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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<html>
<head>
<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5 (Continued): Verb Morphology</title>
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<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function.">
<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages">
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<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil:
A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br>
<img src="Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br>
<br>
</div>
<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1">
<tr>
<td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td>
<td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a
Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9
Syntax</a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10
Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1
Phonology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6
More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11
The Script </a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2
Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a
Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12
The Number System</a></font></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3
Basic Morphology</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The
Lexicon</a></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4
Case Morphology </a></font> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8
Adjuncts</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2 align="center"> </h2>
<h2 align="center">Chapter 5 (continued): Verb Morphology </h2>
<div align="center">
<table width="18%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1">
<tr>
<td width="134"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec5o5">5.5 Modality</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec5o6">5.6 Level</a></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec5o7">5.7 Case-Frame</a></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
<br>
</div>
<div align="justify">
<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><font size="4"><strong>5.5 MODALITY</strong></font><a name="Sec5o5"></a></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify"><strong>Modality</strong> corresponds roughly to the function
of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., <em>can, may, must, should</em>,
etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as t<em>o want
to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that</em>, etc. However,
in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental
change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification
of both the Essence (see <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Sec.
3.8</a>) and the Perspective (see <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3">Sec.
3.3</a>) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font>
case to mark the “subject” noun (see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o9">Sec.
4.3.9</a>). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows:</p>
<p align="justify">As we saw in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Sections
3.8</a> and<font color="#FF0000"> </font><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o9">4.3.9</a>,
it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal,
as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and
verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts
from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically
(and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the
psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in
the following sentences.</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify">1) <em>You must <strong>come home at once</strong></em>.<br>
2) <em>That girl can <strong>sing better than anybody</strong></em>.<br>
3) <em>Our troops should <strong>attack at dawn</strong></em>.<br>
4) <em>Mother needs <strong>you to come with her</strong></em>.<br>
5) <em>The teacher requests that <strong>I dance for you</strong></em>.<br>
6) <em>The man believes <strong>clowns are dangerous</strong></em>.<em> </em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events,
not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence
(1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing
again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur,
Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does
not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or
not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.</p>
<p align="justify">Because the clauses following the verbs <em>must, can, should,
need, request, believe</em>, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized,
imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would
be marked in the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> perspective (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o4">Sec.
3.4</a></font>) and the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font> essence (see <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o8">Sec.
3.8</a>). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns
<em>you, girl, troops, mother, teacher</em>, and <em>man</em> in the six sentences
above) would be marked in the <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> case (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o9">Sec.
4.3.9</a></font>). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily
invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence <em>She
chose to move to Australia</em>, the verb <em>chose</em> signals that the following
clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being
talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event
(i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the <em>move to Australia</em>
clause would be marked in the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> perspective but
would <em>not</em> be marked in the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font> essence.
Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications
in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely
dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.</p>
<p align="justify">There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by a
word-final vocalic suffix to a conflational or valence adjunct (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o2">Secs.
5.2</a><font color="#FF0000"> </font>and<font color="#FF0000"> <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">5.4</a></font>).
In the absence of a conflational or valence adjunct, this vocalic suffix can
stand alone as an autonomous word, functioning as a <strong>modality adjunct</strong>.
The thirty modalities and their respective suffixes are described below.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DES</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Desiderative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DESIDERATIVE</font> more or less corresponds
to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that,
etc. as in <em>The teacher wants the students to study hard</em>. It is marked
by adding the suffix -<strong>a</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASP</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Aspirative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASPIRATIVE</font> corresponds to English
constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that,
etc. It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>ü</strong> to a conflational
or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EPC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Expectative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXPECTATIVE</font> corresponds to English
constructions expressing expectation, as in <em>He expected her to be beautiful</em>,
or <em>I imagine he’s reached his destination</em>. It is marked by adding
the suffix -<strong>ï </strong>to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CRD</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Credential</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CREDENTIAL</font> corresponds to English
constructions expressing belief, as in <em>I think she has two sons</em>, or
<em>We believe the earth to be round</em>. Note that it does not correspond
to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating
sentences such as <em>I think she’s pretty</em>. It is marked by adding
the suffix -<strong>u</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.5</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>REQ</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Requisitive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REQUISITIVE</font> corresponds to English
constructions expressing requests, as in <em>I request his presence at the banquet</em>,
or <em>I’d like you to visit your father</em>. It is marked by adding
the suffix -<strong>â</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.<br>
<br>
</p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.6</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EXH</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Exhortative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXHORTATIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions of exhortation or demand, as in <em>I demand you return my book</em>
or <em>Let the gates be opened!</em> It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>û</strong>
to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.7</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OPR</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Opportunitive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">OPPORTUNITIVE</font> corresponds to the
English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity
to,’ as in <em>Can we pass by our old house when we visit town?</em> or
<em>Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all</em>. It
is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>ai</strong> to a conflational or valence
adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.8</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CPC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Capacitative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CAPACITATIVE</font> corresponds to the English
modal verb <em>can/could/be able</em> where it means ‘have the ability
or capacity to,’ as in <em>Can she sing opera?</em> or <em>He could run
like the wind</em>. Note that it would also be used when translating English
generic statements implying ability or capacity as in <em>He speaks French like
a native</em> [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the
moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. It is marked by adding the
suffix -<strong>ei</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.9</strong></font></td>
<td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRM</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Permissive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PERMISSIVE</font> corresponds to the English
modal verbs <em>can/could/be able</em> or <em>may/might</em> where they mean
‘be permitted to,’ as in <em>Very well, you can have ice cream for
dessert</em>; or <em>Could I talk to you?</em> It is marked by adding the suffix
-<strong>oi</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.10</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PTN</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Potential</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">POTENTIAL</font> corresponds to the English
modal verb <em>can/could/be</em> able where it means ‘have the potential
to or the possibility of,’ as in <em>Remember it can flood suddenly in
this area</em>, or <em>That man could fly into rages for no reason</em>. It
is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility,
as in <em>It rains unpredictably in the Northwest</em>. It is marked by adding
the suffix -<strong>ëi</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"></p>
<p align="justify"></p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.11</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CLS</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Compulsory</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPULSORY</font> corresponds to the English
modal verbs <em>must</em> or <em>have to/had to</em> in their meaning of compulsory
obligation, as in <em>You must get up now</em>, or<em> I had to attend the ceremony</em>.
It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>ui</strong> to a conflational or
valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.12</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OBG</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Obligative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">OBLIGATIVE</font> corresponds to the English
modal verbs <em>should</em>, <em>ought to</em>, or other phrases expressing
optional but preferential obligation, as in <em>You ought to see a dentist,
I should tell her how I feel</em>, or <em>It would be best if the children stayed
away from clowns</em>. It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>iu</strong>
to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.13</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IMS</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Impositive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMPOSITIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>be supposed to, be expected to</em>, or <em>be to</em>
which impose an expectation upon a party, as in <em>You’re supposed to
smile when introduced</em>, or <em>He is to give a speech at the banquet</em>.
It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>au</strong> to a conflational or
valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.14</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ADV</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Advocative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ADVOCATIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>suggest tha</em>t or <em>propose that</em> which advocate
a position, as in <em>I suggest you study harder</em> or <em>They proposed that
the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere</em>. It is marked by adding the
suffix -<strong>ia</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.15</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITV</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Intentive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTENTIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>intend to</em>, <em>plan on</em> or <em>shall</em> which
convey an intention, as in <em>The girls plan on travelling to Europe</em>,
or <em>I shall see to it</em>. It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>ou</strong>
to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.16</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ANT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Anticipative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ANTICIPATIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>to look forward to</em> or <em>to eagerly await</em>
which convey positive anticipation, as in <em>We look forward to the clowns coming
to town</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>eu</strong> to a conflational
or valence adjunct. </p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.17</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DSP</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Dispositive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DISPOSITIVE</font> corresponds to the English
expression <em>to be willing to</em>, conveying willingness as in <em>He is
willing to give his life to defeat the clowns</em>. It is marked by addition
of the suffix -<strong>äi</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.
</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.18</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRE</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Preparative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PREPARATIVE</font> corresponds to the English
expressions <em>be ready to</em> or <em>be prepared to</em>, indicating readiness,
as in <em>She’s ready to host the party</em>, or <em>They are prepared
to endure harsh weather</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>öi</strong>
to a conflational or valence adjunct. </p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.19</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>NEC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Necessitative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NECESSITATIVE</font> corresponds to the
English expressions <em>need to</em> or <em>be necessary to</em>, indicating
necessity, as in <em>You need to do something about those clowns in the yard</em>,
or <em>It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities</em>. It is marked
by addition of the suffix -<strong>ëu</strong> to a conflational or valence
adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="18%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.20</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DEC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Decisive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DECISIVE</font> corresponds to English expressions
such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in <em>Peter decided to cook
breakfast</em> or <em>Colleen chose to visit the clowns</em>. It is marked by addition of
the suffix -<strong>aï</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.21</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PTV</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Proclivitive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROCLIVITIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>tend to, be apt to</em>, or <em>be prone to</em>, indicating
tendency, as in <em>The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs</em>, or <em>Boris
is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women</em>. It is marked by addition
of the suffix -<strong>eï</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.22</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>VOL</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Voluntative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">VOLUNTATIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering
as in <em>The foreman offered to put poison in my beer</em>, or <em>Mrs. Blathermot volunteered
to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event</em>. It is marked by addition of
the suffix -<strong>iï</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.23</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ACC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Accordative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ACCORDATIVE</font> corresponds to the English
expression <em>agree to</em>, as in <em>Constance agreed to perform her go-go
number at the talent show</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>oï</strong>
to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.24</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>INC</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inclinative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INCLINATIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>to feel like</em> or <em>be up for</em>, indicating
an impulsive desire, as in <em>He’s up for going to the shindig</em>,
or <em>Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake</em>. It is marked by
addition of the suffix -<strong>öu</strong> to a conflational or valence
adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.25</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CML</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Compulsive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPULSIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>feel driven to</em> or<em> feel a need to</em>, indicating
compulsion, as in <em>Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines</em>, or <em>My hairdresser
feels a need to date bikers</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>uï</strong>
to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.26</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DVR</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Divertive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DIVERTIVE</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>like to</em>, or <em>enjoy</em>, conveying simple likes
and pasttimes as in <em>Boys like to dream about cars</em>, or <em>My salamander
enjoyed biting people on their rump</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix
-<strong>äu</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.27</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DVT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Devotive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEVOTIVE</font> corresponds to English expressions
such as <em>be devoted to</em> or <em>be committed to</em>, indicating devotion
as in <em>Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town</em>,
or <em>They were devoted to rooting for the losing team</em>. It is marked by
addition of the suffix -<strong>ëï</strong> to a conflational or valence
adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.28</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PFT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Preferential</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PREFERENTIAL</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>prefer</em>, or <em>would rather that</em>, indicating
preference as in <em>He’d rather work by himself</em>, or <em>Muldane
prefers that his cats eat live food</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix
-<strong>ua</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.29</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IPS</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Impressional</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMPRESSIONAL</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>have an impression that, have a hunch that</em>, or
<em>feel that</em>, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in <em>I’ve
a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic</em>, or <em>Betty feels her husband
flirts too much with the secretarial pool</em>. It is marked by addition of
the suffix -<strong>üa</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.30</strong></font></td>
<td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PMS</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Promissory</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROMISSORY</font> corresponds to English
expressions such as <em>promise</em>, or <em>swear that</em>, indicating a self-imposed
obligation as in <em>She promised that her son would visit my daughter</em>,
or <em>Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient</em>. It
is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>iù</strong> to a conflational
or valence adjunct.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
5.5.31 Examples of Modality in Use</h3>
<div align="justify">
<blockquote><img src="Images/Ch%205/5-5-31.gif" width="452" height="697"> <br>
<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-6.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-6.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
</blockquote>
</div>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"> </p>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td height="26">
<p><font size="4"><strong>5.6 LEVEL</strong></font><a name="Sec5o6"></a></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"><strong>Level</strong> corresponds roughly to what is known
as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate
degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -<em>er</em> and
-<em>est</em> seen in <em>great-greater-greatest</em>. Ithkuil incorporates
degrees of comparison morphologically into its valence scheme by means of tone
of the conflational adjunct (or valence or modality adjunct). Specifically,
the four tones are used to show four different comparisons, each of which is
termed a level of the verb. These levels are the <font size="2">INDETERMINATE</font>,
<font size="2">EQUATIVE</font>, <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> and <font size="2">DEFICIENT</font>,
and are explained below.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>5.6.1</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IDT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Indeterminate</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by low or falling tone of the conflational, valence or
modality adjunct. The <font size="2">INDETERMINATE</font> is the default level
and indicates either 1) that no comparison is being made between the first party
and the second party, 2) that the degree of comparison between the first party
and the second party is unknown or irrelevant, or 3) that comparison is inapplicable
because the verb is monoactive (i.e., there is only one party participating).</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="14%"><font size="4"><strong>5.6.2</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EQU</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Equative</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by high tone of the conflational, valence or modality
adjunct. The <font size="2">EQUATIVE</font> level indicates that the first party
performs its “half” of the action equally well in comparison to
the second party. It corresponds to the English construction ‘as [well]
as’ as in <em>She sings as well as I do</em> or <em>He reads as fast as
you do</em>.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>5.6.3</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>SUR</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Surpassive</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by rising tone of the conflational, valence or modality
adjunct. The <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> level indicates that the first
party manifests a state or performs an action to a greater degree or extent
than the second party. It functions equivalently to English -<em>er</em> as
in <em>I ran farther than he</em>. It also corresponds to the English verbal
prefix <em>out</em>- as in <em>I out-sang him</em> (i.e., I sang longer or better
than he), although the <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> is more flexible than
the English construction, as it can be used with any of the thirteen valences
of the verb. For example, when used with the <font size="2">NONRELATIONAL</font>
valence for a verb such as ‘laugh,’ it would translate something
like <em>I laughed more/harder than anyone did anything else</em>. It can even
be used with the <font size="2">MONOACTIVE</font> valence, indicating that the
party performed the action superlatively and no one else did. For example, the
sentence <em>I laughed</em> in the <font size="2">MONOACTIVE</font> valence
and <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> level would translate as something like
<em>I was the only one laughing and my laughter was superlative</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">The <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> can also be used to translate
the English -<em>est</em> superlative construction, as in <em>She is the nicest
(of all)</em> by simply naming a contextually universal second participant to
the verb, i.e., <em>She “out-nices” everyone else</em>.</p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>5.6.4</strong></font></td>
<td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DFT</strong></font></div></td>
<td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td>
<td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Deficient</strong></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Shown by broken tone of the conflational, valence or modality
adjunct. The <font size="2">DEFICIENT</font> level corresponds roughly to the
negative comparative <em>less</em> in English as in <em>This test is less difficult</em>,
as well as the verbal prefix <em>under</em>- as in <em>He under-performed tonight</em>.
Like the other levels, it can be used with any valence of the Ithkuil verb to
indicate that the performance or state of the first participant to a co-active
verb is worse or less than that of the second participant. It would thus render
sentences corresponding to <em>She “under-danced” tonight</em> (i.e.,
she didn’t dance as well as she might have) or <em>The boy “under-weighs”
the girl </em>(i.e., he weighs less than her).</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
5.6.5 Examples of Level in Use</h3>
<div align="justify">
<blockquote><img src="Images/Ch%205/5-6-5.gif" width="432" height="403"><br>
<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-7.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">__</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-7.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
</blockquote>
</div>
<blockquote> </blockquote>
<p align="justify"></p>
<div align="justify">
<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<tr>
<td height="26">
<p><font size="4"><strong>5.7 CASE-FRAME</strong></font><a name="Sec5o7"></a></p></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p align="justify">Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically
embedded within other sentences, a process termed <strong>subordination</strong>.
In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause
or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’
‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’
or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by
whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or
gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated
in the following sentences:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"> <em>The dog <strong>that ate my hat</strong> belongs to
them.<br>
I want <strong>him to stop shouting</strong>.<br>
The committee voted <strong>to fire the superintendant</strong>.<br>
We demand <strong>(that) you give us equal pay</strong>.<br>
<strong>Although he’s a college graduate</strong>, he acts like a child.<br>
This is the slot<strong> through which the letter is passed</strong>.<br>
<strong>In case you’re unaware</strong>, I’ll be leaving next
month.<br>
The boy <strong>walking toward us</strong> is my nephew.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is
known as a <strong>case-frame</strong>, or simply, <strong>frame</strong>. Conceptually,
the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main
verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For
example, take the following two sentences:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><em>She and I were working together. <br>
The two nations were at war.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal
context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating
the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’
as in <em>She and I were working together while the two nations were at war</em>.
Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional
phrase, as in <em>She and I were working together during the time (that) the
two nations were at war</em>.</p>
<p align="justify">In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided
by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font>
(see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o9o1">Sec. 4.9.1</a>). A word
such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the
<font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> case to create a sentence corresponding to:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><em>She and I were working together during the summer.<br>
She and I were working together at the time of the famine.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’
are placed in the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> case, so an entire sentence
such as <em>The two nations were at war</em> can be placed in the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font>
case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words,
Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined
into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into
noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western
languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence
can be placed into any of the 81 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever
a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
5.7.1 Placement of Frames<a name="Sec5o7o1"></a></h3>
<p align="justify">To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e.,
the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point
where a noun declined for the required case would appear. Unlike the usual verb-final
word order of main sentences in Ithkuil, a case-frame usually has its verb appear
as the first element of the case frame. This is to easily recognize the beginning
of the case frame. The actual case of the sentence is indicated in the verbal
formative in the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., by mutation of the
stem vowel and mutation of the C<font size="1">2</font> radical consonant. Table
17 below offers a review of these mutations for each of the 81 cases. If inserted
into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should
be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see <a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm#Sec8o1">Sec.
8.1</a>) and carries a special affix which signifies the end of the frame if
this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside
the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main
sentence. </p>
<p><br>
<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 17: Case-Frame Markers
(Mutation by Vowel Series and C<font size="1">2</font> Grade)</font></strong></p>
<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="3">
<tr>
<td width="47%" valign="top">
<table width="86%" border="1" cellpadding="3">
<tr>
<td width="10%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="16%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Label</font></div></td>
<td width="47%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Case</font></div></td>
<td width="27%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Series<br>
& Grade</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">1</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OBL</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Oblique</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">2</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Absolutive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">3</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DAT</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Dative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">4</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ERG</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Ergative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">5</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EFF</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Effectuative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">6</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IND</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Inducive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">7</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFF</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Affective</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">8</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Instrumental</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">9</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ACT</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Activative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J1</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">10</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DER</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Derivative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">11</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SIT</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Situative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">12</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Possessive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">13</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Proprietive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">14</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GEN</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Genitive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">15</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ATT</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Attributive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">16</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OGN</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Originative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">17</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PDC</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Productive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">18</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ITP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Interpretative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G2</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">19</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">APL</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Applicative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">20</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PUR</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Purposive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">21</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INH</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Inherent</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">22</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNV</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Conductive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">23</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MED</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Mediative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">24</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CRS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Contrastive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">25</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PAR</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Partitive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">26</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CPS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Compositive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">27</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COR</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Correlative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J3</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">28</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IDP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Interdependent</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">29</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRD</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Predicative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">30</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ESS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Essive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">31</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASI</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Assimilative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">32</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FUN</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Functive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">33</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TFM</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Transformative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">34</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REF</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Referential</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">35</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSD</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Considerative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">36</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CLA</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Classificative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">37</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DFR</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Deferential</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H4</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">38</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COM</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Comitative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A6</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">39</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNJ</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Conjunctive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B6</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">40</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">UTL</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Utilitative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C6</font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td width="53%" valign="top">
<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="3">
<tr>
<td width="15%"><div align="center"></div></td>
<td width="18%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Label</font></div></td>
<td width="41%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Case</font></div></td>
<td width="26%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Series<br>
& Grade</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">41</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BEN</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Benefactive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D6</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">42</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TSP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Transpositive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E6</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">43</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CMM</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Commutative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F6</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">44</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABE</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Abessive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">45</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CVS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Conversive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">46</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CON</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Concessive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">47</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EXC</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Exceptive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">48</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AVS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Adversative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">49</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PVS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Provisional</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">50</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PTL</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Postulative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">51</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SUP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Suppositive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H5</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">52</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Dependent</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G6</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">53</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CMP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Comparative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H6</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">54</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AVR</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Aversive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J6</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">55</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LOC</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Locative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">56</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ORI</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Orientative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">57</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PSV</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Procursive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">58</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALL</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Allative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">59</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABL</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Ablative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">60</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PLT</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Prolative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">61</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PEL</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Perlative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">62</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRV</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Pervasive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">63</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRH</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Peripheral</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J7</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">64</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INT</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Integral</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G9</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">65</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PSN</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Positional</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H9</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">66</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAV</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Navigative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J9</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">67</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNR</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Concursive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">68</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ACS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Accessive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">69</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DFF</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Diffusive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">70</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PER</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Periodic</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">71</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRO</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Prolapsive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">72</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PCV</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Precursive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">73</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PCR</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Postcursive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">74</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ELP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Elapsive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">75</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Allapsive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J8</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">76</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INP</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Interpolative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A9</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">77</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EPS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Episodic</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B9</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">78</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRL</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Prolimitive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C9</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">79</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SML</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Simultaneitive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D9</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">80</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASS</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Assessive</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E9</font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><div align="center">81</div></td>
<td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LIM</font></strong></div></td>
<td>Limitative</td>
<td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F9</font></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div align="right"></div></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p align="justify"><strong></strong>In general, the perspective of the verb in
the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however,
it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence
to be placed in the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font>, which has the effect of
deferring all <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3">Perspective</a>
information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate
clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main
verb of the sentence.</p>
<p align="justify">Here is an example Ithkuil sentence containing a case frame:</p>
<div align="justify">
<blockquote><img src="Images/Ch%205/5-7-1.gif" width="534" height="131"><br>
<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-8.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-8.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
</blockquote>
</div>
<blockquote> </blockquote>
<h3 align="justify"> 5.7.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause</h3>
<p align="justify">There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses
of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses
using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done,
while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective.
Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into
subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative
clauses in Western languages such as English. </p>
<p align="justify">A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies
or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types
of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent).
The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.</p>
<p align="justify">RESTRICTED CLAUSE<br>
(1) <em>Lions <strong>that like chasing their tails</strong> can be seen at
any circus.</em><br>
(2) <em>That book <strong>(that) I just finished reading</strong> was written
by a priest.</em></p>
<p align="justify">UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE<br>
(3) <em>Lions<strong>, which like chasing their tails,</strong> can be seen
at any circus.</em><br>
(4) <em>That book<strong>, which I just finished reading,</strong> was written
by a priest.</em></p>
<p align="justify">In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing
their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e,
not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just
finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered
by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked
about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the
speaker was referring to.</p>
<p align="justify"> Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the
first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence,
the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they
are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already
known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts
about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author.
Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing
by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’
or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in
a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and
after the clause.</p>
<p align="justify"><br>
<strong>5.7.2.1 Restricted Clauses</strong>. Ithkuil treats the above notions
about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil
creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached
by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative
clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete
sentences:</p>
<p align="justify"><em>That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that
book.)<br>
I just finished reading that book.</em></p>
<p align="justify"> In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the
main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence
is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on
what semantic role, i.e., case (see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter
4</a>) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference
of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that
book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o1o2">Sec.
4.1.2</a>), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the <font size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</font>
subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template
‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the <font size="2">OBLIQUE</font>
case (See <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o1">Section 4.3.1</a>).
Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of
reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of
the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have
the two sentences as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify">A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-<font size="2">H</font>.
</p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">The ‘-<font size="2">H</font>’ in the second sentence
above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common
reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the
second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the
semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked
by the OBLIQUE case (see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o3o1">Sec.
4.3.1</a>).</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify">A priest wrote [<font size="2">OBL</font>]. I just finish
reading that book-<font size="2">H</font>. </p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">As described in <a href="#Sec5o7o1">Sec. 5.7.1</a>, the verb
of the secondary sentence is moved to the beginning of the case-frame and takes
the relevant case marker (<font size="2">OBLIQUE</font>).</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify">A priest wrote I just finished reading-<font size="2">OBL</font>
that book-<font size="2">H</font>.</p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify">Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest
literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: <em>A priest wrote
what I just finished reading, that book</em>. However, this is how Ithkuil translates
the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’</p>
<p align="justify">Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First
of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.”
Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly,
there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types
of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged
(or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence,
the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore,
as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and
relative clauses.</p>
<p align="justify">Similarly, the other example sentence from above, <em>Lions
that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus</em> would become in
Ithkuil: <em>At any circus one can see certain lions-</em><font size="2">H</font><em>
like to chase-</em><font size="2">OBL</font><em> their tails</em>. A literal
translation into English would be: <em>At any circus one can see (that) certain
lions like chasing their tails.</em></p>
<p align="justify"><br>
<strong>5.7.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses</strong>. As for independent or unrestricted
clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these
differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help
to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information
about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve
a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact
hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledges this
profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause
at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses
and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier
become:</p>
<blockquote>
<p align="justify"><em>One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing
their tails.<br>
A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p align="justify"><br>
<strong>5.7.2.3 Use of the <font size="2">INHERENT</font> Case In Lieu of Simple
Relative Clauses</strong>. In <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm#Sec4o5o3">Section
4.5.3</a> we analyzed how <font size="2">MONADIC</font> or <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>
nouns in the <font size="2">INHERENT</font> case take on a special function
of existential identification corresponding to the English phrase ‘that/which/who
is/are…’ to render forms structured as “the my-wife woman,”
meaning ‘the woman who is my wife.” This construction allows a “short-cut”
way of rendering what in English would be simple relative clauses involving
descriptive identifications, eliminating the need in most cases to resort to
a case-frame. For example, the sentence <em>The man who came to dinner is my
father</em> is rendered as <em>The “my-father” man came to dinne</em>r,
where the noun father would be in the <font size="2">INHERENT</font> plus <font size="2">POSITIVE
</font>focus<font size="2"> </font> (see <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Sec.
3.5</a>) to indicate that it is the new information being conveyed by the speaker,
i.e., to distinguish it from the reversed focus of <em>The man who is my father
came to dinner</em>.</p>
<h3 align="justify"><br>
5.7.3 Examples of Case-Frames in Use<br>
<br>
<img src="Images/Ch%205/5-7-3a.gif" width="561" height="154"> <a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-9.mp3"><img src="Images/Clowns/Clown7.GIF" width="74" height="91" border="0" align="top"></a><br>
<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-9.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a>
<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-5-9.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font>
<br>
</h3>
<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%205/5-7-3b.gif" width="591" height="442"></p>
<p align="justify"> </p>
<blockquote>
<div align="right"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed
to Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology >></font></a></strong></div>
</blockquote>
<p> </p>
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<td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a
Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td>
<td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9
Syntax</a></font></font></div></td>
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<td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10
Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td>
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<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1
Phonology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6
More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td>
<td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11
The Script </a></font></font></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2
Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a
Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12
The Number System</a></font></font></font></td>
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<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3
Basic Morphology</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The
Lexicon</a></font></font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td height="26" valign="top"> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4
Case Morphology </a></font> </td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8
Adjuncts</a></font></td>
<td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td>
</tr>
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