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diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..26ef5c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html @@ -0,0 +1,2006 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<!-- saved from url=(0044)ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm --> +<HTML><HEAD><META http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<TITLE>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology</TITLE> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> + +<SCRIPT language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//--> +</SCRIPT> +</HEAD><BODY> +<DIV align="center"><FONT color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</STRONG></FONT><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Title-Script5.gif"><BR> + <BR> +</DIV> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<H2 align="center"> </H2> +<H2 align="center"><A name="Sec6o0"></A>Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology</H2> +<DIV align="center"> + <TABLE width="43%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="183"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o1">6.1 Validation</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="141"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o4">6.4 Aspect</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o2">6.2 Phase</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="141"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o5">6.5 Mood</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o3">6.3 Sanction</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="141"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o6">6.6 Bias</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">In this chapter, we examine six additional morphological categories + which apply to verbal formatives: <STRONG>Validation, Phase, Sanction, Aspect, + Mood </STRONG>and<STRONG> Bias</STRONG>. Like the categories of Valence, Version, + Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality and Level in the previous chapter, these + six categories are manifested within the morpho-phonological structure of a + specialized adjunct, in this instance called an <STRONG>aspectual adjunct</STRONG>. +</P> +<P align="justify">The structure of an aspectual adjunct is <STRONG>(C<FONT size="B">B</FONT>-)V<FONT size="1">A</FONT>-C<FONT size="1">X</FONT>-(V<FONT size="1">S</FONT>-(C<FONT size="1">B</FONT>))</STRONG> + where <STRONG>V<FONT size="1">A</FONT></STRONG> and <STRONG>Vs</STRONG> are + vocalic affixes indicating aspect, <STRONG>Cx</STRONG> is a consonantal infix + indicating validation, phase and sanction, and <STRONG>C<FONT size="1">B</FONT></STRONG> + is an optional consonantal prefix or suffix indicating Bias. Mood is indicated + by the tone and stress pattern of the adjunct as a whole. <STRONG>V<FONT size="1">A</FONT></STRONG> + represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination + (e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and <STRONG>Cx</STRONG> represents a single- or dual-consonant + conjunct (e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-k-, -tt-, + -šp-</FONT></STRONG>). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may + manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts + may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination + of these categories. These variations are described below.</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <OL> + <LI>If an aspectual adjunct is being used to show Validation, Phase, and Sanction + only (i.e., it is not showing Aspect), it takes the form<STRONG> a + Cx + (+ a)</STRONG>, where <STRONG>Cx</STRONG> represents a single, geminate, + or biconsonantal consonantal form as described above. The <STRONG>a</STRONG>- + prefix distinguishes the word as an aspectual adjunct, and the (+<STRONG> + a</STRONG>) suffix is present if necessary to comply with Ithkuil phonological + constraints (see <A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o1">Sec. 1.4.1</A>). + There are 81 <STRONG>Cx</STRONG> affix representing a combination of one + of nine validations with one of nine phases, each of which in turn mutates + into eight additional forms depending on which of nine sanctions applies + to the associated verb (see <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o3">Sec. 6.3</A> below on Sanction). + These affixes are shown in Table 18 below. Examples. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ar, + ac, axx, aks, akká, amra<IMG src="assets/tone-rising.gif" width="10" height="10" align="top"></FONT></STRONG>.<BR> + </LI> + <LI>If an aspectual adjunct shows a single aspect, it takes the form <STRONG>V<FONT size="1">A</FONT> + + Cx (+ a)</STRONG>, where Va is the vocalic aspectual prefix followed by + the consonantal <STRONG>Cx</STRONG> affix (i.e., the validation-phase-sanction + affix). Examples: <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eur, + oks, iakka</FONT></STRONG>.<BR> + </LI> + <LI>If an aspectual adjunct shows two aspects, it takes the form <STRONG>V<FONT size="1">A</FONT> + + Cx + Vs</STRONG>, that is two aspectual vowel forms, the first in as a + prefix, the second as a suffix, separated by the validation-phase-sanction + consonantal affix. Examples: <STRONG> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eurai, + òksëi, iakkua</FONT></STRONG>. </LI> + </OL> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we + now turn to an explanation of the six morphological categories it manifests.</P> + +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD height="25"> <A name="Sec6o1"></A><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1 VALIDATION</STRONG></FONT> + </TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence + supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than + simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction + with Mood (see <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o5">Section 6.5</A> below) to indicate the precise + factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that + the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally + indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain. + Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of + nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity + of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, + presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are <FONT size="2">CONFIRMATIVE, + REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE</FONT> + and <FONT size="2">HORTATIVE</FONT>. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction + with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o2">Secs. 6.2</A> + and <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o3">6.3</A> below) by means of the Cx consonantal affix to + an aspectual adjunct. The values for these infixes are shown in the tables below. + The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.</P> +<P align="center"><BR> + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A name="Table18"></A>Tables + 18 (a </FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">–<STRONG> + i): Cx Affixes By Validation, Phase and Sanction</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><BR> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 18(a): Cx Affixes for + the Confirmative Validation</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/6-1a.gif" width="696" height="354"></FONT></STRONG></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><BR> + Table 18(b): Cx Affixes for the Reportive Validation</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/6-1b.gif" width="696" height="356"></FONT></STRONG></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><BR> + Table 18(c): Cx Affixes for the Intuitive Validation</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/6-1c.gif" width="696" height="361"><BR> + </STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 18(d): Cx Affixes for + the Inferential Validation</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/6-1d.gif" width="696" height="361"><BR> + </STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 18(e): Cx Affixes for + the Presumptive Validation</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/6-1e.gif" width="696" height="358"><BR> + </STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 18(f): Cx Affixes for + the Conjectural Validation</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/6-1f.gif" width="695" height="347"><BR> + </STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 18(g): Cx Affixes for + the Tentative Validation</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/6-1g.gif" width="696" height="346"><BR> + </STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 18(h): Cx Affixes for + the Putative Validation</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/6-1h.gif" width="696" height="360"><BR> + </STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 18(i): Cx Affixes for + the Hortative Validation </STRONG></FONT></P> +<P><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/6-1i.gif" width="696" height="360"></FONT></STRONG></P> +<P align="justify">The nine validations are explained as follows:<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CNF</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Confirmative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONFIRMATIVE</FONT> indicates that a statement + is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker. + It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be + unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories + shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect + being conveyed.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>RPT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Reportive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">REPORTIVE</FONT> validation indicates that + the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed + true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct + testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s + or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree + of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ + or ‘probably.’<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ITU</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Intuitive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INTUITIVE</FONT> validation indicates that + the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” + feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ + or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>INF</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Inferential</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INFERENTIAL</FONT> validation indicates + that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial + evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) + must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences + <EM>I must be dreaming</EM> or <EM>It must have rained last night</EM>.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PSM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Presumptive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PRESUMPTIVE</FONT> validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the + statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity + can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently + (so).’<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CNJ</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Conjectural</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONJECTURAL</FONT> validation indicates + that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence + of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability + is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply + by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ + or ‘purportedly.’<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>TEN</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Tentative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">TENTATIVE</FONT> validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately + translated by English ‘supposedly.’<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PUT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Putative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PUTATIVE</FONT> validation indicates that + the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness + or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the + speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can + be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ + ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus + the sentence overtly structured as <EM>He caught the bus in time</EM> but marked + for the <FONT size="2">PUTATIVE</FONT> would actually translate as <EM>He must + not have caught the bus in time</EM>.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.1.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>HOR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Hortative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">HORTATIVE</FONT> validation indicates that + the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it + to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ + ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use</H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <BLOCKQUOTE><IMG src="assets/6-1-10.gif" width="441" height="437"> <BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-1.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">___</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-1.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + </BLOCKQUOTE> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><STRONG></STRONG></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> + +<P> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><P><A name="Sec6o2"></A><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2 PHASE</STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an + act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive + manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena + that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking, + alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of + Extension, previously described in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o4">Sec. + 3.4</A>, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative + pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL, + PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE</FONT>, + and <FONT size="2">FLUCTUATIVE</FONT>. They are marked by one of nine patterns + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, depending on the validation and sanction + of the verb as previously described in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o1">Section 6.1</A> and + shown in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Table18">Tables 18(a) through 18(i)</A>. The nine phases + are explained in the following sections.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CTX</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Contextual</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> is the default phase, + describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not + instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual + duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can + be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">—</FONT></STRONG><BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PUN</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Punctual</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PUNCTUAL</FONT> describes an act, condition, + or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as + an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between + two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">•</FONT></STRONG><BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ITR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Iterative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ITERATIVE</FONT> refers to a momentary or + instantaneous event, like the <FONT size="2">PUNCTUAL</FONT> above, which repeats + itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe + light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, + the whole comprising a single <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> event. </P> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• + • • •</STRONG></FONT></P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>REP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Repetitive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">REPETITIVE</FONT> refers to a relatively + brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> + phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being + honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual + representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>— — + — —</STRONG></FONT><BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ITM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Intermittent</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INTERMITTENT</FONT> is similar to the <FONT size="2">ITERATIVE</FONT> + above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a <FONT size="2">PUNCTUAL</FONT> + event, however, unlike the <FONT size="2">ITERATIVE</FONT>, the duration of + time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would + be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping + of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. +</P> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + • <FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> • <FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + • <FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> •</STRONG></FONT><BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>RCT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Recurrent</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">RECURRENT</FONT> is to the <FONT size="2">REPETITIVE</FONT> + as the <FONT size="2">INTERMITTENT</FONT> is to the <FONT size="2">ITERATIVE</FONT>. + It indicates a slow repetition of a <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> event, + where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. + Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. +</P> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + —</STRONG></FONT><BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>FRE</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Frequentative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">FREQUENTATIVE</FONT> indicates an iterative + occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals, + the whole considered as a single <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> event. Examples + would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short + bursts of a jackhammer.</P> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT>• + • •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• • + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• • + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• • + • </STRONG></FONT><BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>FRG</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Fragmentative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">FRAGMENTATIVE</FONT> indicates a random + pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> + event. </P> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT>• + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + • •</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT>• + • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>• + </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• • + • •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>• + • </STRONG></FONT><BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.2.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>FLC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Fluctuative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">FLUCTUATIVE</FONT> indicates a random pattern + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of + birds in the wild, etc. </P> +<P align="justify">Visual representation:<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>— + • •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT></STRONG></FONT> + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> —</STRONG></FONT> + •</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT> —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>• + • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>— </STRONG></FONT>• + • • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>• + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + —</STRONG></FONT>— • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>—</STRONG></FONT> + • •</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<H3 align="justify">6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use</H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <BLOCKQUOTE> + <DIV align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-2-10a.gif" width="580" height="251"><BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Intro-6.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Intro-6.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + <BR> + </DIV> + </BLOCKQUOTE> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-2-10b.gif" width="710" height="248"></P> + <P align="justify"><BR> + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> + +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><P><A name="Sec6o3"></A><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3 SANCTION</STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related + purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener + should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance + is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption, + a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.</P> +<P align="justify">There are nine sanctions: the <FONT size="2">PROPOSITIONAL, + EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE</FONT>, + and <FONT size="2">AXIOMATIC</FONT>. Sanction is shown by the mutational grade + of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, as shown in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Table18">Table + 18</A> in Sec. 6.1 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the validation + and phase of the verb. Each sanction is explained in the sections below.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PPS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Propositional</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROPOSITIONAL</FONT> sanction is either + unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation + of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents + a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a + statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. + Example of such statements would be <EM>That is a mountain</EM>, or <EM>I’m + hungry</EM>.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>EPI</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Epistemic</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">EPISTEMIC</FONT> sanction is marked by Grade + 2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement + of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention + (i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human + knowledge. An example would be <EM>That mountain is Mount Fuji</EM> or <EM>The + U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World</EM>.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ALG</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Allegative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ALLEGATIVE</FONT> identifies an utterance + as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + or refutation. Examples would be <EM>That mountain is beautiful</EM> or <EM>No + one in the United States goes hungry</EM>.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>IPU</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Imputative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">IMPUTATIVE</FONT> identifies an utterance + as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective + or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a + sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be <EM>He knows + how to drive</EM> [e.g., because he owns a car] or <EM>She can’t be hungry + now</EM> [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant]. <BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>RFU</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Refutative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">REFUTATIVE</FONT> identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic + in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically + objective fact.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>REB</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Rebuttative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">REBUTTATIVE</FONT> identifies an utterance + as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation + or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based + on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief, + or interpretation.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>THR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Theoretical</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">THEORETICAL</FONT> identifies an utterance + as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>EXV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Expatiative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">EXPATIATIVE</FONT> identifies an utterance + as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.3.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>AXM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Axiomatic</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">AXIOMATIC</FONT> identifies an utterance + as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential + fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be <EM>Gravity + is ubiquitous</EM>, or <EM>Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food</EM>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.3.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use</H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <BLOCKQUOTE><IMG src="assets/6-3-10.gif" width="523" height="403"> <BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-2.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + </BLOCKQUOTE> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><FONT color="#FF0000"></FONT></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> + +<P> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="96%" border="0" cellpadding="3"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><A name="Sec6o4"></A><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.4 + ASPECT</STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + (as with Perspective in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3">Sec. + 3.3</A>), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each + shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown + by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial + phrases used in English. </P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.4.1 Aspect Prefixes and Suffixes</H3> +<P align="justify">As explained above in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o0">Sec. 6.0</A>, each + aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as a prefix in an + aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be associated with the verb, in which + case it appears as a vocalic suffix to the adjunct. The form of the adjunct + is <STRONG>Vp-Cx-(Vs)</STRONG>, where <STRONG>Vp</STRONG> is the prefixed form + of the first aspect, <STRONG>Cx </STRONG>is the consonantal validation-phase-sanction + infix, and <STRONG>Vs</STRONG>, if present, is the suffixed form of the second + aspect.</P> +<P align="justify">Each prefix has seven alternate forms for a total of eight + forms whose use is explained in Sec. 6.4.2 below. The first form of the prefix + is the default form. The suffix form of each aspect has but one form. The values + of these prefixes and suffixes is shown in Table 19 below. <BR> +</P> +<P><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A name="Table19"></A>Table + 19: Aspectual Prefixes (Vp) and Suffixes (Vs)</FONT></STRONG></P> +<P><IMG src="assets/6-4-1.gif" width="633" height="718"></P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.4.2 Using Aspect Prefixes to Express Format for Primary Conflations</H3> +<P align="justify">The eight forms of each aspect prefix are used as an alternate + way of indicating Format (See <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o2">Sec. + 5.4.2</A>) in the absence of a conflation (or valence) adjunct. Because they + also show Valence, Version and Modality, it is common to use conflation adjuncts + with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays + conflation (see <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Sec. 5.4.1</A>) + but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation + adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms + 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, + in the sentence <IMG src="assets/6-4-2c.gif" width="108" height="16" align="absmiddle">, + the conflation adjunct <IMG src="assets/6-4-2d.gif" width="15" height="17" align="absmiddle"> + indicating <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTATIVE</FONT> format for the <FONT size="2">ACTIVE</FONT> + conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix + <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>â</STRONG></FONT>- + on the aspectual adjunct to <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>wâ</STRONG></FONT>- + and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:</P> +<P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-4-2a.gif" width="126" height="30"><BR> + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Wâloi uatumul.</FONT></STRONG><BR> + <IMG src="assets/6-4-2b.gif" width="212" height="16" align="absbottom"> + <BR> + ‘<EM>The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring</EM>’ + <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG><BR> + ‘<EM>What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an + asteroid</EM>.’</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories</H3> +<P align="justify">The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below. </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.1</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RTR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create + various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT>, + the <FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT> can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, + the <FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT> is equates with the English simple past + tense. With the <FONT size="2">NOMIC</FONT> and <FONT size="2">ABSTRACT</FONT>, + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + verb. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.2</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PRS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PROSPECTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Like the <FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT> above, this aspect operates in + conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense + categories. With the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT>, the <FONT size="2">PROSPECTIVE</FONT> + equates with the English future tense. With the <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + With the <FONT size="2">NOMIC</FONT> and <FONT size="2">ABSTRACT</FONT>, it + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.3</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">HAB</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">HABITUAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + When used with the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT> perspective, this aspect conveys + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the + <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, the English ‘used to’ construction + offers an equivalent translation, as in <EM>She used to come see me on Wednesdays</EM>.<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.4</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PRG</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PROGRESSIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + in Spanish. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.5</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">IMM</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">IMMINENT</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in <EM>I + think Carl is about to cry</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.6</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PCS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PRECESSIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in <EM>We just + saw a clown in the toy store</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.7</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">REG</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">REGULATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event + over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + the new bridge. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.8</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EPR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EXPERIENTIAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + as in <EM>Does he ever shut up?</EM> Note the <FONT size="2">EXPERIENTIAL</FONT> + does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + in <EM>Ever does he seek his destiny</EM> nor as an adverb of mere emphasis + as in <EM>Was she ever tired</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.4.3.9</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RSM</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RESUMPTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously + ceased, as in <EM>The girl resumed singing</EM>, or <EM>He is starting to laugh + again</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.10</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CSS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CESSATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + as in T<EM>hey stopped dancing at midnight</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.11</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RCS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RECESSATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased + then resumed, as in <EM>Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy + a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.12</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PAU</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PAUSAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in <EM>Mother took a break from cleaning to </EM><EM>gossip with + her friends</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.13</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RGR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">REGRESSIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event + after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The <FONT size="2">REGRESSIVE</FONT> + should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">RESUMPTIVE</FONT> above, which + merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change + of state or situation. An example would be <EM>Mr. Yates returned to golf after + recovering from his stroke</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.14</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PCL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PRECLUSIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + etc. as in <EM>Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp</EM>.<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.15</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CNT</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CONTINUATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in <EM>She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore</EM>.<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.16</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">ICS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">INCESSATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in <EM>They danced the night away</EM> or <EM>They’ve been battling + on and on since last year</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.17</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PMP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PREEMPTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’ <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.18</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CLM</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CLIMACTIC</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’ + <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.19</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PTC</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PROTRACTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time. + If used with the <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> or <FONT size="2">PUNCTUAL</FONT> + phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the <FONT size="2">PROTRACTIVE</FONT> + conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: <EM>It + rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a + long time coming</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.20</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">TMP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">TEMPORARY</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable + only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in <EM>This will be sufficient + for now</EM> or <EM>For the time being you’ll have to drink water</EM>. + <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.21</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">MTV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">MOTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence + of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in + <EM>Dad’s off hunting</EM> or <EM>They went off to cavort with the clowns</EM>. + <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.22</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CSQ</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CONSEQUENTIAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event + despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in <EM>She went + ahead and bought the furniture</EM> or <EM>I decided to go there anyway</EM>. + <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.23</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SQN</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SEQUENTIAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single + event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English + use of ‘off’ as in <EM>He's checking off each item as it is inventoried</EM>, + or <EM>The sheep died off from the disease</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.24</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EPD</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EXPEDITIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English + ‘hurry (up)’ as in <EM>Hurry up and finish</EM> or <EM>They ate + in a hurry</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.25</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">DSC</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">DISCLUSIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’ <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.26</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CCL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CONCLUSIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in <EM>I ended up crashing the car</EM> + or <EM>He drank to the point where he passed out</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.27</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CUL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CULMINATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Similar to the <FONT size="2">CONCLUSIVE</FONT> above, but with a focus on the + eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series + of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the <FONT size="2">CONCLUSIVE</FONT> + aspect above: <EM>In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.28</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">IMD</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">INTERMEDIATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point + along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’ <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.29</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">TRD</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">TARDATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens + in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source + of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.30</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">TNS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">TRANSITIONAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in <EM>I’m planning to take up golf</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.31</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">ITC</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">INTERCOMMUTATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + as in <EM>The boy threw it back</EM> or <EM>She stared back at the men ogling + her</EM>. <BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.4.3.32</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CSM</FONT></STRONG></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CONSUMPTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in <EM>Mother spends her life + worrying</EM> or <EM>He’s pining away</EM>. </DIV> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct</H3> +<P align="justify">Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different + aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other. + For example, the <FONT size="2">PROSPECTIVE</FONT> aspect complements the <FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT> + aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally + don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same + adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first + aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second + aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such + combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered + an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct + with the second verb.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + <A name="Sec6o4o5"></A>6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus</H3> +<P align="justify">All of the aspectual prefixes shown in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Table19">Table + 19 above</A> can in turn take an initial prefix <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT>- + (or <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>yï</STRONG></FONT>- + before a <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG>-) + to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described + in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Sec. 3.5</A>), i.e., + it is an alternate to the usual -<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>- + infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>êstiu + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> yêstiu, + iwuil <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> yiwuil, + wïttu <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + yïwïttu</STRONG></FONT>.</P> +<P align="justify">This <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</FONT></STRONG>- + (or <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï</FONT></STRONG>-) + prefix can in turn be augmented to <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’</FONT></STRONG> + (spelled <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’</FONT></STRONG> + before a vowel but still pronounced <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’</FONT></STRONG>) + to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning + indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">êstiu</FONT> + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’êstiu</FONT>, + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">iwuil</FONT> <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + y’iwuil</FONT>, <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">wïttu</FONT> + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’wïttu</FONT></STRONG>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use</H3> +<DIV align="justify"><STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><IMG src="assets/6-4-6.gif" width="489" height="661"> + <BR> + <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">________________</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> +</DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"> </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> + +<P> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><P><A name="Sec6o5"></A><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5 MOOD</STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example + moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., <EM>Go now!, Sing it for + us!</EM> ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., <EM>She would travel + if she could</EM>), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., + <EM>I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here</EM>), and hortative (indicating + exhortations, e.g., <EM>May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!</EM>).</P> +<P align="justify">We have already seen in <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o1">Section + 5.1</A> above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages + correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically + where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods + simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance + is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether + the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance + (i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality + of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ithkuil, + shown by stress and tone of the aspectual adjunct accompanying the verb.</P> +<P align="justify">The eight moods are <FONT size="2">FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE, + SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE</FONT>, and <FONT size="2">ASCRIPTIVE</FONT>. + These are described in the sections below. <BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>FAC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Factual</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">FACTUAL</FONT> mood is shown by penultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality + is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described + above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the <FONT size="2">FACTUAL</FONT> + mood is subject to whatever specific nuances of attitude, perspective, and evidence + are imparted by the particular bias and validation associated with the verb. + Examples:</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>His kids are ill.</EM> [i.e., it is known he has kids and + it is known they are ill]</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>We’re taking a walk later on. </EM>[i.e., it is our + intention and we have the opportunity to do so]<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>SUB</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Subjunctive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">SUBJUNCTIVE</FONT> mood is shown by ultimate + stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the + factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the + particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition + is true. Examples:</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>Maybe his kids are ill.</EM> [i.e., it is known that he + has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>We may take a walk later on. </EM>[i.e., it is known that + the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose + to]<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ASM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Assumptive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood functions identically to the <FONT size="2">FACTUAL</FONT> + except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore + conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to + the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>His kids’ll be ill</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> + <EM>If he has kids, they are ill.</EM> [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, + but if he does, they are certainly ill.]</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>We’ll take a walk later on</EM> [i.e., if we can] + <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>We intend to take a walk.</EM> + [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>SPE</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Speculative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement + itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + Compare the examples below to those above:</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>Maybe his kids are ill</EM> [i.e., it is unknown if he + has kids but if he does, they may be ill].</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>We may take a walk later on</EM> [i.e., it is unknown whether + we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether + we will choose to].<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>COU</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Counterfactive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific + translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with + the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>His kids would be (would have been) ill</EM> [i.e., if + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>We would take (would have taken) a walk later on</EM> [i.e., + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>HYP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Hypothetical</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. + This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is + false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if + a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject + to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the + examples below to those above.</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>His kids might’ve been ill</EM> [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>We might’ve taken a walk later on</EM> [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>IPL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Implicative</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual + adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition + determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between + the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect + chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below. </P> +<P align="justify"><EM>His kids are (must be) ill</EM> [i.e., as implied by some + other fact such as his staying home from work].</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on</EM> [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.5.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ASC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Ascriptive</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual adjunct. + The <FONT size="2">ASCRIPTIVE</FONT> mood functions identically to the <FONT size="2">IMPLICATIVE</FONT> + immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from + the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples: </P> +<P align="justify"><EM>His kids may be ill</EM> [i.e., as implied by some other + fact such as his staying home from work].</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later + on </EM><STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>She’s wearing a + blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on</EM> [i.e., the + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use</H3> +<DIV align="justify">The following examples compare the seven non-<FONT size="2">FACTUAL</FONT> + moods applied to the same sentence: </DIV> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-5-9a.gif" width="546" height="106"><BR> + </P> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-5-9b.gif" width="465" height="88"><BR> + </P> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-5-9c.gif" width="544" height="87"><BR> + </P> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-5-9d.gif" width="544" height="87"><BR> + </P> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-5-9e.gif" width="571" height="85"> + <BR> + </P> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-5-9f.gif" width="420" height="84"> + <BR> + </P> + <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-5-9g.gif" width="447" height="86"> + </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><P><A name="Sec6o6"></A><FONT size="4"><STRONG>6.6 BIAS</STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude + or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation + (previously discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o1">Sec. 6.1</A>), often triggering a + translation change as well.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage<A name="Sec6o6o1"></A></H3> +<P align="justify">Bias is shown in any one of four ways: </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <OL> + <LI>as a word-initial consonantal prefix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n’urs, + ss’illui</FONT></STRONG><BR> + </LI> + <LI> as a word-final consonantal suffix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal + stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ursau’n, + illui’ss</FONT></STRONG><BR> + </LI> + <LI> as a consonantal infix to an aspectual adjunct, which substitutes this + consonantal infix for the Cx consonantal infix of the adjunct; this infix + always ends in -w, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">utwa, + enkwoi</FONT></STRONG><BR> + </LI> + <LI> as a word-initial consonantal prefix to formative if the formative begins + with a vowel; a glottal stop is infixed between the prefix and the formative, + e.g., <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>n’exalt, ss’imlatku</STRONG></FONT></LI> + </OL> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20 + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms + described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.</P> +<P align="justify"><BR> + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 20: Morpho-Phonological + Markers for Bias</FONT></STRONG><BR> + <BR> + <IMG src="assets/6-6-1.gif" width="363" height="677"> <BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.6.1.1</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">ASU</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">ASSURATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.6.1.2</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">HPB</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">HYPERBOLIC</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in <EM>I + so don’t care!</EM> or <EM>That is totally not what I wanted.</EM> The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression <EM>That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!</EM><BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.6.1.3</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">COI</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">COINCIDENTAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the + use of ‘happen’ in<EM> I happened to run into Jane</EM> or <EM>It + just so happens that I’m busy</EM>. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.6.1.4</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">ACP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">ACCEPTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.6.1.5</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RAC</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">REACTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.6.1.6</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">STU</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">STUPEFACTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in <EM>It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall</EM>. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.6.1.7</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CTV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CONTEMPLATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><STRONG>6.6.1.8</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">DPV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">DESPERATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="18%"><STRONG>6.6.1.9</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">RVL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">REVELATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.10</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">GRA</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">GRATIFICATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.11</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SOL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SOLICITIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence <EM>So dance already! + </EM><BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.12</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SEL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SELECTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.13</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">IRO</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">IRONIC</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways + in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In + its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.14</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EXA</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EXASPERATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + words back at them in contempt.<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.15</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">LTL</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">LITERAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in <EM>Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka</EM> (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in <EM>Strictly speaking, that’s + not a polka</EM> (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.16</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CRR</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CORRECTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.17</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EUP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EUPHEMISTIC</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.18</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SKP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SKEPTICAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.19</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CYN</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CYNICAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.20</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CTP</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CONTEMPTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.21</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">DSM</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">DISMISSIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.22</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">IDG</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">INDIGNATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.23</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SGS</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SUGGESTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’<BR> + <BR> + <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><STRONG>6.6.1.24</STRONG></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PPV</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"> </TD> + <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">PROPOSITIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> + This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + suggestions, as in the sentences <EM>How about going for a stroll?</EM>, <EM>We + could meet behind the barn if you want</EM>, or <EM>You can sit on my lap</EM>. + The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’ </DIV> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<H3 align="justify">6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use<BR> +</H3> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <DIV align="justify"><STRONG><FONT color="#FF0000"><IMG src="assets/6-6-2.gif" width="620" height="699"><BR> + </FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-4.mp3"><FONT color="#FFFFFF">__</FONT>Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-4.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> + <FONT color="#FF0000"> </FONT></STRONG></DIV> +</BLOCKQUOTE> + +<P> </P> +<P align="right"><STRONG><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed + to Chapter 7: Using Affixes >></FONT></A></STRONG></P> +<P></P> +<P></P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P><FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. 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