimony/18666681?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank">also now available!</a> </span></p> + <p align="right"><span class="style13">(It’s a political thriller/science fiction story that explores the<br /> + philosophical implications of quantum physics, and features<br /> + Ithkuil as a “para-linguistic” interface to a quantum computer.)</span></p></td> + <td width="16%" valign="middle"><p class="style13"><a href="http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/beyond-antimony/18666681?productTrackingContext=search_results/search_shelf/center/1" target="_blank"><img src="images/front_cover-novel.png" alt="Cover of "Beyond Antimony" by John & Paul Quijada" width="149" height="217" border="0" align="top" /></a></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<blockquote class="style13"> + <p align="justify" class="style32">©2004-2011 by John Quijada. 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