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diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..686f61e --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html @@ -0,0 +1,2517 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<!-- saved from url=(0039)ithkuil-ch4-case.htm --> +<HTML><HEAD><META http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<TITLE>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 4: Case Morphology</TITLE> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> + +<SCRIPT language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//--> onLoad="javascript:changenav4();" +</SCRIPT> +</HEAD><BODY> +<DIV align="center"><FONT color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</STRONG></FONT><BR> + <IMG src="assets/Title-Script5.gif"><BR> + <BR> +</DIV> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<H2 align="center"> </H2> +<H2 align="center">Chapter 4: Case Morphology</H2> +<DIV align="center"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR valign="top"> + <TD width="252"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1">4.1 Semantic Role Vs. Positional + Slot </A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="172"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o6">4.6 The Adverbial Cases</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o2">4.2 Morpho-Phonological Markers for + Case </A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="172"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o7">4.7 The Sub-Relative Cases</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3">4.3 The Transrelative Cases</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="172"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o8">4.8 The Spatial Cases</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o4">4.4 The Associative Cases</A></FONT></TD> + <TD width="172"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o9">4.9 The Temporal Cases</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR valign="top"> + <TD height="21"><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5">4.5 The Appositive Cases</A></FONT></TD> + <TD> </TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">In this chapter, we analyze one additional morphological category: + Case. Like the eight categories analyzed in the previous chapter, and unlike + other languages, the category of Case applies to all formatives in Ithkuil, + i.e., to both nouns and verbs alike. However, the syntactical context in which + Case operates is sufficiently dissimilar for nouns and verbs to warrant separate + analysis. In this chapter, we will analyze the case morphology of nouns alone. + The use of Case with verbs will be analyzed in <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7">Section + 5.7</A>.</P> +<P align="justify">Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek + or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to + a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence + <EM>It was me she saw</EM>, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object + of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence <EM>Der + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann</EM> (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + (accusative case).</P> +<P align="justify">The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the + notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, + there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether + a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. + In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute + for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. + The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in + order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and + the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions. +</P> +<P align="justify">There are 81 cases in Ithkuil, falling into seven categories: + Transrelative, Associative, Appositive, Adverbial, Subrelative, Spatial, and + Temporal. Case operates differently in Ithkuil than in most human languages, + being based in lexico-semantics as opposed to morpho-syntax. This is explained + below in Section 4.1.</P> +<P align="justify">Note that in regard to gender categories from other languages, + Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.), + although word-roots do fall into one of 17 morpho-semantic classes (see <A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm#Sec10o2">Sec. + 10.2</A>). However, there is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements + in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or + feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives + as seen in most Western languages.</P> +<P align="justify"> +</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><A name="Sec4o1"></A><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.1 + SEMANTIC ROLE VERSUS POSITIONAL SLOT</STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level + of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role + can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">(1a) <EM>John opened the door with the key.</EM><BR> + (1b) <EM>The key opened the door.</EM><BR> + (1c) <EM>The wind opened the door.</EM><BR> + (1d) <EM>The door opened.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, + i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, + <EM>John</EM>, <EM>the key</EM>, <EM>the wind</EM>, and <EM>the door</EM>. Yet + it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated + in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence + (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role + in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role + in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of + the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while + being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed + choice to initiate such action.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + <A name="Sec4o1o1"></A>4.1.1 Case as Indicator of Semantic Role</H3> +<P align="justify">The case structures of Western languages mark positional slot + (i.e., grammatical relations) only, and have no overt way to indicate semantic + role, thus providing no way of showing the intuitive causal relationship between + sets of sentences like those above. In Ithkuil, however, the case of a noun + is based on its underlying semantic role, not its syntactic position in the + sentence relative to the verb. These semantic roles reflect a more fundamental + or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns + in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the + underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.</P> +<P align="justify">The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + of Western languages:</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>AGENT</STRONG>: The animate, (and usually conscious + and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + (1a) above.</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>FORCE</STRONG>: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>INSTRUMENT</STRONG>: The noun which functions as the + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.</P> +<P align="justify"><STRONG>PATIENT</STRONG>: The noun which undergoes a change + in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + <A name="Sec4o1o2"></A> 4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles</H3> +<P align="justify">Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects + in Western languages exist in Ithkuil as overt noun cases. These include the + roles of ENABLER, EXPERIENCER, STIMULUS, RECIPIENT, and CONTENT, and are explained + below using the following set of sentences as illustrations.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P align="justify">(2a) <EM>Mary hits the children.</EM><BR> + (2b) <EM>Mary entertains the children.</EM><BR> + (2c) <EM>Mary sees the children.</EM><BR> + (2d) <EM>Mary tells the children a story.</EM><BR> + (2e) <EM>Mary wants children.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">Examining these five sentences, we notice that the noun Mary + is in the subject slot in all of them and the children is the direct object + (except in the fourth sentence), even though the semantic roles of both nouns + are entirely different in each of these five sentences. Beginning with Sentence + (2a) we see that Mary is an AGENT which tangibly causes injury or pain to the + children who obviously function in the role of PATIENT. Thus (2a) is identical + to sentence (1a) in terms of the roles portrayed by the subject and direct object. +</P> +<P align="justify">In Sentence (2b)<EM> </EM>however, <EM>Mary entertains the + children</EM>, there is a subtle distinction. At first we might consider Mary + an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become + entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result + (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or + behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen + to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting + change in the children, the success of this motivation to be determined by the + children, however, not Mary. Such a semantic role as Mary here is termed an + ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained + or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or + consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. + Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory + perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and + pointed in a particular direction or who were within earshot of a sound), and + autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations + (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).</P> +<P align="justify">This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence + (2c) <EM>Mary sees the children</EM>, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other + words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction + to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled + states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such + as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun + participant.</P> +<P align="justify">In Sentence (2d) <EM>Mary tells the children a story</EM>, + Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the + telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, + or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract + referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.</P> +<P align="justify">The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence + (2e) <EM>Mary wants children</EM>, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation + similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.2 MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL + MARKERS FOR CASE<A name="Sec4o2"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">Case is shown in many different ways in Ithkuil depending on + whether the case is being shown in conjunction with a formative or a personal + reference adjunct (explained in <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o1">Sec. + 8.1</A>). For nouns, case is shown via a combination of vocalic mutation of + the stem-vowel and mutation of the second consonantal radical, C<FONT size="1">2</FONT>. + The permutations of the nine series of vocalic mutation, along with the nine + grades of C<FONT size="2">2</FONT> consonantal mutation, combine to correspond + to the 81 cases. The particular mutational patterns are given in the sections + below as each case is described. Case markers for personal reference adjuncts + will be shown later in <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o1">Section + 8.1</A>.</P> +<P align="justify">We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” + and “objects” in Western languages.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3 THE TRANSRELATIVE CASES<A name="Sec4o3"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify + nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these + cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1">Sec. + 4.1</A> above. The eleven transrelative cases are the <FONT size="2">OBLIQUE, + ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, + ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, </FONT>and<FONT size="2"> SITUATIVE</FONT>. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of these cases in use are provided in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o12">Section 4.3.12</A>.<BR> +</P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>OBL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Oblique Case<A name="Sec4o3o1"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">OBLIQUE</FONT> case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the <FONT size="2">OBLIQUE</FONT> + identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a + RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., + a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used + in translating sentences such as <EM>Sam gave me <STRONG>a book</STRONG>, The + child likes <STRONG>cereal</STRONG></EM>. It is also the case associated with + existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + of a noun as in the English sentences <EM><STRONG>That boy</STRONG> is blind</EM> + or <EM><STRONG>The house</STRONG> was built of wood</EM>. The <FONT size="2">OBLIQUE</FONT>, + being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun + (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary). </P> +<P align="justify"></P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="52%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ABS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Absolutive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the <FONT size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</FONT> + identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator + is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note + that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need + not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the + <FONT size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</FONT> would be <EM>The boy hit <STRONG>the girl</STRONG>, + She forced <STRONG>him</STRONG> to do it, <STRONG>The bird</STRONG> fell from + the sky, <STRONG>The prisoner</STRONG> died during the gun battle</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DAT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Dative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series C + vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">DATIVE</FONT> has two functions in Ithkuil. + Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving + and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via + an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or + the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o2">Section + 4.1.2</A> above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences + such as <EM>We're giving <STRONG>you</STRONG> a present, Jason lent a dollar + <STRONG>to his sister</STRONG>, Please grant <STRONG>me</STRONG> a wish, <STRONG>The + student</STRONG> has three books, <STRONG>Those mountains</STRONG> have a mysterious + quality</EM>. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ERG</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Ergative Case<A name="Sec4o3o4"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ERGATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ERGATIVE</FONT> identifies the semantic + role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another + party (the PATIENT), as described in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o1">Section 4.1.1</A>. + Note that sentences involving an <FONT size="2">ERGATIVE</FONT> agent need not + overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable + using the <FONT size="2">ERGATIVE</FONT> would be <EM><STRONG>The bo</STRONG>y + hit the girl, <STRONG>She</STRONG> forced him to do it, <STRONG>That murderer</STRONG> + kills for fun</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>EFF</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Effectuative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</FONT> identifies the noun + acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o2">Section + 4.1.2</A> above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, + ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug + of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore + be carefully distinguished from the <FONT size="2">ERGATIVE</FONT> case. Ergatively + marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action + directly initiated by the agent, whereas <FONT size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</FONT> + nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the + Ithkuil translation of the sentence <EM>The clown emptied the blood from the + tub</EM>, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the <FONT size="2">ERGATIVE</FONT> + case, or as an ENABLER using the <FONT size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</FONT> case. The + former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would + mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate + the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’</P> +<P align="justify">Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the affix + -<STRONG>V<FONT size="1">1</FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k<IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></STRONG> + to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences + can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent + or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a + hindrance, or even by inaction. This affix is explored fully in <A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o12">Sec. + 7.7.12</A>. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>IND</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Inducive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INDUCIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">INDUCIVE</FONT> identifies a noun which + undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential + action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does + not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It + would be used in sentences such as <EM><STRONG>The boy</STRONG> jumped, <STRONG>He</STRONG> + sang, <STRONG>The dog</STRONG> barked all night, </EM>or<EM> <STRONG>She</STRONG> + danced to the music</EM>, in which the party initiating and performing the action + are one and the same. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>AFF</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Affective Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT> denotes a noun whose + semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o2">Section + 4.1.2</A>, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) + experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result + of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory + experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, + blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; + automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, + anxiety, etc. </P> +<P align="justify">Example sentences requiring the use of the <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT> + case would be <EM><STRONG>The baby</STRONG> is coughing, The lightning startled + <STRONG>her</STRONG>, <STRONG>Mortimer</STRONG> loves his vittles, <STRONG>Uncle + Davey</STRONG> slept till noon, My back itches <STRONG>me</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about + by the noun undergoing it, the <FONT size="2">INDUCIVE</FONT> case would be + used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce + the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence <EM><STRONG>The children + </STRONG>smiled with glee</EM> (marked using the <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT>) + with <EM><STRONG>The children</STRONG> smiled on cue</EM> (marked using the + <FONT size="2">INDUCIVE</FONT>).</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>INS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Instrumental Case<A name="Sec4o3o8"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify"> The <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. As described previously in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o1">Section 4.1.1</A>, + the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> denotes a noun which functions as the + INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + of usage would be <EM>She killed him <STRONG>with a knife</STRONG>, The man + tripped over <STRONG>my foot</STRONG>, <STRONG>The password</STRONG> got him + inside</EM>. The <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> is also used to mark translations + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare <EM>I pressed the button <STRONG>with + my finger</STRONG></EM> with <EM><STRONG>My finger</STRONG> pressed the button</EM>, + both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s + missing agent, <EM>I</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">Note that the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> does not translate + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> case below in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o6o9">Sec. + 4.6.9</A>) as in <EM>She arrived with her father</EM>. Nor is it used to show + the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the + sentence <EM>He cooks with tomatoes</EM> (see the <FONT size="2">COMPOSITIVE</FONT> + case in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5o8">Sec. 4.5.8</A>), it is not the tomatoes that cook + the food, therefore the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> would not be used, + whereas in <EM>He fueled the fire with wood</EM> it is the wood that fuels the + fire, thus requiring the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> case.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ACT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Activative Case<A name="Sec4o3o9"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ACTIVATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ACTIVATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun engaged + in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated + by the sentence <EM>Frank must go to Chicago</EM>, in which no actual travel + to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence + <EM>Mother needs to rest</EM>, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar + hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences <EM>The students want + you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay</EM>. + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + verbs such as <EM>want, need, can, must</EM>, etc. </P> +<P align="justify">Notice that the subject of these English sentences (<EM>Frank, + Mother, the students, everyone, Joe</EM>) are functioning neither as AGENTS + nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify + as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects + are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, + needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence <EM>Sam wants Shirley + to love him</EM>, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked + as EXPERIENCERS using the <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT> case. Consequently, + Ithkuil uses the <FONT size="2">ACTIVATIVE</FONT> case to mark the subject whose + mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized + situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph + (i.e., F<EM>rank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe</EM>) would be so marked. + In <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o5">Sec. 5.5</A> we will see how the + <FONT size="2">ACTIVATIVE</FONT> is used in conjunction with a morphological + category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.10</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DER</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Derivative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> serves two functions + in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described + in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o1">Sec. 4.1.1</A>) or abstract causative situation which + causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in <EM><STRONG>The wind</STRONG> + blew down the door, </EM>or<EM> <STRONG>Fame</STRONG> threatened his freedom</EM>. + The use of the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> instead of the <FONT size="2">ERGATIVE</FONT> + or the <FONT size="2">EFFECTUATIVE</FONT> denotes that such inanimate agential + forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate + actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the + resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force + or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, + a noun in the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> can often be translated using + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> can also appear in + appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun + in the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> denotes the abstract cause or reason + for the other noun, e.g., <EM>the danger <STRONG>of fame</STRONG>, <STRONG>love’s</STRONG> + heartache, <STRONG>wind</STRONG> song</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">The second function of the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> + case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS + of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in + <EM>T<STRONG>he coffee</STRONG> smells good, I saw <STRONG>her</STRONG> today, + She hates <STRONG>that boy</STRONG>, Victor coughed <STRONG>from the gas</STRONG>, + We laughed at <STRONG>his jokes</STRONG>, <STRONG>That song </STRONG>makes me + cry</EM>. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having + a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as + in the above examples); this explains why the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> + case serves to indicate both functions. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.3.11</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>SIT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="62%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Situative Case<A name="Sec4o3o11"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">SITUATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">SITUATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun as + the background context for a clause. It is similar to the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> + case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship + between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. + It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the + following examples:</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify"><EM><STRONG>Because of war</STRONG>, our planet will never + be able to join the Federation.<BR> + <STRONG>Given the presence of clowns</STRONG>, we must accept the corruption + of our children.<BR> + <STRONG>Using my plan</STRONG>, we will defeat the enemy.</EM></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 4.3.12 Examples of Transrelative Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o3o12"></A></H3> +<P><IMG src="assets/Clown8.GIF" width="80" height="91" border="0" align="top"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-1.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-1.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT></P> +<P><IMG src="assets/4-3-12b.gif" width="463" height="87"></P> +<P><IMG src="assets/4-3-12c.gif" width="516" height="85"></P> +<P><IMG src="assets/4-3-12d.gif" width="489" height="87"><BR> + <BR> + <IMG src="assets/4-3-12e.gif" width="540" height="84"></P> +<P><BR> +</P> +<H3> 4.3.13 Specialized Affixes Used to Expand the Functionality of the Transrelative + Cases</H3> +<P>It should be noted that Ithkuil provides an array of affixes specifically designed + to work in conjunction with nouns inflected into one of the Transrelative cases + to significantly expand their ability to specify the exact nature of the causal + relationships between participants to a verb in an Ithkuil sentence. These affixes + include the Consent <IMG src="assets/10-1-2b.gif" width="33" height="24" align="absmiddle"> + affix, the Reason <IMG src="assets/10-1-2c.gif" width="32" height="24" align="absmiddle"> + affix, the Expectation <IMG src="assets/10-1-2d.gif" width="32" height="24" align="absmiddle"> + affix, the Deliberateness <IMG src="assets/10-1-2e.gif" width="33" height="24" align="absmiddle"> + affix, the Enablement <IMG src="assets/10-1-2f.gif" width="34" height="24" align="absmiddle"> + affix, the Agency/Intent <IMG src="assets/10-1-2g.gif" width="36" height="24" align="absmiddle"> + affix, and the Impact <IMG src="assets/10-1-2h.gif" width="31" height="24" align="absmiddle"> + affix. These affixes are detailed in <A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o12">Section + 7.7.12</A> and discussed further in <A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm#Sec10o1o2">Section + 10.1.2</A>.</P> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.4 THE ASSOCIATIVE CASES<A name="Sec4o4"></A></STRONG></FONT></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually + have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show + varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing + relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences: +</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P> <EM>the man’s hat</EM> = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]<BR> + <EM>the man’s house</EM> = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]<BR> + <EM>the man’s arm</EM> = part of his body [inalienable component]<BR> + <EM>the man’s brother</EM> = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]<BR> + <EM>the man’s happiness</EM> = he feels happy [affective experience]<BR> + <EM>the man’s rescue</EM> = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ + purpose]<BR> + <EM>the man’s gift</EM> = the gift is for him [benefaction]<BR> + <EM>the man’s gift</EM> = the gift is from him [source]<BR> + <EM>the man’s world</EM> = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + association]<BR> + <EM>the man’s team</EM> = the team he is associated with [interactive + mutual association]<BR> + <EM>the man’s story</EM> = the story about him [topical reference]<BR> + <EM>the man’s painting</EM> = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]<BR> + <EM>the man’s command</EM> = his being a commander [role or function]</P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P align="justify">In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature + of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed + by the seven Associative cases. The other sorts of relationships shown above + are handled by other types of cases (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5">Sections 4.5</A> + and <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o6">4.6</A> below).</P> +<P align="justify">The Associative cases make a distinction between alienable + versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether + the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. + These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many + American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor + noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the <FONT size="2">POSSESSIVE, + PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, ORIGINATIVE, PRODUCTIVE</FONT>, and <FONT size="2">INTERPRETATIVE</FONT>. + Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil + examples of the cases in use are given in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o4o8">Sec. 4.4.8</A>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.4.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>POS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="62%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Possessive Case<A name="Sec4o4o1"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">POSSESSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">POSSESSIVE</FONT> is used to refer to + a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another + noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether + by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in + any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two + can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, + or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent + separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used + to translate English phrases such as <EM><STRONG>his</STRONG> coat</EM> (e.g., + the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), <EM><STRONG>the + boy’s</STRONG> book</EM> (e.g., the one in his hand), <EM><STRONG>Father’s</STRONG> + chair</EM> (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant). +</P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.4.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PRP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="62%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Proprietive Case<A name="Sec4o4o2"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROPRIETIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PROPRIETIVE</FONT> identifies a noun having + alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual + control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, + law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The + two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship + cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, + convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the + <FONT size="2">POSSESSIVE</FONT> above, we can analyze the connotative difference: + <EM><STRONG>his</STRONG> coat</EM> (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether + he is wearing it or not), <EM><STRONG>the boy’s</STRONG> book</EM> (e.g., + the one he bought), <EM><STRONG>Father’s</STRONG> chair</EM> (e.g., the + one assigned to him). </P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.4.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>GEN</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="62%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Genitive Case<A name="Sec4o4o3"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">GENITIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">GENITIVE</FONT> is used to refer to a + noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or + association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent + or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) + bond, e.g., <EM><STRONG>my</STRONG> hand, <STRONG>the building’s</STRONG> + doors, <STRONG>the child’s</STRONG> father, the essence <STRONG>of that + woman</STRONG></EM>. </P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.4.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ATT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="62%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Attributive Case<A name="Sec4o4o4"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ATTRIBUTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ATTRIBUTIVE</FONT> is used to refer to + a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective + (see the <FONT size="2">AFFECTIVE</FONT> case above) relationship with another + noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, + whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: + <EM><STRONG>his</STRONG> pain, <STRONG>Mother’s</STRONG> guilt, <STRONG>the + child’s</STRONG> cough, <STRONG>Dorothy’s</STRONG> mood, <STRONG>Davey’s</STRONG> + happiness, <STRONG>the teacher’s</STRONG> stubbornness, <STRONG>my</STRONG> + needs</EM>. </P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.4.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>OGN</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="62%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Originative Case<A name="Sec4o4o5"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ORIGINATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ORIGINATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative source of another, e.g., <EM><STRONG>the man’s</STRONG> + story</EM> (i.e., the one he told), <EM><STRONG>our</STRONG> gift</EM> (i.e., + the one we are giving), <EM>water <STRONG>from the river</STRONG>, the fruit + <STRONG>of the tree</STRONG></EM>. </P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="20%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.4.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PDC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="62%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Productive Case<A name="Sec4o4o6"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PRODUCTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PRODUCTIVE</FONT> identifies the creator, + author or originator of another noun, e.g.,<EM> <STRONG>the girl’s</STRONG> + poem, <STRONG>the clowns’ </STRONG>plan, <STRONG>my</STRONG> statue</EM> + (i.e., the one I sculpted). </P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="19%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.4.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ITP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="66%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Interpretative Case<A name="Sec4o4o7"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INTERPRETATIVE</FONT> case is marked by + Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">INTERPRETATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun + acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the + noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, + as exemplified by the phrases <EM><STRONG>Monet’s</STRONG> Paris</EM>, + <EM><STRONG>our</STRONG> world, life <STRONG>as seen by children</STRONG></EM>. +</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 4.4.8 Examples of Associative Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o4o8"></A><BR> + <BR> + <IMG src="assets/4-4-8a.gif" width="343" height="79"></H3> +<P><IMG src="assets/4-4-8b.gif" width="294" height="74"> <FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3">Listen! + </A><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT></P> +<P><IMG src="assets/4-4-8c.gif" width="291" height="76"></P> +<P><IMG src="assets/4-4-8d.gif" width="361" height="79"></P> +<P><IMG src="assets/Clown6.GIF" width="81" height="93" border="0" align="bottom"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-3.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-3.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT></P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5 THE APPOSITIVE CASES</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec4o5"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The Appositive cases refer to a group of eleven cases which + modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent + noun. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, + we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in <EM>cat + box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man,</EM> etc., or joined by the word + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., <EM>box of coins, dreams + of youth, sounds of laughter</EM>. The eleven Appositive cases are the <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE, + PURPOSIVE, INHERENT, CONDUCTIVE, MEDIATIVE, CONTRASTIVE, PARTITIVE, COMPOSITIVE, + CORRELATIVE, INTERDEPENDENT,</FONT> and <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT>. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5o12">Sec. 4.5.12</A>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>APL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="65%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Applicative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun which + represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be + <EM>a cup for coffee</EM> (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), + <EM>a box for tools</EM> (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold + tools), <EM>a room for changing.</EM> Note that the use of the <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE</FONT> + can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in <EM>a “weapon” + cat</EM> = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or <EM>a “projectile” + book</EM> = ‘a book used as a projectile.’ </P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PUR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Purposive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PURPOSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PURPOSIVE</FONT> identifies a noun which + characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The <FONT size="2">PURPOSIVE</FONT> + is subtly distinct from the <FONT size="2">APPLICATIVE</FONT> above, in that + the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or + in given context, whereas the <FONT size="2">PURPOSIVE</FONT> defines another + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would + be <EM>a <STRONG>coffee</STRONG> cup, a <STRONG>tool</STRONG>box, a <STRONG>litter</STRONG> + box, a <STRONG>trash</STRONG>can. </EM></P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>INH</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Inherent Case<A name="Sec4o5o3"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> case identifies a noun + being used to characterize or define the identity or intrinsic nature of another + in a subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic manner. English phrases + which would be translated using this case are <EM>years <STRONG>of wonder</STRONG>, + the <STRONG>Clown</STRONG> Planet, <STRONG>life</STRONG> blood, city <STRONG>of + evil</STRONG>, a <STRONG>dangerous</STRONG> situation</EM> (i.e., a situation + characterized by danger). </P> +<P align="justify">Note that in the above examples, the noun in the <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> + would be inflected either for the <FONT size="2">NOMIC</FONT> or the <FONT size="2">ABSTRACT</FONT> + perspective (see <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3o3">Sections + 3.3.3</A> and <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3o4">3.3.4</A>) + to show that the relationship involves a collective entity (e.g., <EM>Clown + Planet</EM> = planet of all clowns) or that the relationship is abstract, subjective + or symbolic (<EM>years of wonder</EM> = years that make one feel a sense of + wonder). However, when a noun in the <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> case is + inflected for a concrete perspective, i.e., either the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT> + or the <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, then it takes on the rather different + function of stating the actual existential identity (literally or figuratively) + of the other noun and would be equivalent to the English construction ‘that/which/who + is (a/the)…’ as in <EM>the man who is president, the woman who is + my wife, the house that is a model, a machine that is a vehicle, the teacher + who is her father, those trees that are larches</EM>. Through use of the <FONT size="2">INHERENT</FONT> + case and the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT>/<FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT> perspectives, + these phrases would be rendered into Ithkuil phrases that would correspond literally + to the sometimes awkward, even semantically anomalous English phrases <EM>‘the + president man,’ ‘the my-wife woman,’ ‘the model house,’ + ‘the vehicle machine,’ ‘the her-father teacher,’ ‘the + larch trees.’</EM></P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CNV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Conductive Case<A name="Sec4o5o4"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONDUCTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONDUCTIVE</FONT> identifies the meaningful + or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + phrases translatable using this case are <EM>a <STRONG>circus</STRONG> clown, + a <STRONG>mountain</STRONG> man, a feeling <STRONG>of loneliness</STRONG>, the + <STRONG>Mafia’s</STRONG> world, a realm <STRONG>of fear</STRONG>, my<STRONG> + life</STRONG> achievement, <STRONG>childhood</STRONG> memories, Let’s + discuss the morality<STRONG> of war</STRONG></EM>. </P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>MED</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Mediative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">MEDIATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">MEDIATIVE</FONT> indicates the physical, + psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes + place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as <EM>a <STRONG>radio</STRONG> + announcement, arrival <STRONG>by water</STRONG>, a <STRONG>letter</STRONG> bomb, + <STRONG>air</STRONG> mail, achieving ecstasy <STRONG>through sex</STRONG>, I + showed her my love <STRONG>with chocolate</STRONG></EM>. It should be distinguished + from the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> case (see Section 4.3.8 above), + which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a + causative action. For example, in the sentence <EM>Call him on the phone!</EM>, + translating the phrase <EM>on the phone</EM> into the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> + case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the <FONT size="2">MEDIATIVE</FONT> case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’ </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CRS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Contrastive Case<A name="Sec4o5o6"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONTRASTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONTRASTIVE</FONT> identifies a distinguishing + characteristic of another noun, i.e., that feature which distinguishes it from + other possible candidates within the given context. It would be used in translating + phrases such as <EM>the <STRONG>green</STRONG> bottle</EM> (e.g., as opposed + to the blue one); <EM>the <STRONG>science</STRONG> text</EM> (e.g., versus the + religious text); <EM><STRONG>my</STRONG> statue</EM> (i.e., a statue of me); + <EM>I want your recipe <STRONG>for stew</STRONG>, not <STRONG>soup</STRONG>; + Don’t worry, it’s a <STRONG>pet</STRONG> snake</EM>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"> </H3> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PAR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Partitive Case<A name="Sec4o5o7"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PARTITIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. When used in conjunction with another noun, the <FONT size="2">PARTITIVE</FONT> + indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two + nouns, e.g., <EM>a cup <STRONG>of coffee</STRONG>, a box(ful) <STRONG>of books</STRONG>, + a train(load) <STRONG>of refugees</STRONG></EM>. When used alone, it signifies + that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, + rather than the whole noun, e.g., <EM>I ate <STRONG>some bread</STRONG>, Pour + <STRONG>(some) water</STRONG> down my back</EM>. </P> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PARTITIVE</FONT> is also used to mark a + noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., <EM>three <STRONG>boxes</STRONG>, + two <STRONG>clowns</STRONG>, twenty <STRONG>words</STRONG></EM>. This usage + is analyzed in detail in <FONT color="#FF0000"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">Chapter + 12</A></FONT>, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., + full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, + a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.” </P> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PARTITIVE</FONT> case is also used in constructing + words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed + in <FONT color="#FF0000"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">Chapter + 12</A> </FONT>on enumeration.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CPS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="9%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="63%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Compositive Case<A name="Sec4o5o8"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMPOSITIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">COMPOSITIVE</FONT> identifies a noun as + being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is + made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be <EM>That + statue was carved <STRONG>out of marble</STRONG>, She owns three <STRONG>gold(en) + </STRONG>coins, We were caught in a web <STRONG>of lies</STRONG>, I use a <STRONG>wooden</STRONG> + ladder, It was a house <STRONG>of cards</STRONG>, <STRONG>Three suits</STRONG> + comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests <STRONG>styrofoam</STRONG> cups</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMPOSITIVE</FONT> is also used in conjunction + with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing + or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be <EM>She likes to + cook <STRONG>with tomatoes</STRONG>, He reads b<STRONG>y candle(light)</STRONG>, + That child goes through <STRONG>four sets of clothes</STRONG> a day, My uncle + satisfied his sweet tooth <STRONG>with three chocolate bars</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>COR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Correlative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CORRELATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CORRELATIVE</FONT> is used to indicate + an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another + noun or verb. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as <EM><STRONG>career</STRONG> + goals, the soup o<STRONG>f the day</STRONG>, the direction o<STRONG>f that road</STRONG>, + The elapsed time <STRONG>relative to the distance </STRONG>determines the winner, + Our next topic is sex <STRONG>and (</STRONG></EM>or<EM><STRONG> in) art</STRONG></EM> + (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Note that the <FONT size="2">CORRELATIVE</FONT> + case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often + uses an adjective, e.g., <EM><STRONG>spatial</STRONG> coordinates, the <STRONG>political</STRONG> + economy</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.10</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>IDP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="66%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Interdependent Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INTERDEPENDENT</FONT> case is marked by + Series J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">INTERDEPENDENT</FONT> identifies a noun + which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship + with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal + in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within + it’s natural context, e.g., <EM>the<STRONG> students</STRONG>’ teacher, + an <STRONG>army</STRONG> general, the blood <STRONG>in my veins</STRONG>, the + driver <STRONG>of the truck</STRONG>, the nation’s leader, <STRONG>his</STRONG> + team</EM> (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the <FONT size="2">GENITIVE</FONT> + case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate <EM>the book’s pages</EM>, + or <EM>the leaves of a tree</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.5.11</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PRD</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="8%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="64%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Predicative Case<A name="Sec4o5o11"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun which + constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), + or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are <EM>a book <STRONG>dependent on a publisher</STRONG>, + a man <STRONG>relying on charity</STRONG>, laws <STRONG>based in reason</STRONG>, + Can success <STRONG>supported by murder</STRONG> be sustained?</EM></P> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> should be distinguished + from Transrelative cases such as the <FONT size="2">DERIVATIVE</FONT> or <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT>, + in that the <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> does not denote a cause, merely + the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to + translate <EM>anxiety based on terror</EM>, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + the phrase <EM>an attitude fueled by greed</EM>, the attitude derives from or + results from greed, but is not relying on it.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 4.5.12 Examples of Appositive Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o5o12"></A></H3> +<P> <IMG src="assets/Clown3.GIF" width="78" height="91" border="0"></A><BR> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF">____________________________________________________</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-4.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-4.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT></P> +<P><BR> +</P> +<TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6 THE ADVERBIAL CASES</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec4o6"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The Adverbial cases function similarly to adverbial phrases + in Western languages (usually beginning with an adverbial conjunction), to provide + additional contextual information to a verb. The fourteen Adverbial cases are + the <FONT size="2">ESSIVE, ASSIMILATIVE, FUNCTIVE, TRANSFORMATIVE, REFERENTIAL, + CONSIDERATIVE, CLASSIFICATIVE, DEFERENTIAL, COMITATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, UTILITATIVE, + BENEFACTIVE, TRANSPOSITIVE,</FONT> and <FONT size="2">COMMUTATIVE</FONT>. Following + are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples + of the cases in use are given in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o6o15">Sec. 4.6.15</A>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ESS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="71%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Essive Case<A name="Sec4o6o1"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ESSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series A + vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ESSIVE</FONT> identifies the role or name + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would + be used in translating the English sentences <EM>They called him <STRONG>a clown</STRONG>, + The woman entered the club <STRONG>as an equal</STRONG> of any man, We consider + you our <STRONG>only hope</STRONG></EM>. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="14%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ASI</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="70%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Assimilative Case<A name="Sec4o6o2"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ASSIMILATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical + consonant. The <FONT size="2">ASSIMILATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun used as + a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of + usage are <EM>She sings <STRONG>like a bird</STRONG>, <STRONG>As children </STRONG>they + seemed to me</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="13%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>FUN</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="71%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Functive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">FUNCTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in <EM>-ly</EM> + or the adverbial use of <EM>with</EM>, identifying the manner in which an action, + event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to + characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + be: <EM>She dances <STRONG>gracefully</STRONG> </EM>(i.e., in a manner characterized + by grace),<EM> The boys ate <STRONG>with gusto</STRONG>, That clown is speaking + <STRONG>nonsense</STRONG>, Father speaks <STRONG>with such fortitude</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="13%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>TFM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="4%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="72%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Transformative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">TRANSFORMATIVE</FONT> case is marked by + Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">TRANSFORMATIVE</FONT> identifies the outcome + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + some transformation. Example usages would be <EM>The house burned <STRONG>to + ashes</STRONG>, The clown reached a state <STRONG>of tranquility</STRONG>, The + clowns will turn our children <STRONG>into slaves</STRONG>, Her father drank + himself <STRONG>to death</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="14%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>REF</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="4%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="73%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Referential Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">REFERENTIAL</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">REFERENTIAL</FONT> identifies a noun functioning + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + Examples of use would be <EM>a song <STRONG>of love</STRONG>; <STRONG>As for + those books</STRONG>, burn them!; Let’s talk <STRONG>about clowns</STRONG>; + His attitude <STRONG>toward women</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="14%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CSD</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="72%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Considerative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONSIDERATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONSIDERATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun + as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be <EM><STRONG>In my opinion</STRONG> he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town <STRONG>as per orders</STRONG> from the court; + You were arrested <STRONG>pursuant to law</STRONG>; <STRONG>According to our + teacher</STRONG>, humans are descended from apes</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="14%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CLA</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="74%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Classificative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</FONT> case is marked by + Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun + as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various + English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are + <EM>Place them <STRONG>in groups of three</STRONG>, The workers arranged the + tables <STRONG>in rows</STRONG>, He lay down <STRONG>lengthwise</STRONG>, Can + you count <STRONG>by fives</STRONG>?, I will sort them <STRONG>by color</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</FONT> is also used to identify + a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing + the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time + periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature + of an event. Examples would be <EM><STRONG>Month by month</STRONG>, their departure + crept closer; <STRONG>Year after year</STRONG>, I see more and more clowns; + <STRONG>Day in</STRONG>,<STRONG> day out</STRONG>, he’s always working; + The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, <STRONG>bag upon bag</STRONG>; + <STRONG>Patient by patient</STRONG>, the nurse administered injections</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">Note that the <FONT size="2">CLASSIFICATIVE</FONT> would not + be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used + to translate the sentence <EM>One bomb after another fell on the city</EM>. + Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations + of the noun (see <A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o4">Sec. + 7.7.4</A>).</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="58%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="12%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DFR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="76%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Deferential Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DEFERENTIAL</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">DEFERENTIAL</FONT> translates the English + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would + be <EM>He remained silent <STRONG>for her sake</STRONG>, They went on with the + ceremony <STRONG>out of respect for the families</STRONG>, They dressed in robes + <STRONG>because of tradition</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="59%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="12%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>COM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="76%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Comitative Case<A name="Sec4o6o9"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish + or Estonian, the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in <EM>The + child went <STRONG>with the clown </STRONG>to the party</EM>. Like English ‘with,’ + the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> does not imply that the conjoined noun + is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb + as the head noun. For example, in the sentence <EM>My father was walking with + a loaf of bread</EM>, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking. +</P> +<P align="justify">It should be noted, however, that the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> + is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two + nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences <EM>They danced + with each other</EM> or <EM>Mother wants to talk with you</EM>. These would + be translated using the <FONT size="2">RECIPROCAL</FONT> valence of the verb, + explained in <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o2o4">Section 5.2.4</A>. + This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following + two sentences; the first would be translated using the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT>, + the second would not: <EM>This man fought with my father</EM> (e.g., alongside + him during the war) versus <EM>This man fought with my father</EM> (e.g., they + had a fight with each other).</P> +<P align="justify">Note also that the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> is not + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as <EM>I + cut the meat with a knife</EM>. As previously discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o8">Section + 4.3.8</A>, instrumentality is indicated by use of the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> + case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed + in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the <FONT size="2">COMPOSITIVE</FONT> + case is used. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="14%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.10</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CNJ</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="4%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="74%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Conjunctive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> translates English + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary + activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> + above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the <EM>walking with + a loaf of bread</EM> example from above, it would be incorrect to use the <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> + case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate + the usage, consider the sentence <EM>I’m with the brigade</EM>. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the <FONT size="2">CONJUNCTIVE</FONT> + would be used are <EM>They skate with the best team, That teacher works well + with children</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.11</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>UTL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="4%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="72%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Utilitative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun in + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + where it refers to actual use in progress as in <EM>A man <STRONG>with a gun</STRONG> + ran into the room</EM>. It should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT> + (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o8">Sec. 4.3.8</A>) in that the latter indicates the implement + used to accomplish an action, while the <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> identifies + a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish + a stated action. For example, compare the sentence <EM>The man <STRONG>with + an umbrella</STRONG> was pushing a stroller in the rain</EM> (<FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT>) + with <EM>The man pushed a stroller in the rain <STRONG>with an umbrella</STRONG></EM> + (<FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT>). The first sentence implies the man was + pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the + rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. + Another way to translate the <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> would be to use + an English gerundial construction as in <EM>A <STRONG>gun-wielding</STRONG> + man ran into the room</EM> or <EM>An <STRONG>umbrella-toting</STRONG> man pushed + a stroller in the rain</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">Besides the <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTAL</FONT>, the <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> + should likewise be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> case + above, in that the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> merely indicates accompaniment, + while the <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> indicates use in progress. For example, + the sentence <EM>Go sit next to the girl <STRONG>with the book</STRONG></EM>, + if translated using the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT> would merely identify + a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the <FONT size="2">UTILITATIVE</FONT> + it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="62%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.12</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>BEN</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="2%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="72%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Benefactive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">BENEFACTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">BENEFACTIVE</FONT> identifies a noun for + whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the <FONT size="2">BENEFACTIVE</FONT> + is similar to the <FONT size="2">DATIVE</FONT>, except that the <FONT size="2">BENEFACTIVE</FONT> + implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the + recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or + consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + Examples of usage are <EM>a toy <STRONG>for the children</STRONG>, We threw + <STRONG>him</STRONG> a party, Go to</EM> <EM>the <STRONG>teachers</STRONG>’ + lounge</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="61%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.13</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>TSP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="2%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="74%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Transpositive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">TRANSPOSITIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">TRANSPOSITIVE</FONT> implies substitution + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are + <EM>The boss made the speech <STRONG>for me</STRONG>, She went up into the attic + <STRONG>for her brother</STRONG></EM> (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="15%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.6.14</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CMM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="2%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="70%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Commutative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMMUTATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">COMMUTATIVE</FONT> translates English + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in <EM>You + paid too much money <STRONG>for that dress</STRONG>, She kills <STRONG>for thrills</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 4.6.15 Examples of Adverbial Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o6o15"></A><BR> + <BR> + <IMG src="assets/4-6-15.gif" width="628" height="414"> <BR> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF">___________________________</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-5.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-5.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT></H3> +<P><BR> +</P> +<TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7 THE SUBRELATIVE CASES</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec4o7"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The Subrelative cases comprise eleven cases which place a noun + in a subordinate context to the main sentence, much like subordinate conjunctions + in Western languages. In fact, these cases are used far more frequently with + verbal clauses than with nouns, creating what are known as “case-frames” + (to be discussed in <A href="Ch-5%20Verbs%20Contd.htm#Sec5o7">Sec. 5.7</A>), + the Ithkuil functional equivalent to Western subordinate clauses. The eleven + Subrelative cases are the <FONT size="2">ABESSIVE, CONVERSIVE, CONCESSIVE, EXCEPTIVE, + ADVERSATIVE, PROVISIONAL, POSTULATIVE, SUPPOSITIVE, DEPENDENT, COMPARATIVE</FONT>, + and <FONT size="2">AVERSIVE</FONT>. Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of the cases in use are given + in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o7o12">Sec. 4.7.12</A>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ABE</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Abessive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ABESSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ABESSIVE</FONT> is essentially the opposite + of the <FONT size="2">COMITATIVE</FONT>, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in <EM>a day <STRONG>without rain</STRONG></EM> or <EM>a <STRONG>treeless</STRONG> + plain</EM>. As noted in the next section below on the <FONT size="2">CONVERSIVE</FONT> + case, it is <STRONG>not</STRONG> used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in <EM>I can’t go on without love</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CVS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Conversive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONVERSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONVERSIVE</FONT> is used in conjunction + with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered + a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where + it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + does not correspond to its usual <FONT size="2">ABESSIVE</FONT> usage in Sec. + 4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + Example of usage: <EM><STRONG>Without peace</STRONG>, this society is doomed; + <STRONG>If not for the rain</STRONG>, we would have had a good time</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="16%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CON</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="68%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Concessive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONCESSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONCESSIVE</FONT> case identifies a noun, + situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result + which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: <EM><STRONG>In spite of + his stupidity</STRONG>, he passed the test; <STRONG>The law notwithstanding</STRONG>, + I will stand my ground; <STRONG>No matter how ignorant</STRONG> (they may be), + they are welcome, <STRONG>Although foreigners</STRONG>, we will let them attend + the meeting.</EM></P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>EXC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Exceptive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">EXCEPTIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">EXCEPTIVE</FONT> indicates a noun, situation, + or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: <EM>She loves everybody <STRONG>except + clowns</STRONG>; I like all animals, <STRONG>excluding dogs</STRONG>; He eats + almost anything <STRONG>but (not) spinach</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>AVS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Adversative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ADVERSATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ADVERSATIVE</FONT> indicates a noun which + has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. + In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected + in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ e.g.,<EM> <STRONG>Instead + of rain</STRONG>, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, <STRONG>as opposed to + a maid</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PVS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Provisional Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROVISIONAL</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which + the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required + condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., <EM><STRONG>Provided [there’s] food</STRONG>, + I will attend the meeting; We will fight <STRONG>only in case of war</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PTL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Postulative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">POSTULATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The operates somewhat similarly to the <FONT size="2">PROVISIONAL</FONT> + above, except that the <FONT size="2">POSTULATIVE</FONT> implies a causal or + consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) + and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, + situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, + but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in <EM>I don’t know if it’s warm + enough</EM>, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality + (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). + Examples of usage: <EM><STRONG>If [there’s] snow</STRONG>, I’m not + going out; <STRONG>In case of fire</STRONG>, flee; <STRONG>If friend</STRONG>, + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>SUP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Suppositive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">SUPPOSITIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">SUPPOSITIVE</FONT> identifies a noun as + a hypothetical supposition being offered for comment. It is somewhat similar + to the <FONT size="2">SITUATIVE</FONT> case (see <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o11">Section + 4.3.11</A> above), except that the noun is functioning purely as a supposition, + not as an actual context. The <FONT size="2">SUPPOSITIVE</FONT> can be distinguished + from the <FONT size="2">PROVISIONAL</FONT> and the <FONT size="2">POSTULATIVE</FONT> + cases above, in that the latter two cases describe pre-conditions for a following + clause where the pre-condition is either preclusive or a known possibility. + The <FONT size="2">SUPPOSITIVE</FONT> presents only a hypothetical possibility + whose likelihood of becoming or describing reality is either unknown or unknowable. + There is no equivalent English construction which expresses this distinction. + The following sentences represent approximate English translations of what would + be identical Ithkuil sentences except for the three different case declensions + of the word for ‘weather’:</P> +<P align="justify"><FONT size="2">PROVISIONAL</FONT>: <EM>We’re packing + umbrellas, <STRONG>but only in case of bad weather</STRONG></EM> (i.e., umbrellas + will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).<BR> + <FONT size="2">POSTULATIVE</FONT>: <EM>We’re packing umbrellas <STRONG>in + case of bad weather</STRONG></EM> (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation + for the possibility of bad weather).<BR> + <FONT size="2">SUPPOSITIVE</FONT>: <EM>We’re packing umbrellas <STRONG>supposing + [there’s] bad weather</STRONG></EM> (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed + even though we don’t know how the weather will be).</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DEP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Dependent Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DEPENDENT</FONT> case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">DEPENDENT</FONT> translates the English + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be <EM><STRONG>Depending + on the rain</STRONG>, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, <STRONG>depending + on her attitude</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DEPENDENT</FONT> should be distinguished + from the <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> case in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5o11">Sec. + 4.5.11</A>, in that the former denotes contingency, while the <FONT size="2">PREDICATIVE</FONT> + denotes reliance. </P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="53%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.10</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CMP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Comparative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">COMPARATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">COMPARATIVE</FONT> identifies a noun being + compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see + <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7">Sec. 5.7</A>) it would translate as + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + Examples are <EM>She chose the red one <STRONG>as opposed to the blue one</STRONG>, + Sam drives a van <STRONG>as compared to Joe</STRONG>, who prefers a truck</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="52%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.7.11</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>AVR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Aversive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">AVERSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">AVERSIVE</FONT> identifies a noun as a + source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see <A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o7">Sec. + 5.7</A>) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + are <EM>She finished her plate <STRONG>for fear of my wrath</STRONG>, I traveled + by night <STRONG>to avoid the sun</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<H3 align="justify">4.7.12 Examples of Subrelative Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o7o12"></A></H3> +<P><IMG src="assets/4-7-12a.gif" width="688" height="111"> <BR> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF">____________________________</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-6.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-6.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> + <BR> + <BR> + <IMG src="assets/4-7-12b.gif" width="622" height="678"></P> +<P><BR> +</P> +<TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8 THE SPATIAL CASES</STRONG></FONT> + <A name="Sec4o8"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil. + While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque + and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional + relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished + in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + there are twelve cases corresponding to certain types of common spatial relationships. + These are the <FONT size="2">LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, + PROLATIVE, PERLATIVE, PERVASIVE , PERIPHERAL, INTEGRAL, POSITIONAL</FONT>, and + <FONT size="2">NAVIGATIVE</FONT>. Following are explanations of the function + and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided + in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o8o13">Sec. 4.8.13</A>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>LOC</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Locative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">LOCATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">LOCATIVE</FONT> signifies general static + position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., <EM>in that building, by + the wall, on the street, at my house</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ORI</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Orientative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ORIENTATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ORIENTATIVE</FONT> identifies the noun + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., + <EM>He jumped in <STRONG>feet-first</STRONG>, The car rolled <STRONG>backward</STRONG></EM>. + The <FONT size="2">ORIENTATIVE</FONT> allows for the extension of this concept + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., <EM>He walked “butt-ward” + down the street</EM> (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading + the way).</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PSV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Procursive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROCURSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PROCURSIVE</FONT> identifies a noun (often + a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, + interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction + with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears + in either the <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> or <FONT size="2">POSITIONAL</FONT> + case (see Sections 4.8.4 and 4.8.11 below). Examples of use would be <EM>They + collided <STRONG>sideways</STRONG>, She turned <STRONG>her back</STRONG> on + him, The chair “<STRONG>faced</STRONG>” the doorway</EM> (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ALL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Allative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. When used in the context of explicit or implied directional + motion, the <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> signifies the direction of motion, + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + in English. Note that the <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> in no way implies that + the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion + or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be <EM>I wandered + <STRONG>eastward</STRONG>, The little girl ran <STRONG>toward me</STRONG>, Throw + the rock <STRONG>at that clown</STRONG>!, We headed <STRONG>for home</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the <FONT size="2">ALLATIVE</FONT> signifies a directional orientation of a + noun relative to another, e.g., <EM>He turned his back <STRONG>on me</STRONG>, + The upstairs bedroom faces <STRONG>the yard</STRONG>, It’s alongside <STRONG>the + desk</STRONG></EM> (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk)</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ABL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Ablative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ABLATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, + the <FONT size="2">ABLATIVE</FONT> signifies the general directional origin + of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin + or departure. Examples would be <EM>He came <STRONG>out of the east</STRONG>, + She walked here <STRONG>from (the direction of) the river</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify">When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, + the <FONT size="2">ABLATIVE</FONT> signifies a reverse directional orientation + of one noun relative to another, e.g., <EM>He faced <STRONG>away from me</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PLT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Prolative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROLATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PROLATIVE</FONT> indicates either a position + or a path of linear movement along, across, or through a one-dimensional linear + medium or a two-dimensional quasi-planar surface, the position or movement being + between one point and another, without implying origination at one point or + destination at another, e.g., <EM>He passed <STRONG>through a tunnel</STRONG>, + She’s standing <STRONG>along the highway</STRONG>, I’ll walk <STRONG>across + the patio</STRONG>, He pushed his way <STRONG>through the crowd</STRONG>, The + vessel traversed <STRONG>the (surface of the) ocean</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PEL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Perlative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PERLATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PERLATIVE</FONT> is identical to the <FONT size="2">PROLATIVE</FONT> + above, except that the implied position or path of movement between implied + points is through or within a three-dimensional volume or medium, e.g., <EM>Baboons + chase each other <STRONG>through the trees</STRONG>, We escaped <STRONG>under + the ocean</STRONG>, The probe explored <STRONG>the nebula</STRONG> </EM>(i.e., + while passing through it)<EM>, The vessel traversed <STRONG>the (depths of the) + ocean</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PRV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Pervasive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PERVASIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PERVASIVE</FONT> signifies position or + path of movement among, within, or throughout the contextual medium, e.g., <EM>among + the grounds, throughout the stadium, within the crowd</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PRH</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Peripheral Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PERIPHERAL</FONT> case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PERIPHERAL</FONT> signifies position or + path of movement in a area surrounding, around, or along the periphery of a + noun, e.g., <EM>around her head, on all sides of it, surrounding the yard</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.10</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>INT</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Integral Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INTEGRAL</FONT> case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">INTEGRAL</FONT> identifies the noun which + is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. It + should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">ABLATIVE</FONT> above, in that + the <FONT size="2">ABLATIVE</FONT> implies position or path of motion away from, + whereas the <FONT size="2">INTEGRAL</FONT> merely presents a locational context + as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar + noun. Examples of usage would be <EM>Fix the <STRONG>kitchen</STRONG> sink!</EM> + (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), <EM><STRONG>Desert</STRONG> rocks are so + beautiful</EM> (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert + or rocks still present in the desert), <EM><STRONG>Northern</STRONG> women are + easy-going</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.11</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PSN</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Positional Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">POSITIONAL</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">POSITIONAL</FONT> identifies a noun relative + to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial + orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater + sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, the <FONT size="2">POSITIONAL</FONT> + case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are <EM>I’m standing four feet north <STRONG>of + the desk</STRONG>, The one hanging above <STRONG>the boxes</STRONG> looks fresh, + It lies at a 30° angle <STRONG>relative to the tree</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.8.12</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>NAV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Navigative Case<A name="Sec4o8o12"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">NAVIGATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">NAVIGATIVE</FONT> identifies the noun + relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event + takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in <A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm#Sec10o4o3">Section + 10.4.3 </A> that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors + of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as + the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be<EM> I looked <STRONG>down + the street</STRONG>, We aligned it perpendicular <STRONG>to the path of the + sun</STRONG>, He crossed the room <STRONG>diagonally</STRONG></EM> (i.e., walked + diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 4.8.13 Examples of Spatial Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o8o13"></A><BR> + <BR> + <IMG src="assets/4-8-13.gif" width="640" height="639"> <BR> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF">_________________________</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-7.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-7.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT> +</H3> +<P align="justify"><BR> +</P> +<TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD><P><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9 THE TEMPORAL CASES</STRONG></FONT><A name="Sec4o9"></A></P></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In + many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly + in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the + <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, + POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, SIMULTANEITIVE, + ASSESSIVE</FONT>, and <FONT size="2">LIMITATIVE</FONT>. Following are explanations + of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases + in use are provided in <A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o9o16">Sec. 4.9.16</A>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.1</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>CNR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Concursive Case<A name="Sec4o9o1"></A></STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered + a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be <EM>He prays <STRONG>during + lunch</STRONG>, She studied hard <STRONG>last night</STRONG>, I won’t + visit until <STRONG>then</STRONG></EM> (i.e., during that period in time). </P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P><IMG src="assets/4-9-1.gif" width="257" height="53"></P> + <P> </P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.2</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ACS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Accessive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ACCESSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The is similar to the <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT>, except + that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited + period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something + occurs. Examples of usage would be <EM>Dinner will be served <STRONG>at sunset</STRONG>; + <STRONG>When</STRONG> </EM>(i.e., at the moment that)<EM> you hear his voice, + call in the clowns; <STRONG>Upon impact</STRONG>, both cars were accelerating</EM>.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P><IMG src="assets/4-9-2.gif" width="257" height="60"></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P></P> +<TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.3</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>DFF</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Diffusive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">DIFFUSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">DIFFUSIVE</FONT> is yet another temporal + locative similar to the <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT>, except that the time + period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on + the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be + <EM>Most cars had tail fins <STRONG>in those days</STRONG>; I was abroad <STRONG>during + that era</STRONG>; <STRONG>At the time of his death</STRONG>, the number of + clowns was increasing; <STRONG>Over the past several seasons</STRONG>, your + talent has matured</EM>.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P><IMG src="assets/4-9-3.gif" width="257" height="53"></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.4</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PER</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Periodic Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PERIODIC</FONT> case is marked by Series + D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PERIODIC</FONT> identifies the span of + time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This + case should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">CONCURSIVE</FONT> above, + in that the periodic specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, + or durationally extended acts or states take place, whereas the concursive signifies + a contextually single holistic event. Examples would be <EM>He wrote the novel + <STRONG>in six months</STRONG>, These clowns can corrupt your child <STRONG>within + a few days</STRONG>, The woman has been ill a lot <STRONG>this year</STRONG>, + <STRONG>For the last several concerts</STRONG>, my voice has been deteriorating</EM>.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P><IMG src="assets/4-9-4.gif" width="257" height="59"></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="57%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.5</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PRO</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Prolapsive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROLAPSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PROLAPSIVE</FONT> signifies the duration + of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case + should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">PERIODIC</FONT> above, in that + the <FONT size="2">PROLAPSIVE</FONT> specifies the actual duration of the act, + condition, or event, whereas the <FONT size="2">PERIODIC</FONT> merely specifies + a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, + or event occurs. Examples would be <EM>He prayed <STRONG>through lunch</STRONG>, + <STRONG>While he was dying</STRONG>, the number of clowns increased, It rained + <STRONG>all night</STRONG>, It took <STRONG>three days</STRONG> for the fever + to break, She sang <STRONG>for an hour</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<BLOCKQUOTE> + <P><IMG src="assets/4-9-5.gif" width="257" height="54"></P> +</BLOCKQUOTE> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.6</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PCV</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Precursive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PRECURSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PRECURSIVE</FONT> identifies a point in + time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be <EM>This + situation occurred <STRONG>before the war</STRONG>, It rained <STRONG>prior + to his appearance</STRONG>, There will be a presentation <STRONG>preceding the + banquet</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.7</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PCR</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Postcursive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">POSTCURSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">POSTCURSIVE</FONT> identifies a point + in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be <EM>This + situation occurred <STRONG>after the war</STRONG>, It rained <STRONG>subsequent + to his appearance</STRONG>, There will be a presentation <STRONG>following the + banquet</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="54%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.8</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ELP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Elapsive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ELAPSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ELAPSIVE</FONT> identifies the amount + of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + Examples would be <EM><STRONG>Four years ago</STRONG> I was a student; <STRONG>Going + back three generations</STRONG>, women could not even vote</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.9</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ALP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Allapsive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ALLAPSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ALLAPSIVE</FONT> identifies the amount + of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of + a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be <EM><STRONG>Four years + from now</STRONG>, I will be a student; <STRONG>Looking ahead three generations</STRONG>, + clowns will rule the world; I will be home <STRONG>in three days</STRONG>; Little + did he know that <STRONG>two months later</STRONG> he’d be a rich man</EM>.</P> +<P> </P> +<TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.10</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>INP</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Interpolative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INTERPOLATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">INTERPOLATIVE</FONT> is used within the + context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the + duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are <EM>We heard several <STRONG>five-second</STRONG> + snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals <STRONG>of several + seconds</STRONG>; She gets recurring migraines, <STRONG>each lasting hours</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="55%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.11</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>EPS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Episodic Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">EPISODIC</FONT> case is marked by Series + B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">EPISODIC</FONT> identifies a contextually + recurring time-period. Examples of usage are <EM>The man talks with his mother + <STRONG>every three days</STRONG>; <STRONG>Each year</STRONG>, I travel to the + Clown Planet; He works <STRONG>nights</STRONG>; <STRONG>By day</STRONG>, she + is an artisan; The clowns visit us <STRONG>on Sundays</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.12</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>PRL</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Prolimitive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">PROLIMITIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">PROLIMITIVE</FONT> defines a point in + time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., + the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would + be <EM><STRONG>By the time of your graduation</STRONG>, I want you out of the + house; Please be on board <STRONG>by midnight</STRONG>; <STRONG>By the time + of the raid</STRONG>, there was nothing left to steal</EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.13</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>SML</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Simultaneitive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">SIMULTANEITIVE</FONT> case is marked by + Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">SIMULTANEITIVE</FONT> identifies a noun + signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. + Examples would be <EM>I was in class <STRONG>at the same time as his accident</STRONG>, + I worked a side-job <STRONG>concurrent to the strike</STRONG>, She laughed <STRONG>simultaneously + with my coughing fit</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.14</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>ASS</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Assessive Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ASSESSIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">ASSESSIVE</FONT> specifies the unit of + time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be <EM>My lawyer + charges <STRONG>by the minute</STRONG>, He publishes several books <STRONG>each + year</STRONG>, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles <STRONG>per hour</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<P align="justify"> </P> +<DIV align="justify"> + <TABLE width="56%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="17%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>4.9.15</STRONG></FONT></TD> + <TD width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>LIM</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="3%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="4"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="69%"><FONT size="4"><STRONG>The Limitative Case</STRONG></FONT></TD> + </TR> + </TBODY></TABLE> +</DIV> +<P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">LIMITATIVE</FONT> case is marked by Series + F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C<FONT size="1">2</FONT> + radical consonant. The <FONT size="2">LIMITATIVE</FONT> signifies a event culminating + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are <EM>He arrived <STRONG>in time for dinner</STRONG>, + Be inside the Big Tent <STRONG>in time for the clowns</STRONG></EM>.</P> +<H3 align="justify"><BR> + 4.9.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use<A name="Sec4o9o16"></A></H3> +<P><IMG src="assets/Clown5.GIF" width="71" height="87" border="0" align="top"></A><BR> + <FONT color="#FFFFFF">___________________________</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-8.mp3">Listen!</A> + <A href="Sound_Files/Ch-4-8.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR> +</P> +<P><IMG src="assets/4-9-16b.gif" width="686" height="508"></P> +<P></P> +<P></P> +<P align="right"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">Proceed + to Chapter 5: Verb Morphology >></A></FONT></STRONG></P> +<P></P> +<P></P> +<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <TBODY><TR> + <TD width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="1"><A name="menu"></A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="index.html" target="_top">Home</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a + Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9 + Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10 + Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1 + Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6 + More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD> + <TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11 + The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2 + Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a + Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12 + The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3 + Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The + Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD> + </TR> + <TR> + <TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html">4 + Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8 + Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD> + <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> + </TR> +</TBODY></TABLE> +<BR> +<FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. 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