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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<html>
<head>
<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology</title>
<META name="resource-type" content="document">
<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function.">
<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages">
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<body>
<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil:
A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br>
<img src="Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br>
<br>
</div>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1">
<tr>
<td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td>
<td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a
Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9
Syntax</a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10
Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1
Phonology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6
More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11
The Script </a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2
Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a
Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12
The Number System</a></font></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3
Basic Morphology</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The
Lexicon</a></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4
Case Morphology </a></font> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8
Adjuncts</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2 align="center"> </h2>
<h2 align="center"><a name="Sec6o0"></a>Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology</h2>
<div align="center">
<table width="43%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1">
<tr>
<td width="183"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o1">6.1 Validation</a></font></td>
<td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o4">6.4 Aspect</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o2">6.2 Phase</a></font></td>
<td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o5">6.5 Mood</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o3">6.3 Sanction</a></font></td>
<td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec6o6">6.6 Bias</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">In this chapter, we examine six additional morphological categories
which apply to verbal formatives: <strong>Validation, Phase, Sanction, Aspect,
Mood </strong>and<strong> Bias</strong>. Like the categories of Valence, Version,
Conflation/Derivation, Format, Modality and Level in the previous chapter, these
six categories are manifested within the morpho-phonological structure of a
specialized adjunct, in this instance called an <strong>aspectual adjunct</strong>.
</p>
<p align="justify">The structure of an aspectual adjunct is <strong>(C<font size="B">B</font>-)V<font size="1">A</font>-C<font size="1">X</font>-(V<font size="1">S</font>-(C<font size="1">B</font>))</strong>
where <strong>V<font size="1">A</font></strong> and <strong>Vs</strong> are
vocalic affixes indicating aspect, <strong>Cx</strong> is a consonantal infix
indicating validation, phase and sanction, and <strong>C<font size="1">B</font></strong>
is an optional consonantal prefix or suffix indicating Bias. Mood is indicated
by the tone and stress pattern of the adjunct as a whole. <strong>V<font size="1">A</font></strong>
represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination
(e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and <strong>Cx</strong> represents a single- or dual-consonant
conjunct (e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-k-, -tt-,
-šp-</font></strong>). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may
manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts
may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination
of these categories. These variations are described below.</p>
<div align="justify">
<ol>
<li>If an aspectual adjunct is being used to show Validation, Phase, and Sanction
only (i.e., it is not showing Aspect), it takes the form<strong> a + Cx
(+ a)</strong>, where <strong>Cx</strong> represents a single, geminate,
or biconsonantal consonantal form as described above. The <strong>a</strong>-
prefix distinguishes the word as an aspectual adjunct, and the (+<strong>
a</strong>) suffix is present if necessary to comply with Ithkuil phonological
constraints (see <a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o1">Sec. 1.4.1</a>).
There are 81 <strong>Cx</strong> affix representing a combination of one
of nine validations with one of nine phases, each of which in turn mutates
into eight additional forms depending on which of nine sanctions applies
to the associated verb (see <a href="#Sec6o3">Sec. 6.3</a> below on Sanction).
These affixes are shown in Table 18 below. Examples. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ar,
ac, axx, aks, akká, amra<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/tone-rising.gif" width="10" height="10" align="top"></font></strong>.<br>
</li>
<li>If an aspectual adjunct shows a single aspect, it takes the form <strong>V<font size="1">A</font>
+ Cx (+ a)</strong>, where Va is the vocalic aspectual prefix followed by
the consonantal <strong>Cx</strong> affix (i.e., the validation-phase-sanction
affix). Examples: <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eur,
oks, iakka</font></strong>.<br>
</li>
<li>If an aspectual adjunct shows two aspects, it takes the form <strong>V<font size="1">A</font>
+ Cx + Vs</strong>, that is two aspectual vowel forms, the first in as a
prefix, the second as a suffix, separated by the validation-phase-sanction
consonantal affix. Examples: <strong> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eurai,
òksëi, iakkua</font></strong>. </li>
</ol>
</div>
<p align="justify">Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we
now turn to an explanation of the six morphological categories it manifests.</p>
<p> </p>
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td height="25"> <a name="Sec6o1"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.1 VALIDATION</strong></font>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify">Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence
supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories
are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various
non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than
simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction
with Mood (see <a href="#Sec6o5">Section 6.5</a> below) to indicate the precise
factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that
the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally
indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain.
Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of
nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity
of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly,
presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are <font size="2">CONFIRMATIVE,
REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE</font>
and <font size="2">HORTATIVE</font>. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction
with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see <a href="#Sec6o2">Secs. 6.2</a>
and <a href="#Sec6o3">6.3</a> below) by means of the Cx consonantal affix to
an aspectual adjunct. The values for these infixes are shown in the tables below.
The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.</p>
<p align="center"><br>
<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="Table18"></a>Tables
18 (a </font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">–<strong>
i): Cx Affixes By Validation, Phase and Sanction</strong></font></p>
<p><br>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(a): Cx Affixes for
the Confirmative Validation</strong></font></p>
<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1a.gif" width="696" height="354"></font></strong></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br>
Table 18(b): Cx Affixes for the Reportive Validation</strong></font></p>
<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1b.gif" width="696" height="356"></font></strong></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br>
Table 18(c): Cx Affixes for the Intuitive Validation</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1c.gif" width="696" height="361"><br>
</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(d): Cx Affixes for
the Inferential Validation</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1d.gif" width="696" height="361"><br>
</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(e): Cx Affixes for
the Presumptive Validation</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1e.gif" width="696" height="358"><br>
</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(f): Cx Affixes for
the Conjectural Validation</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1f.gif" width="695" height="347"><br>
</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(g): Cx Affixes for
the Tentative Validation</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1g.gif" width="696" height="346"><br>
</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(h): Cx Affixes for
the Putative Validation</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1h.gif" width="696" height="360"><br>
</strong></font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 18(i): Cx Affixes for
the Hortative Validation </strong></font></p>
<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1i.gif" width="696" height="360"></font></strong></p>
<p align="justify">The nine validations are explained as follows:<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CNF</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Confirmative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONFIRMATIVE</font> indicates that a statement
is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker.
It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be
unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories
shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect
being conveyed.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RPT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Reportive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REPORTIVE</font> validation indicates that
the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed
true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct
testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s
or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree
of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’
or ‘probably.’<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITU</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Intuitive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTUITIVE</font> validation indicates that
the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut”
feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’
or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>INF</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inferential</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INFERENTIAL</font> validation indicates
that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial
evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it)
must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences
<em>I must be dreaming</em> or <em>It must have rained last night</em>.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.5</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PSM</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Presumptive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PRESUMPTIVE</font> validation indicates
that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence
of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the
statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity
can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently
(so).’<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.6</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CNJ</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Conjectural</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONJECTURAL</font> validation indicates
that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence
of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability
is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply
by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’
or ‘purportedly.’<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.7</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>TEN</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Tentative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">TENTATIVE</font> validation indicates that
the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness
or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the
speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately
translated by English ‘supposedly.’<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.8</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PUT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Putative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PUTATIVE</font> validation indicates that
the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness
or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the
speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can
be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’
‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus
the sentence overtly structured as <em>He caught the bus in time</em> but marked
for the <font size="2">PUTATIVE</font> would actually translate as <em>He must
not have caught the bus in time</em>.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.1.9</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>HOR</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Hortative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">HORTATIVE</font> validation indicates that
the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it
to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’
‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use</h3>
<div align="justify">
<blockquote><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-1-10.gif" width="441" height="437"> <br>
<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-1.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">___</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-1.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
</blockquote>
</div>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><strong></strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td><p><a name="Sec6o2"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.2 PHASE</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Phase refers to variances in the temporal pattern of how an
act, condition or event occurs, e.g., in a momentary, lasting, or repetitive
manner (or lack thereof). This is especially useful in describing phenomena
that occur in sudden bursts of short duration, e.g., flashing, sputtering, blinking,
alternating, etc. Phase functions closely with the morphological category of
Extension, previously described in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o4">Sec.
3.4</a>, to specify the durational nature, starting and ending, and operative
pattern of a state, action or event. The nine phases are the <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL,
PUNCTUAL, ITERATIVE, REPETITIVE, INTERMITTENT, RECURRENT, FREQUENTATIVE, FRAGMENTATIVE</font>,
and <font size="2">FLUCTUATIVE</font>. They are marked by one of nine patterns
of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, depending on the validation and sanction
of the verb as previously described in <a href="#Sec6o1">Section 6.1</a> and
shown in <a href="#Table18">Tables 18(a) through 18(i)</a>. The nine phases
are explained in the following sections.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CTX</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Contextual</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> is the default phase,
describing a single act, condition, or event as a relatively brief (but not
instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual
duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can
be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g.,
<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">—</font></strong><br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PUN</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Punctual</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PUNCTUAL</font> describes an act, condition,
or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as
an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between
two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It
can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">•</font></strong><br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITR</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Iterative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ITERATIVE</font> refers to a momentary or
instantaneous event, like the <font size="2">PUNCTUAL</font> above, which repeats
itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe
light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger,
the whole comprising a single <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> event. </p>
<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>•
• • •</strong></font></p>
<p align="justify"></p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>REP</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Repetitive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REPETITIVE</font> refers to a relatively
brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font>
phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being
honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual
representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>— —
— —</strong></font><br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.5</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITM</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Intermittent</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTERMITTENT</font> is similar to the <font size="2">ITERATIVE</font>
above, identifying a repetitive occurrence of a <font size="2">PUNCTUAL</font>
event, however, unlike the <font size="2">ITERATIVE</font>, the duration of
time between repetitions is relatively long and contextually relevant. It would
be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping
of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc.
</p>
<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>
• <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> • <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>
• <font color="#FFFFFF">—</font> •</strong></font><br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.6</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RCT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Recurrent</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">RECURRENT</font> is to the <font size="2">REPETITIVE</font>
as the <font size="2">INTERMITTENT</font> is to the <font size="2">ITERATIVE</font>.
It indicates a slow repetition of a <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> event,
where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant.
Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl.
</p>
<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>
—<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>
—<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>
—<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>
—</strong></font><br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.7</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FRE</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Frequentative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FREQUENTATIVE</font> indicates an iterative
occurrence (a single set of punctual repetitions) which in turn repeats at intervals,
the whole considered as a single <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> event. Examples
would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short
bursts of a jackhammer.</p>
<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>•
• •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>
</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• •
•<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>
</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• •
•<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>
</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• •
• </strong></font><br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.8</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FRG</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Fragmentative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FRAGMENTATIVE</font> indicates a random
pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font>
event. </p>
<p align="justify">Visual representation: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>•
•<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>
• •</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>
• <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font>•
• <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>•
</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>• •
• •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>
• <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>•
• </strong></font><br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.2.9</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FLC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Fluctuative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FLUCTUATIVE</font> indicates a random pattern
of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering”
of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of
birds in the wild, etc. </p>
<p align="justify">Visual representation:<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>—
• •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font></strong></font>
•<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> —</strong></font>
•</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> •<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font> —<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>•
• <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>— </strong></font>•
• • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>•
•<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><font color="#FFFFFF">—</font></strong></font>
—</strong></font>— • <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>—</strong></font>
• •</strong></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong></strong></font></p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<h3 align="justify">6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use</h3>
<div align="justify">
<blockquote>
<div align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-2-10a.gif" width="580" height="251"><br>
<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Intro-6.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Intro-6.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
<br>
</div>
</blockquote>
</div>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-2-10b.gif" width="710" height="248"></p>
<p align="justify"><br>
</p>
</blockquote>
<div align="justify">
<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td><p><a name="Sec6o3"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.3 SANCTION</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The morphological category of Sanction indicates the discourse-related
purpose of an utterance in relation to what sort of truthfulness the listener
should ascribe to it. In everyday terms, this corresponds to whether the utterance
is a neutral proposition or assertion, an allegation, a rebuttable presumption,
a counter-argument, a refutation of an allegation, a rebuttal, etc.</p>
<p align="justify">There are nine sanctions: the <font size="2">PROPOSITIONAL,
EPISTEMIC, ALLEGATIVE, IMPUTATIVE, REFUTATIVE, REBUTTATIVE, THEORETICAL, EXPATIATIVE</font>,
and <font size="2">AXIOMATIC</font>. Sanction is shown by the mutational grade
of the Cx affix to an aspectual adjunct, as shown in <a href="#Table18">Table
18</a> in Sec. 6.1 above, the specific affix value being dependent on the validation
and phase of the verb. Each sanction is explained in the sections below.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PPS</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Propositional</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROPOSITIONAL</font> sanction is either
unmarked (where there is no aspectual adjunct), or marked by Grade 1 mutation
of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents
a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a
statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation.
Example of such statements would be <em>That is a mountain</em>, or <em>I’m
hungry</em>.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EPI</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Epistemic</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EPISTEMIC</font> sanction is marked by Grade
2 mutation of the Cx affix. It identifies an utterance as being a statement
of shared knowledge or conventionalized fact whose ontology is human convention
(i.e., agreed-upon knowledge) as opposed to objective fact irrespective of human
knowledge. An example would be <em>That mountain is Mount Fuji</em> or <em>The
U.N. tries to relieve hunger in the Third World</em>.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ALG</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Allegative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ALLEGATIVE</font> identifies an utterance
as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition
expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge
or refutation. Examples would be <em>That mountain is beautiful</em> or <em>No
one in the United States goes hungry</em>.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IPU</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Imputative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMPUTATIVE</font> identifies an utterance
as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective
or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a
sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be <em>He knows
how to drive</em> [e.g., because he owns a car] or <em>She can’t be hungry
now</em> [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant]. <br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.5</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RFU</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Refutative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REFUTATIVE</font> identifies an utterance
as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation
or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is epistemic
in nature, i.e., based on shared human knowledge as opposed to ontologically
objective fact.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.6</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>REB</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Rebuttative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REBUTTATIVE</font> identifies an utterance
as a counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal of a previous assertion, allegation
or presumption, where the counter-allegation, refutation, or rebuttal is based
on ontologically objective fact, irrespective of subjective opinion, belief,
or interpretation.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.7</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>THR</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Theoretical</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">THEORETICAL</font> identifies an utterance
as a testable hypothesis or potentially verifiable theory.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.8</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EXV</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Expatiative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXPATIATIVE</font> identifies an utterance
as a hypothesis or theory that is not necessarily provable or verifiable.<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.3.9</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>AXM</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Axiomatic</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">AXIOMATIC</font> identifies an utterance
as a conclusive presumption, i.e., a statement of ontologically objective, pan-experiential
fact not open to rational argument or refutation. Examples would be <em>Gravity
is ubiquitous</em>, or <em>Hunger is caused by not consuming enough food</em>.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.3.10 Examples of Sanctions In Use</h3>
<div align="justify">
<blockquote><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-3-10.gif" width="523" height="403"> <br>
<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-2.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-2.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
</blockquote>
</div>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><font color="#FF0000"></font></p>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="96%" border="0" cellpadding="3">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><a name="Sec6o4"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.4
ASPECT</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information
about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance
(as with Perspective in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3">Sec.
3.3</a>), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of
the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each
shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown
by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial
phrases used in English. </p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.4.1 Aspect Prefixes and Suffixes</h3>
<p align="justify">As explained above in <a href="#Sec6o0">Sec. 6.0</a>, each
aspect is represented by a single vocalic form, appearing as a prefix in an
aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be associated with the verb, in which
case it appears as a vocalic suffix to the adjunct. The form of the adjunct
is <strong>Vp-Cx-(Vs)</strong>, where <strong>Vp</strong> is the prefixed form
of the first aspect, <strong>Cx </strong>is the consonantal validation-phase-sanction
infix, and <strong>Vs</strong>, if present, is the suffixed form of the second
aspect.</p>
<p align="justify">Each prefix has seven alternate forms for a total of eight
forms whose use is explained in Sec. 6.4.2 below. The first form of the prefix
is the default form. The suffix form of each aspect has but one form. The values
of these prefixes and suffixes is shown in Table 19 below. <br>
</p>
<p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a name="Table19"></a>Table
19: Aspectual Prefixes (Vp) and Suffixes (Vs)</font></strong></p>
<p><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-1.gif" width="633" height="718"></p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.4.2 Using Aspect Prefixes to Express Format for Primary Conflations</h3>
<p align="justify">The eight forms of each aspect prefix are used as an alternate
way of indicating Format (See <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o2">Sec.
5.4.2</a>) in the absence of a conflation (or valence) adjunct. Because they
also show Valence, Version and Modality, it is common to use conflation adjuncts
with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays
conflation (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Sec. 5.4.1</a>)
but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation
adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms
1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus,
in the sentence <img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-2c.gif" width="108" height="16" align="absmiddle">,
the conflation adjunct <img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-2d.gif" width="15" height="17" align="absmiddle">
indicating <font size="2">INSTRUMENTATIVE</font> format for the <font size="2">ACTIVE</font>
conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix
<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>â</strong></font>-
on the aspectual adjunct to <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>wâ</strong></font>-
and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:</p>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-2a.gif" width="126" height="30"><br>
<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Wâloi uatumul.</font></strong><br>
<img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-2b.gif" width="212" height="16" align="absbottom">
<br>
‘<em>The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring</em>’
<strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong><br>
‘<em>What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an
asteroid</em>.’</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories</h3>
<p align="justify">The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below. </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.1</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RTR</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create
various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the <font size="2">MONADIC</font>,
the <font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font> can be translated by English ‘have
already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>,
the <font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font> is equates with the English simple past
tense. With the <font size="2">NOMIC</font> and <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font>,
it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the
verb. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.2</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PRS</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROSPECTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Like the <font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font> above, this aspect operates in
conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense
categories. With the <font size="2">MONADIC</font>, the <font size="2">PROSPECTIVE</font>
equates with the English future tense. With the <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>,
it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’).
With the <font size="2">NOMIC</font> and <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font>, it
adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from
now on’ to the verb. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.3</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">HAB</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">HABITUAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
When used with the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> perspective, this aspect conveys
the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the
<font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>, the English ‘used to’ construction
offers an equivalent translation, as in <em>She used to come see me on Wednesdays</em>.<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.4</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PRG</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROGRESSIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction
‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle
in Spanish. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.5</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IMM</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">IMMINENT</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such
as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in <em>I
think Carl is about to cry</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.6</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PCS</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PRECESSIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates
such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in <em>We just
saw a clown in the toy store</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.7</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">REG</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REGULATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event
over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the
contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’
or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of
the new bridge. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.8</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EPR</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EXPERIENTIAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm
of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’
as in <em>Does he ever shut up?</em> Note the <font size="2">EXPERIENTIAL</font>
does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as
in <em>Ever does he seek his destiny</em> nor as an adverb of mere emphasis
as in <em>Was she ever tired</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.4.3.9</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RSM</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">RESUMPTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea of an act, state, or event resuming after having previously
ceased, as in <em>The girl resumed singing</em>, or <em>He is starting to laugh
again</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.10</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CSS</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CESSATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English
phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’
as in T<em>hey stopped dancing at midnight</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.11</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RCS</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">RECESSATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea of cessation of event again, after having previously ceased
then resumed, as in <em>Lyudmila stopped eating yet again in order to enjoy
a quick interlude with the neighborhood clown</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.12</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PAU</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PAUSAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to
resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause
in’ as in <em>Mother took a break from cleaning to </em><em>gossip with
her friends</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.13</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RGR</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REGRESSIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event
after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as
translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The <font size="2">REGRESSIVE</font>
should be distinguished from the <font size="2">RESUMPTIVE</font> above, which
merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change
of state or situation. An example would be <em>Mr. Yates returned to golf after
recovering from his stroke</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.14</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PCL</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PRECLUSIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception
to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all
at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’
etc. as in <em>Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp</em>.<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.15</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CNT</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONTINUATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases
such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’
etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no
longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in <em>She kept on singing, You’re
still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam
doesn’t love you anymore</em>.<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.16</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ICS</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INCESSATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates
such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’
as in <em>They danced the night away</em> or <em>They’ve been battling
on and on since last year</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.17</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PMP</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PREEMPTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event,
as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just
once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation,
as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this
time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’ <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.18</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CLM</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CLIMACTIC</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such
English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’
<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.19</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PTC</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROTRACTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys that an action, state or event takes place over a long period of time.
If used with the <font size="2">CONTEXTUAL</font> or <font size="2">PUNCTUAL</font>
phases, or with formatives describing naturally brief durations, the <font size="2">PROTRACTIVE</font>
conveys the idea of the act or event being long-delayed. Example usages: <em>It
rained for quite a while, We shared a long kiss, That slap to his face was a
long time coming</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.20</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">TMP</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">TEMPORARY</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable
only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as
translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but
only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in <em>This will be sufficient
for now</em> or <em>For the time being you’ll have to drink water</em>.
<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.21</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">MTV</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">MOTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence
of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases
as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in
<em>Dad’s off hunting</em> or <em>They went off to cavort with the clowns</em>.
<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.22</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CSQ</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONSEQUENTIAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event
despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases
such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in <em>She went
ahead and bought the furniture</em> or <em>I decided to go there anyway</em>.
<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.23</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SQN</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SEQUENTIAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which
a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single
event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English
use of ‘off’ as in <em>He's checking off each item as it is inventoried</em>,
or <em>The sheep died off from the disease</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.24</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EPD</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EXPEDITIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English
‘hurry (up)’ as in <em>Hurry up and finish</em> or <em>They ate
in a hurry</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.25</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">DSC</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">DISCLUSIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases
such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and
‘be revealed that….’ <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.26</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CCL</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONCLUSIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term
context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…,
come to, reach the point where,’ as in <em>I ended up crashing the car</em>
or <em>He drank to the point where he passed out</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.27</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CUL</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CULMINATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Similar to the <font size="2">CONCLUSIVE</font> above, but with a focus on the
eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series
of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the <font size="2">CONCLUSIVE</font>
aspect above: <em>In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the
point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.28</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IMD</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INTERMEDIATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point
along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event,
or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’
or ‘somewhere along the way….’ <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.29</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">TRD</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">TARDATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens
in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source
of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved.
Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’
‘trail off,’ etc. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.30</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">TNS</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">TRANSITIONAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization
to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’
‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization,
as in <em>I’m planning to take up golf</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.31</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ITC</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INTERCOMMUTATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action
or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating
action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’
as in <em>The boy threw it back</em> or <em>She stared back at the men ogling
her</em>. <br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.4.3.32</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="2">CSM</font></strong></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONSUMPTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents
other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend
one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in <em>Mother spends her life
worrying</em> or <em>He’s pining away</em>. </div>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct</h3>
<p align="justify">Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different
aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other.
For example, the <font size="2">PROSPECTIVE</font> aspect complements the <font size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</font>
aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally
don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same
adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first
aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second
aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such
combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered
an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct
with the second verb.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
<a name="Sec6o4o5"></a>6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus</h3>
<p align="justify">All of the aspectual prefixes shown in <a href="#Table19">Table
19 above</a> can in turn take an initial prefix <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>y</strong></font>-
(or <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>yï</strong></font>-
before a <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</font></strong>-)
to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described
in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Sec. 3.5</a>), i.e.,
it is an alternate to the usual -<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>w</strong></font>-
infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>êstiu
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> yêstiu,
iwuil <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> yiwuil,
wïttu <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9">
yïwïttu</strong></font>.</p>
<p align="justify">This <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</font></strong>-
(or <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï</font></strong>-)
prefix can in turn be augmented to <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’</font></strong>
(spelled <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’</font></strong>
before a vowel but still pronounced <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’</font></strong>)
to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning
indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">êstiu</font>
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’êstiu</font>,
<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">iwuil</font> <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
y’iwuil</font>, <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">wïttu</font>
<img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yï’wïttu</font></strong>.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use</h3>
<div align="justify"><strong><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><img src="Images/Clowns/Clown8.GIF" width="67" height="77" border="0" align="bottom"></a></strong><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-4-6.gif" width="489" height="661">
<br>
<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">________________</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
</div>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"> </p>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td><p><a name="Sec6o5"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.5 MOOD</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known
as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives
on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example
moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances),
subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’
in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., <em>Go now!, Sing it for
us!</em> ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., <em>She would travel
if she could</em>), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g.,
<em>I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here</em>), and hortative (indicating
exhortations, e.g., <em>May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!</em>).</p>
<p align="justify">We have already seen in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o1">Section
5.1</a> above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages
correspond not to Mood, but to the grammatical category of Illocution, specifically
where Western moods function to describe types of speech acts. In Ithkuil, moods
simply convey a two-fold distinction as to whether the factuality of an utterance
is certain or uncertain, combined with a four-way distinction as to whether
the factuality of an explicit or implicit assumption underlying the utterance
(i.e., a presupposition) is true, false, unknown, or a determinant of the factuality
of the utterance. This twofold by fourfold matrix renders eight moods in Ithkuil,
shown by stress and tone of the aspectual adjunct accompanying the verb.</p>
<p align="justify">The eight moods are <font size="2">FACTUAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, ASSUMPTIVE,
SPECULATIVE, COUNTERFACTIVE, HYPOTHETICAL, IMPLICATIVE</font>, and <font size="2">ASCRIPTIVE</font>.
These are described in the sections below. <br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>FAC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Factual</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FACTUAL</font> mood is shown by penultimate
stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the
factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either
is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality
is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described
above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the <font size="2">FACTUAL</font>
mood is subject to whatever specific nuances of attitude, perspective, and evidence
are imparted by the particular bias and validation associated with the verb.
Examples:</p>
<p align="justify"><em>His kids are ill.</em> [i.e., it is known he has kids and
it is known they are ill]</p>
<p align="justify"><em>We’re taking a walk later on. </em>[i.e., it is our
intention and we have the opportunity to do so]<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>SUB</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Subjunctive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">SUBJUNCTIVE</font> mood is shown by ultimate
stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the
factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement
is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable
or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the
particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly
with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’
with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition
is true. Examples:</p>
<p align="justify"><em>Maybe his kids are ill.</em> [i.e., it is known that he
has kids but it is not known whether they are ill]</p>
<p align="justify"><em>We may take a walk later on. </em>[i.e., it is known that
the opportunity to do so will arise, but it is uncertain whether we will choose
to]<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASM</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Assumptive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual
adjunct. This mood functions identically to the <font size="2">FACTUAL</font>
except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore
conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something
else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’
and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility,
not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to
the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:</p>
<p align="justify"><em>His kids’ll be ill</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong>
<em>If he has kids, they are ill.</em> [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids,
but if he does, they are certainly ill.]</p>
<p align="justify"><em>We’ll take a walk later on</em> [i.e., if we can]
<strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> <em>We intend to take a walk.</em>
[i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>SPE</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Speculative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct.
This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement
itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific
context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or
‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’
Compare the examples below to those above:</p>
<p align="justify"><em>Maybe his kids are ill</em> [i.e., it is unknown if he
has kids but if he does, they may be ill].</p>
<p align="justify"><em>We may take a walk later on</em> [i.e., it is unknown whether
we will have the opportunity to do so, and even if we do, it is uncertain whether
we will choose to].<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.5</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>COU</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Counterfactive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual
adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition
is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise
be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’
or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what
would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific
translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with
the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.</p>
<p align="justify"><em>His kids would be (would have been) ill</em> [i.e., if
he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].</p>
<p align="justify"><em>We would take (would have taken) a walk later on</em> [i.e.,
it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.6</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>HYP</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Hypothetical</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct.
This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is
false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain.
It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’
in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if
a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject
to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the
examples below to those above.</p>
<p align="justify"><em>His kids might’ve been ill</em> [if he had kids,
but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].</p>
<p align="justify"><em>We might’ve taken a walk later on</em> [i.e., but
we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.7</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IPL</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Implicative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual
adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition
determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between
the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect
chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying
presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic
conditional.” Examples are shown below. </p>
<p align="justify"><em>His kids are (must be) ill</em> [i.e., as implied by some
other fact such as his staying home from work].</p>
<p align="justify"><em>If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk
later on</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> <em>She’s wearing
a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on</em> [i.e.,
the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>6.5.8</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Ascriptive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and rising tone on the aspectual adjunct.
The <font size="2">ASCRIPTIVE</font> mood functions identically to the <font size="2">IMPLICATIVE</font>
immediately above, except that the factuality of the inference derived from
the underlying presupposition is uncertain. Examples: </p>
<p align="justify"><em>His kids may be ill</em> [i.e., as implied by some other
fact such as his staying home from work].</p>
<p align="justify"><em>If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later
on </em><strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> <em>She’s wearing a
blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on</em> [i.e., the
dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use</h3>
<div align="justify">The following examples compare the seven non-<font size="2">FACTUAL</font>
moods applied to the same sentence: </div>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9a.gif" width="546" height="106"><br>
</p>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9b.gif" width="465" height="88"><br>
</p>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9c.gif" width="544" height="87"><br>
</p>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9d.gif" width="544" height="87"><br>
</p>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9e.gif" width="571" height="85">
<br>
</p>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9f.gif" width="420" height="84">
<br>
</p>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-5-9g.gif" width="447" height="86">
</p>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td><p><a name="Sec6o6"></a><font size="4"><strong>6.6 BIAS</strong></font></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude
or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias
categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which
often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation
(previously discussed in <a href="#Sec6o1">Sec. 6.1</a>), often triggering a
translation change as well.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
6.6.1 Bias Categories and Usage<a name="Sec6o6o1"></a></h3>
<p align="justify">Bias is shown in any one of four ways: </p>
<div align="justify">
<ol>
<li>as a word-initial consonantal prefix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal
stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n’urs,
ss’illui</font></strong><br>
</li>
<li> as a word-final consonantal suffix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal
stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ursau’n,
illui’ss</font></strong><br>
</li>
<li> as a consonantal infix to an aspectual adjunct, which substitutes this
consonantal infix for the Cx consonantal infix of the adjunct; this infix
always ends in -w, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">utwa,
enkwoi</font></strong><br>
</li>
<li> as a word-initial consonantal prefix to formative if the formative begins
with a vowel; a glottal stop is infixed between the prefix and the formative,
e.g., <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>n’exalt, ss’imlatku</strong></font></li>
</ol>
</div>
<p align="justify">These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20
below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms
described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.</p>
<p align="justify"><br>
<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 20: Morpho-Phonological
Markers for Bias</font></strong><br>
<br>
<img src="Images/Ch%206/6-6-1.gif" width="363" height="677"> <br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.1</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ASU</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">ASSURATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker,
translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’
or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness
quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.2</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">HPB</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">HYPERBOLIC</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial
expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in <em>I
so don’t care!</em> or <em>That is totally not what I wanted.</em> The
intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the
expression <em>That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!</em><br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.3</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">COI</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">COINCIDENTAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the
use of ‘happen’ in<em> I happened to run into Jane</em> or <em>It
just so happens that I’m busy</em>. The intensive form adds a sense of
serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’
‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.4</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">ACP</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">ACCEPTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression
‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation
to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and
there’s nothing to be done about it!’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.5</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RAC</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REACTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’
or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this
sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.6</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">STU</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">STUPEFACTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the
phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in <em>It’s a wonder
he didn’t break a bone in that fall</em>. The intensive raises this sense
to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’
or ‘Who would’ve thought….’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.7</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CTV</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONTEMPLATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder
how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t
get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form
raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><strong>6.6.1.8</strong></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">DPV</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">DESPERATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed
by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m
afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright
despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="18%"><strong>6.6.1.9</strong></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">RVL</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">REVELATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as
‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’
The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’
or ‘Well, well, well!….’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.10</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">GRA</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">GRATIFICATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions
such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’
The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s
nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.11</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SOL</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SOLICITIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’
In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in
‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or
the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence <em>So dance already!
</em><br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.12</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SEL</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SELECTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions
such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’
‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’
In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as
conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’
‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to
it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.13</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IRO</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">IRONIC</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways
in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In
its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying
‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.14</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EXA</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EXASPERATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions
such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m
trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a
sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English,
or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s
words back at them in contempt.<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.15</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">LTL</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">LITERAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed
by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context
aside for a moment,…’ as in <em>Technically speaking, that’s
not a polka</em> (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In
the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude,
expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to
put it in clinical terms….’ as in <em>Strictly speaking, that’s
not a polka</em> (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.16</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CRR</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CORRECTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in
English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say
is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates
a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner
of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and
purposes.’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.17</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">EUP</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">EUPHEMISTIC</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification,
as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to
put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright
euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just
say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.18</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SKP</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SKEPTICAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s
(a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this
sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’
or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.19</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CYN</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CYNICAL</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise,
as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding
me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon
the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well,
wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.20</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">CTP</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">CONTEMPTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I
don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’
The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by
‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.21</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">DSM</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">DISMISSIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed
in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing.
It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but
it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal
or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’
‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.22</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">IDG</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">INDIGNATIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m
sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’
or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to
outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’
or ‘How dare…!?”<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.23</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">SGS</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">SUGGESTIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases
as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The
intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition,
as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’
or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’<br>
<br>
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="20%"><strong>6.6.1.24</strong></td>
<td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2">PPV</font></strong></div></td>
<td width="9%"> </td>
<td width="63%"><strong><font size="2">PROPOSITIVE</font></strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English
phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general
suggestions, as in the sentences <em>How about going for a stroll?</em>, <em>We
could meet behind the barn if you want</em>, or <em>You can sit on my lap</em>.
The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases
such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’
or ‘it’s now or never.’ </div>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<h3 align="justify">6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use<br>
</h3>
<blockquote>
<div align="justify"><strong><font color="#FF0000"><img src="Images/Ch%206/6-6-2.gif" width="620" height="699"><br>
</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-4.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">__</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-4.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
<font color="#FF0000"> </font></strong></div>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
<p align="right"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed
to Chapter 7: Using Affixes >></font></a></strong></p>
<p></p>
<p></p>
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<td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a
Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9
Syntax</a></font></font></div></td>
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<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10
Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td>
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<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1
Phonology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6
More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11
The Script </a></font></font></div></td>
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<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2
Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a
Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12
The Number System</a></font></font></font></td>
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<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3
Basic Morphology</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The
Lexicon</a></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4
Case Morphology </a></font> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8
Adjuncts</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td>
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