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A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</STRONG></FONT><BR>
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<TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a
Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9
Syntax</A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10
Lexico-Semantics</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="26" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1
Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6
More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11
The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2
Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a
Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12
The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3
Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The
Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="26" valign="top"> </TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4
Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8
Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="center"> </P>
<H2 align="center">Chapter 1: Phonology</H2>
<DIV align="center">
<TABLE width="34%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="321" valign="top"> <P><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o1">1.1 Note
On Orthography and Transliteration</A></FONT></P></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD valign="top"> <P><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o2">1.2 Phonemic Inventory</A></FONT></P></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD valign="top"> <P><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o3">1.3 Phonological Processes
and Rules</A></FONT></P></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD valign="top"> <P><FONT size="2"><A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4">1.4 Phonotaxis</A></FONT></P></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<P align="justify">The phonology of a language essentially refers to its sound
system, i.e., its systematic employment of consonants, vowels, and other vocalized
phenomena such as pitch, stress (or accent), and tone in order to physically
convey the meaningful content of the language itself. The phonological system
of Ithkuil is detailed in the sections below. </P>
<P align="justify"> </P>
<DIV align="justify">
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><STRONG><FONT size="4">1.1 NOTE ON
ORTHOGRAPHY AND TRANSLITERATION<A name="Sec1o1"></A></FONT></STRONG></P></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<P align="justify">The native script used to represent Ithkuil is both alien and
complex (employing over 3600 characters). It is explained in <A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html" onclick="javascript:changenav11();">Chapter
11</A>. As a result of this complexity, a system of romanization is employed
throughout this grammar to allow the reader to recognize the general phonetic
structure of Ithkuil words. Due to the inadequacies of the Roman alphabet in
transliterating the large number of phonemes (meaningful sounds) in Ithkuil,
the following diacritics are necessary for a phonemic Romanization system: the
acute, grave and circumflex accents, the umlaut or dieresis, the cedilla, a
superposed dot, and the apostrophe. The uses of these diacritics are explained
in the sections below. Additionally, digraphs with a superscript letter <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG></EM>
are employed to represent various aspirated consonants. </P>
<P align="justify"> </P>
<DIV align="justify">
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><STRONG><FONT size="4">1.2 PHONEMIC
INVENTORY</FONT><A name="Sec1o2"></A></STRONG></P></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<P align="justify">In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the
language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have
a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated
by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized
orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has
many sounds alien to speakers of English or other Western languages. Consequently,
readers other than trained phoneticians (or perhaps speakers of such obscure
languages as Chechen or Abkhaz) will likely have difficulty pronouncing the
language accurately. <BR>
</P>
<P align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Tables 1(a)
and 1(b): Phonemic Inventory</STRONG></FONT></P>
<P align="justify"> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 1(a): Consonantal
Inventory</FONT></P>
<TABLE width="68%" border="1" cellpadding="2">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="10%"> </TD>
<TD colspan="4"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PLOSIVES</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD colspan="4"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFFRICATES</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD colspan="2" rowspan="2"> <DIV align="center"></DIV>
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Fricatives</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="6%" rowspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Nasals</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="5%" rowspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Taps/<BR>
Trills</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="6%" rowspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Liquids</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="14%" rowspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Approximants</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD> </TD>
<TD colspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">plain</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">aspirated</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ejective</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD colspan="2"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">plain</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">aspirated</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="7%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ejective</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="30"> </TD>
<TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR>
</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center">
<P><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR>
</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></P>
</DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR>
</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR>
</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="5%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR>
</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR>
</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">un-<BR>
</FONT><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">voiced</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="6%"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+voice</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BILABIAL</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>b</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/p-aspirated.gif" width="20" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">m</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LABIO-VELAR</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LABIO-DENTAL</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">f</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">v</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DENTAL</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/t-aspirated.gif" width="15" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/d-cedilla.gif" width="12" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALVEOLAR</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-bar.gif" width="9" height="11"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/c-aspirated.gif" width="18" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">z</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALVEOLAR-RETROFLEX</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-dot.gif" width="9" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot aspirated.gif" width="17" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/z-cedilla.gif" width="14" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">r</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POST-ALVEOLAR</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>j</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv aspirated.gif" width="16" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Sv.gif" width="8" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Zv.gif" width="9" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PALATAL</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla aspirated.gif" width="18" height="20" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VELAR</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">g</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Gv.gif" width="12" height="21"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">UVULAR</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/q-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT><STRONG>’</STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PHARYNGAL</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/h-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GLOTTAL</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="4">’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>h</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LATERAL</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-cedilla.gif" width="5" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>l</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VELARIZED LATERAL</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify"> </P>
<P><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 1(b): Vocalic Inventory</FONT></P>
<TABLE width="423" border="1" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="81" height="26"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT></TD>
<TD colspan="2" valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FRONT</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD colspan="2" valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CENTRAL</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD colspan="2" valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BACK</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="25"><DIV align="center"></DIV></TD>
<TD width="48" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="48" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="49" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="55" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="55" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">unrounded</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="55" valign="middle"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rounded</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="26"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">High</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>î</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>˙</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ü</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ď</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ű</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="26"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid-High</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>i</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>u</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="25"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ę</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ř</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ë</STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ô</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="26"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Mid-Low</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>e</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ö</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
_ </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>o</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="27"><DIV align="center"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Low</FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ä</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>a</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>â</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT color="#FFFFFF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_
</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P><BR>
<STRONG>1.2.1 Pronunciation of Consonants </STRONG></P>
<P align="justify">The following are approximate descriptions of the consonantal
sounds of Ithkuil. In addition to these descriptions, the corresponding symbol
of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided in brackets, as well
as their X-SAMPA equivalents for those readers who may be familiar with these
phonetic representation systems. Sound files of actual Ithkuil words have been
provided for those consonants which are uncommon or difficult to pronounce for
English speakers, as well as in other cases to compare and distinguish two similar
but distinct phonemes, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</FONT></STRONG>
versus <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></FONT>,<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
</FONT>or<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <STRONG>c</STRONG> </FONT>vs.<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle">
</FONT>vs.<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </FONT><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle">,
etc.</P>
<TABLE width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="7%" height="21" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">b</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="93%" valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">As in English. A voiced
bilabial unaspirated plosive. IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>b</STRONG></FONT>].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="38" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">
<P>As in English <EM>bi<STRONG>ts</STRONG></EM>. A voiceless unaspirated
lamino-alveolar affricate. IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ts</STRONG></FONT>].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>
t_s</STRONG></FONT> ]. Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
</FONT></P>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="134" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. Similar to the
sound immediately above except that the <EM>s</EM>-component of the affricate
is made up of the Ithkuil alveolar retroflex <EM>s</EM>-sound <IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">
(see below). This sound occurs in most Chinese languages, as well as the
Basque language, where it is spelled <EM>ts</EM>. A voiceless unaspirated
apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA [<FONT color="#FF0000"><IMG src="assets/IPA ts.gif" width="14" height="16" align="absbottom"></FONT>].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> t_s`</STRONG></FONT>
]. Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-2a.mp3"><BR>
<IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-2b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-2b.gif" width="217" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT>
<FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-2b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT>
<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-2c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-2c.gif" width="365" height="14" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-2c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="114" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Cv.gif" width="9" height="15"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>ch</STRONG>in</EM>
but with neither the lip-rounding nor the aspiration (accompanying puff
of air) that characterizes this sound in English. A voiceless unaspirated
lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal non-labialized sibilant affricate; IPA
[<IMG src="assets/IPA ts-v.gif" width="13" height="18" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [ <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t_S</STRONG></FONT>
]. Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-3a.mp3"><BR>
<IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-3b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-3b.gif" width="156" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-3b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT>
<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-3c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-3c.gif" width="193" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-3c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT>
<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="95" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ç</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"> <DIV align="justify">Like the initial sound in English <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>uman</EM>,
<EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>uge</EM>, <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>ue</EM>, or the
sound in German <EM>i<STRONG>ch</STRONG></EM>. A voiceless dorso-palatal
non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT></STRONG>].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>C</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-4a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-4a.gif" width="221" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-4a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-4b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-4c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></FONT></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="57" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>d</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English, but made with the
tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth, not the alveolar
ridge (the gum ridge behind the upper teeth) as in English. An unaspirated
voiced apico-dental plosive; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA d-dental.gif" width="10" height="18" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>d_d</STRONG></FONT>].
<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="20" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/d-cedilla.gif" width="12" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>th</STRONG>is</EM>,
<EM>ba<STRONG>th</STRONG>e</EM>, <EM>wea<STRONG>th</STRONG>er</EM>. A
voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [<FONT size="3"><STRONG>đ</STRONG></FONT>].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>D</STRONG></FONT>].
<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="19" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>f</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English. A voiceless labio-dental
fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>f</STRONG></FONT>].
<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="39" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>g</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Always as in English <EM><STRONG>g</STRONG>a<STRONG>g</STRONG></EM>;
never as in <EM>ginger</EM>. A voiced dorso-velar unaspirated plosive;
IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>g</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-5a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="132" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular
unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages
such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard <EM>g</EM>-sound above
but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching
bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate.
The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality.
The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil <STRONG>q</STRONG> below; IPA [<STRONG><IMG src="assets/IPA G-uvular.gif" width="10" height="9"></STRONG>].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>G\</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-5b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-5c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="117" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Gv.gif" width="12" height="21"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart
of <STRONG>x</STRONG> below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue
in the position to pronounce English g as in <EM><STRONG>g</STRONG>a<STRONG>g</STRONG></EM>
then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead.
A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA g-gamma.gif" width="12" height="13" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>G</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-6a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-6b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR>
</A></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-6c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="38" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>h</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG>all</EM>.
Note that, unlike English, this sound can occur at the end of a syllable
in Ithkuil. A voiceless bi-glottal fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>h</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-7b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="92" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/h-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless
radico-pharyngal fricative found in Arabic and several Northeast Caucasian
languages. A deep raspy sound produced by pronouncing an <EM>h</EM>-sound
while constricting the pharynx and trying to press the root of the tongue
against the back wall of the pharynx. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA h-bar.gif" width="11" height="14" align="absmiddle">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>X\</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-8a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-8b.mp3"><BR>
<IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="73" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>j</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>j</STRONG>u<STRONG>dg</STRONG>e</EM>
but without the lip-rounding that accompanies the English sound. An unaspirated
non-labialized voiced lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal affricate; IPA
[<IMG src="assets/IPA dz-v.gif" width="16" height="17" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>d_Z</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-9b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-9a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="111" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart
of Ithkuil <STRONG> <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></STRONG>
below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled <EM>gy</EM> and
<EM>d´</EM> respectively. Sort of like a <EM>g</EM>+<EM>y</EM> sound
as in English <EM>bi<STRONG>g y</STRONG>ear</EM> pronounced rapidly, with
the <EM>g</EM>-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate
as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive.
IPA [<IMG src="assets/j-bar.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>J\</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><BR>
<IMG src="assets/cons-10b.gif" width="38" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><EM>‘day
(24-hour period)’</EM><A href="Sound_Files/cons-10b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR>
</A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-10a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="75" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English <STRONG><EM>k</EM></STRONG>
but without aspiration. Like the <EM>k</EM>-sound of the Romance languages,
e.g., Spanish or Italian <EM><STRONG>c</STRONG>asa</EM>. A voiceless unaspirated
dorso-velar plosive; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-11a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="118" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. Like a <EM>k</EM>-sound
but unaspirated (i.e., without any accompanying puff of air) and produced
farther forward in the mouth by pressing the tongue to the hard palate,
not the soft palate as with English <STRONG><EM>k</EM></STRONG>. The result
should sound somewhat like a <EM>k</EM>+<EM>y</EM> as in <EM>ba<STRONG>cky</STRONG>ard</EM>
when spoken rapidly. A voiceless unaspirated dorso-palatal plosive; IPA
[<IMG src="assets/IPA c-bar.gif" width="12" height="10">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-12a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
</FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-12b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="93" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>l</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The “light” <EM>l</EM>-sound
of the Romance languages, or as in British English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>eader</EM>;
not the “dark” (velarized) <EM>l</EM>-sound of American English
<EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>u<STRONG>ll</STRONG></EM>. A voiced apico-dental
dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>l</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-13a.mp3"><BR>
<IMG src="assets/cons-13a.gif" width="102" height="12" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-13a.mp3">
<IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="96" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The “dark” (velarized) <EM>l</EM>-sound
of American English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>u<STRONG>ll</STRONG></EM>, not
the “light” <EM>l</EM>-sound of the Romance languages or British
English <EM><STRONG>l</STRONG>eader</EM>. A voiced velarized apico-dental
dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l-velarized.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>5</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-14a.mp3"><BR>
<IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-14b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="100" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/l-cedilla.gif" width="5" height="17"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless
dorso-bilateral fricative as found in Welsh <EM><STRONG>ll</STRONG>an</EM>.
Can best be approximated by putting the tongue in position as if to say
an <EM>l</EM>-sound, and while holding the position, make a forceful <EM>h</EM>-sound
instead; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l-loop welsh.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>K</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-15a.mp3"><BR>
<IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="18" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR>
</A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-15a.wav">
</A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-15b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-15b.gif" width="222" height="15" border="0"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-15b.mp3">
<IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="19" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>m</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English. A voiced bilabial nasal
continuant obstruent; IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">m</FONT></STRONG>].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="38" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>n</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English, but made with the
tip of the tongue on the back of the upper teeth as in the Romance languages,
not the alveolar ridge as in English. A voiced apico-dental nasal continuant
obstruent; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA n-dental.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n_d</FONT></STRONG>].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="41" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The English <EM>ng</EM>-sound as in
<EM>so<STRONG>ng</STRONG></EM> or <EM>ri<STRONG>ng</STRONG>er</EM>; NEVER
as in <EM>fi<STRONG>ng</STRONG>er</EM>. A voiced dorso-velar nasal continuant
obstruent;. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA n-eng.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">N</FONT></STRONG>].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="38" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>p</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English, but without aspiration.
As in the Romance languages. A voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive;
IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p</FONT></STRONG>].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="80" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiceless
dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American
Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated <EM>k</EM>-sound
but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching
bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate.
IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="111" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of a heavily
aspirated and palatal Ithkuil <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">(see
above) released laterally (i.e., along the two sides of the tongue) into
a voiceless lateral fricative (IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l-loop welsh.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absmiddle">]).
This sound occurs in some North American Indian and North Caucasian languages.
An aspirated voiceless palatal-lateral affricate. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l lambda-bar plus h.gif" width="16" height="14" align="absmiddle">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">c_K_h</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound files: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-17b.mp3"><BR>
<IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-17a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="97" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This sound is a single flap of the tongue
tip as in Spanish <EM>ca<STRONG>r</STRONG>o</EM> or <EM>pe<STRONG>r</STRONG>o</EM>.
When geminated (doubled) it becomes a trill as in Spanish <EM>ca<STRONG>rr</STRONG>o</EM>
or <EM>pe<STRONG>rr</STRONG>o</EM>. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex
flap/trill; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA r-flap.gif" width="6" height="10">],
[<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">r</FONT></STRONG>].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">4</FONT></STRONG>],
[<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files: <BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-18a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-18a.gif" width="308" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-18a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"><BR>
</A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-18b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="116" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Pronounced similarly to the English
retroflex <EM>r</EM>-sound except that there is no lip-rounding and the
tongue is in direct contact with the alveolar gum ridge behind the upper
teeth, giving the sound an <EM>l</EM>-coloring. A voiced apico-alveolar
retroflex liquid continuant; the closest IPA symbol is [<IMG src="assets/IPA r plus l.gif" width="6" height="18" align="absbottom">]
(a voiced rhoticized retroflex lateral approximant). (No X-SAMPA equivalent).
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-19a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-19a.gif" width="310" height="14" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-19a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-19b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="81" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. Like the throaty
or “gargled” <EM>r</EM>-sound found in colloquial French and
German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA R-uvular approxmt.gif" width="8" height="10">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">R</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-20a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-20b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="44" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>s</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>s</STRONG>i<STRONG>s</STRONG>ter</EM>.
A voiceless lamino-alveolar grooved sibilant fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA
[<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>s</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-21a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="116" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The retroflex
<EM>s</EM>-sound heard in Castilian (but not Latin American) Spanish.
Also found in Basque, Catalan, and most Chinese languages. Similar to
an English <EM>s</EM>-sound, but with the blade of the tongue curved convexly
away from the roof of the mouth, as with an English <EM>r</EM>-sound,
so that the tongue curls back and touches the alveolar ridge. The result
should sound halfway between an English <EM>s</EM> and <EM>sh</EM>. A
voiceless apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA s-retroflex.gif" width="7" height="13" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> s`</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound file:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-22a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="59" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>š</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>sh</STRONG>oe<STRONG>sh</STRONG>ine</EM>
but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized
lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA S-esh.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>S</STRONG></FONT>].Example
sound file: <BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-23a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-23a.gif" width="375" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-23a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="58" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>t</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similar to English but without aspiration
and with the tongue-tip against the back of the upper teeth, not against
the alveolar ridge. As in the Romance languages. A voiceless apico-dental
unaspirated plosive; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA t-dental.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t_d</FONT></STRONG>].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="22" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>th</STRONG>in</EM>,
<EM>ba<STRONG>th</STRONG></EM>. A voiceless apico-interdental fricative;
IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA theta.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">T</FONT></STRONG>].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="21" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>v</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English. A voiced labio-dental
fricative; IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">v</FONT></STRONG>].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="42" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">
<P>As in English <EM><STRONG>w</STRONG>ell</EM>, <EM><STRONG>w</STRONG>orry</EM>.
A voiced labio-velar (i.e., labialized dorso-velar) glide (or approximant);
IPA and X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>].<BR>
</P>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="80" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The smooth voiceless
dorso-velar fricative found in Russian (spelled <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</FONT></STRONG>
in Cyrillic) and in Latin American (but not Castilian) Spanish <STRONG>j</STRONG>.
Can be approximated by putting one's tongue in position as if to pronounce
a <EM>k</EM>-sound, and while holding the tongue in this position, breathing
an <EM>h</EM>-sound instead. Should be distinguished from <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT>
below; IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-24a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="61" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The rough voiceless
dorso-uvular fricative (or trill) found in German <EM>a<STRONG>ch</STRONG></EM>.
Can be approximated by means of a dry gargle without vocal chord vibration.
IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA x-chi.gif" width="15" height="14" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">X</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-25a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="42" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>et</EM>,
<EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>am</EM>. A voiced dorso-palatal glide (or approximant);
IPA and X-SAMPA [ <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">j
</FONT></STRONG>]. Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-26a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-26a.gif" width="293" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-26a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="78" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart
to <STRONG>ç</STRONG> above. This is the “intensive”
<EM>y</EM>-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties
of Spanish. Like the sound in English <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>et</EM>, <EM><STRONG>y</STRONG>am</EM>
but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate,
so that audible friction occurs. A voiced dorso-palatal fricative; IPA
[<IMG src="assets/IPA j-curl.gif" width="10" height="16" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">j</FONT></STRONG>\].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-27a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="50" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>z</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in English <EM><STRONG>z</STRONG>oo</EM>,
<EM>wi<STRONG>z</STRONG>ard</EM>. A voiced lamino-alveolar grooved fricative;
IPA and X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">z</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-28a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="54" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/z-cedilla.gif" width="14" height="15"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><P>No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil
<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT>
above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex grooved sibilant fricative. IPA
[<IMG src="assets/IPA z-retroflex.gif" width="11" height="12" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> z`</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-29a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-29a.gif" width="157" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-29a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<BR>
</P></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="49" valign="top"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/Zv.gif" width="9" height="16"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top">The voiced counterpart of <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">š</FONT></STRONG>
above. Similar to the sound in English <EM>plea<STRONG>s</STRONG>ure</EM>
or <EM>lei<STRONG>s</STRONG>ure</EM>, but without lip-rounding. A voiced
lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA ezh.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Z</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound file:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-32a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-32a.gif" width="264" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-32a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="49" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/z-bar.gif" width="9" height="11"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Like an English <EM>d</EM>+<EM>z</EM>
sound, as in <EM>roa<STRONG>ds</STRONG></EM>, <EM>a<STRONG>dz</STRONG>e</EM>.
A voiced lamino-alveolar affricate; IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">dz</FONT></STRONG>].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d_z</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-30a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-30a.gif" width="170" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-30a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="53" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/z-dot.gif" width="9" height="15"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart
to <IMG src="assets/C dot.gif" width="9" height="14" align="absmiddle">
above. A voiced apico-alveolar retroflex affricate; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA dz-retroflex.gif" width="21" height="17" align="absbottom">].
X-SAMPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d_z`</FONT></STRONG>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-31a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="90" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="4">’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This sound is the glottal stop heard
between the two vowels in English o<EM>h-oh</EM> or as the sound heard
in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word <EM>fa<STRONG>tt</STRONG>ening</EM>.
This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic,
Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA glottal stop.gif" width="7" height="14" align="absmiddle">].
Example sound files: <BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-33a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify"> <STRONG>1.2.1.1 Aspirated Consonants</STRONG>: The consonants
<IMG src="assets/1-2-1-1a.gif" width="172" height="20" align="top">are
all unaspirated, i.e., without the accompanying puff of air characteristic of
English voiceless stops and affricates. In Ithkuil each of these has an aspirated
counterpart, pronounced like the unaspirated version but with a distinct expulsion
of air, more so than in English. These aspirated counterparts are written with
a following superscript <EM><STRONG>h</STRONG></EM>; thus: <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-1b.gif" width="205" height="17" align="top">
Example sound files: </P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-38a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-38a.gif" width="216" height="16" border="0"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-38a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-38b.gif" width="93" height="16" border="0"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-38b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-38c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-38d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.2.1.2 Ejective Consonants</STRONG>: The same eight
consonants immediately above also have ejective counterparts, which do not exist
in any major Western language, but are found in languages such as Armenian,
Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian
languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied
by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which
gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives
are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-2a.gif" width="245" height="21" align="absmiddle">.
Note: the lateral affricate <IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="9" height="16" align="absbottom">
has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound
files:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-39a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-39a.gif" width="185" height="14" border="0"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-39a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-39b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A></FONT>
<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-39c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-39d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify">In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional
ejective consonants, all of them affricates, <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç’</FONT></STRONG>,
<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT>,
and <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT>,
whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.</P>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="5%" height="94" align="center" valign="top"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç’</FONT></STRONG></TD>
<TD width="95%" valign="top">
<DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom"></FONT>
+ Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT></STRONG>
(the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination
then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly,
it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA c-bar & c-cedilla.gif" width="20" height="13" align="absbottom"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT>].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>c_C_></STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound file: <BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-40a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="96" align="center" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>x’</STRONG></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top">
<DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <STRONG>k</STRONG>
+ Ithkuil <STRONG>x</STRONG> (the voiceless velar fricative described
above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation.
When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic <EM>k</EM>-sound,
accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally
imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kx’</FONT></STRONG>].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k_x_></STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound file: <A href="Sound_Files/cons-40b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="84" align="center" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"><STRONG>’</STRONG></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top">
<DIV align="justify">This sound is a combination of Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</FONT></STRONG>
+ Ithkuil <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom">
</FONT>(the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination
then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly,
it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q<IMG src="assets/IPA x-chi.gif" width="15" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT>’</STRONG>].
X-SAMPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>q_X_></STRONG></FONT>].
This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g.,
Dido, Archi). Example sound file:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-40c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.2.1.3 Syllabic consonants</STRONG>. Six consonants,
<IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3a.gif" width="118" height="18" align="absbottom">,
can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of
syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions
such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’
(an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants <EM>n</EM>
and <EM>l</EM> as in the second syllable of words like <EM>button</EM> and <EM>little</EM>.
Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words <EM>nda</EM> ‘no’,
and <EM>ndíghílii</EM> ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these
six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant
as in <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3b.gif" width="152" height="23" align="absmiddle">
However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where
the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate
syllable. Examples: <IMG src="assets/1-2-1-3c.gif" width="139" height="23" align="absbottom">.</P>
<P align="justify"></P>
<H3 align="justify">1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels</H3>
<P align="justify">There are 17 vowels, all of which are pure sounds, not glided
into diphthongs as in English. These include the five primary vowels <STRONG>a</STRONG>,
<STRONG>e</STRONG>,<STRONG> i</STRONG>, <STRONG>o</STRONG>, <STRONG>u</STRONG>.
The vowel <STRONG>a</STRONG> is phonetically an unrounded central low vowel,
IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">a</FONT></STRONG>],
as in Spanish or Italian. The vowels <STRONG>e</STRONG> and <STRONG>o</STRONG>
are similar to the vowels in American English <EM>l<STRONG>e</STRONG>t</EM>
and <EM>sh<STRONG>o</STRONG>rt</EM>, phonetically IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA e-epsilon.gif" width="8" height="10" align="bottom">]
and [<IMG src="assets/IPA o-open.gif" width="8" height="10">],
although both sounds are actually somewhat higher, being between low-mid and
mid in height. The vowels <STRONG>i</STRONG> and <STRONG>u</STRONG> are lower
than in Romance languages: <STRONG>i</STRONG> is about halfway between the vowels
in English <EM>p<STRONG>i</STRONG>t</EM> and <EM>mach<STRONG>i</STRONG>ne</EM>;
<STRONG>u</STRONG> is halfway between English <EM>c<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM>
and <EM>k<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM>. Sound files: <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-1.mp3">a
e i o u</A> </FONT></STRONG> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-1.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P>
<P align="justify">The vowel <STRONG>â</STRONG> is pronounced as in Western
U.S. <EM><STRONG>a</STRONG>ll</EM>, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA a-back.gif" width="9" height="13" align="absmiddle">];
<STRONG>ę</STRONG> and <STRONG>ô</STRONG> are mid-height, IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">e</FONT></STRONG>]
and [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">o</FONT></STRONG>]
as in Spanish <EM><STRONG>e</STRONG>st<STRONG>o</STRONG>s</EM> or in French
<EM>p<STRONG>oé</STRONG>sie</EM>; <STRONG>î</STRONG> and <STRONG>ű</STRONG>
are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian <EM>i</EM> and <EM>u</EM>,
IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>i</STRONG></FONT>]
and [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>u</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files: <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3">â
ę î ô ű</A></FONT> </STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-2.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P>
<P align="justify">The vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> is slightly higher than the
vowel in American English <EM>s<STRONG>a</STRONG>t </EM>but not as high as in<EM>
s<STRONG>e</STRONG>t</EM>, IPA [<STRONG>ć^</STRONG>]. The vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG>
is the rounded equivalent of <STRONG>e</STRONG>, that is, the vowel in French
<EM>b<STRONG>oeu</STRONG>f</EM> or German <EM>k<STRONG>ö</STRONG>nnte</EM>,
IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ś</STRONG></FONT>].
The vowel <STRONG>ë</STRONG> is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American
English <EM>c<STRONG>u</STRONG>t</EM> or <EM>n<STRONG>u</STRONG>t</EM>, although,
more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ô</STRONG> but without rounding
of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA o-unrounded.gif" width="9" height="15" align="absmiddle">].
The vowel <STRONG>ď</STRONG> is pronounced as an unrounded <STRONG>ű</STRONG>,
an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA <IMG src="assets/IPA u-unrounded.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absbottom">.
The vowel <STRONG>ü</STRONG> is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel,
as found in Norwegian <EM>h<STRONG>u</STRONG>s</EM> or the Highland Scottish
pronunciation of English <EM>b<STRONG>oo</STRONG>k</EM> or <EM>g<STRONG>oo</STRONG>d</EM>,
IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA u-bar.gif" width="11" height="15" align="absmiddle">].
The vowel <STRONG>ř</STRONG> is the rounded equivalent of <STRONG>ę</STRONG>,
as in French <EM>f<STRONG>eu</STRONG></EM> or German <EM>sch<STRONG>ö</STRONG>n</EM>,
IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ř</FONT></STRONG>];
the vowel <STRONG>˙</STRONG> represents the front rounded vowel of French
<EM>d<STRONG>u</STRONG></EM> and German <EM><STRONG>ü</STRONG>ber</EM>,
IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT>].
Example sound files:<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"> <STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1">ä</FONT></STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" size="+1"><STRONG>
ë ď ö ř ü ˙</STRONG></FONT></A><STRONG> </STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/vowel-3.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</P>
<H3 align="justify"><BR>
1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions</H3>
<P align="justify">Allophonic distinctions are the phonetic variances in the pronunciation
of a particular phoneme depending on the phonetic environment in which that
phoneme occurs. These variances, while audible to a trained linguist, are often
indistinguishable to lay native speakers of a given language, in that these
allophonic variances do not change the meaning of a word and thus play no functional
role in the language. As an example, compare the two <EM>t</EM>-sounds in the
English words <EM><STRONG>t</STRONG>op</EM> and <EM>s<STRONG>t</STRONG>op</EM>.
The former is aspirated (i.e., accompanied by a distinct puff of air), while
the latter is unaspirated, giving the two sounds a different phonetic quality.
However, because consonant aspiration does not function phonemically in English,
the difference in the two <EM>t</EM>-sounds is unnoticeable to most native speakers
of English, even though it would be highly noticeable to speakers of languages
where consonant aspiration is phonemically relevant (e.g., Hindi and many other
Indic languages). </P>
<P align="justify">Although such allophonic distinctions are arbitrary within
a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely
regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration
in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning
a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign
accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians,
and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without
aspirating the initial <EM>t</EM>-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration
in Romance languages.)</P>
<P align="justify">The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are
known as allophones. The significant allophonic distinctions for Ithkuil are
as follows:</P>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="6%" height="90" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="94%" valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This phoneme is a simple
(bi-)glottal fricative as in English head when in a syllable-initial position
and in word-final position. However, at the end of a syllable when preceded
by a vowel and followed by another consonant, this sound approaches a
voiceless bilabial fricative, similar to the bilabial sound of Japanese
<EM>h</EM> as pronounced before <EM>u</EM> (usually transliterated into
Roman orthography as <EM>f</EM>). IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA phi.gif" width="12" height="16" align="absbottom">].
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="111" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hh</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">The geminated version of Ithkuil h is
pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is
completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along
their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre
to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English <EM><STRONG>th</STRONG>in</EM>)
as well as the English <EM>f</EM>-sound, however there is absolutely no
contact by the tongue with the teeth or gums when pronouncing this sound.
No IPA equivalent. Example sound files: <BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-42a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-42b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A><BR>
<BR>
</FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="74" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/Qv.gif" width="10" height="18"></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">This aspirated lateral affricate is
in free variation with (i.e., may be alternately pronounced as) its non-aspirated
ejective counterpart (IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l lambda-bar ejective.gif" width="14" height="15" align="absbottom">]);
in word-initial position it is more common to pronounce it ejectively.
Example sound files:<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-17c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-17d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-17a.gif" width="122" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-17d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT>
<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="68" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">In normal speech, this phoneme is pronounced
as a voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled) continuant, similar
to the throaty <EM>r</EM>-sound found in colloquial French and German,
IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA R-uvular approxmt.gif" width="8" height="10">].
However, in emphatic articulation or hyper-enunciated speech, this sound
becomes a voiced dorso-uvular trill, IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA R-uvular trill.gif" width="8" height="11">].<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="70" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar
approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet
(IPA [<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG>]),
when followed by the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ű</STRONG>, this sound,
takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative
(i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA beta-labialized.gif" width="18" height="18" align="absbottom">]).
<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="40" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">In this word-initial combination of
voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the
<EM>w</EM> is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel,
Ithkuil <STRONG>ď</STRONG>, followed by the glottal stop (IPA [<IMG src="assets/w plus glottal.gif" width="22" height="14" align="absmiddle">]).
<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="44" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Similarly to the combination above,
this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant
followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal
stop (IPA [<IMG src="assets/j plus glottal.gif" width="17" height="17" align="absbottom">]).
<BR>
<BR>
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD colspan="2">
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<DIV align="justify"> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">bm,
dn, km, kn, pm, tn</FONT></STRONG></DIV>
</BLOCKQUOTE></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="99"> </TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">When in word-initial position, the first
consonant of these conjuncts is pronounced with nasal rather than oral
release. To achieve this, place the tongue and/or lips in position to
pronounce the first consonant, initiate the airstream from the lungs to
pronounce it, but instead of releasing the sound, and without moving the
tongue or lips, pronounce the second nasal consonant instead. IPA [<IMG src="assets/prenasalized group.gif" width="119" height="17" align="absbottom">].
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD height="23" colspan="2">
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<DIV align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>hl,
hm, hn, h<IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">,
hw</STRONG></FONT> </DIV>
</BLOCKQUOTE></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="110">
<DIV align="center"></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Each of these consonant conjuncts, when
word-initial, or syllable-initial following another consonant, are not
pronounced as separate consonants, but rather as unvoiced counterparts
to the liquid or nasal consonant that forms the second member of the conjunct,
i.e., IPA <IMG src="assets/voiceless liquids & nasals.gif" width="243" height="21" align="absmiddle">
To approximate these sounds, place the mouth in the position to pronounce
an Ithkuil <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">l</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">,<STRONG>
m</STRONG>,<STRONG> n</STRONG>,<STRONG> n, r</STRONG>,</FONT><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom"></STRONG></FONT>,
or <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>,
and without moving the tongue or lips, breath a clear <EM>h</EM>-sound
instead. </DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify"> </P>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <STRONG><FONT size="4">1.3 PHONOLOGICAL
PROCESSES AND RULES<A name="Sec1o3"></A></FONT></STRONG></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify">Besides the actual inventory of consonant and vowels, all languages
have phonological processes which affect how those consonants or vowels are
combined and phonetically articulated. Through these phonological processes,
the possible number of word-forming syllables in the language is expanded. Ithkuil
productively utilizes consonantal gemination, shifts in syllabic stress, and
tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends. <BR>
</P>
<H3 align="justify">1.3.1 Gemination</H3>
<P align="justify">Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in
length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination
does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological
grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’
versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based
gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese,
Finnish).</P>
<P align="justify">In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy
is that gemination of certain consonants is allowed in both word-initial and
word-final position. The following are the specific rules for consonant gemination
in Ithkuil:</P>
<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.3.1.1 Intervocalic Gemination</STRONG>. All consonants
are capable of intervocalic gemination (i.e., when between two vowels) except
for <STRONG>y</STRONG> and <STRONG>w</STRONG>. </P>
<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.3.1.2 Word-Initial and Word-Final Gemination</STRONG>.
The following consonants, in addition to being capable of intervocalic gemination,
are also capable of being geminated in both word-initial and word-final position:
</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/1-3-1-2a.gif" width="575" height="20"></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify">The consonant <IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absbottom">
can be geminated in word-initial position. </P>
<P align="justify"> <STRONG>1.3.1.3 Pronunciation of Geminated Consonants</STRONG>.
Consonants which are continuants (i.e., able to be sounded for an indefinite
duration), specifically <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3a.gif" width="432" height="20" align="absmiddle"></STRONG></FONT>are
simply pronounced for twice as long in duration when geminated. Geminated <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<STRONG>r</STRONG></FONT> is pronounced as a rapid apico-alveolar trill like
<EM>rr</EM> in Spanish or Italian. Example sound files: </P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-34a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-34a.gif" width="322" height="16" border="0">
</A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-34a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35b.gif" width="270" height="15" border="0"></A>
<FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A></FONT><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A> <FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> <A href="Sound_Files/cons-35d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35d.gif" width="132" height="15" border="0"></A>
<FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A></FONT><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-35g.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35g.gif" width="232" height="15" border="0">
</A><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35g.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify">The non-aspirated plosive consonants <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">b</FONT></STRONG>,
<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">d</FONT></STRONG>, <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">g</FONT></STRONG>,
<IMG src="assets/g-dot.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absmiddle">,
<IMG src="assets/Jv.gif" width="9" height="20" align="absmiddle">,
<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k</FONT></STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absmiddle">,
<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p</FONT></STRONG>, <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">q</FONT></STRONG>,
and <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</FONT></STRONG>, when
geminated, are momentarily held, then released, much like the two <EM>d</EM>-sounds
in the English phrase <EM>ba<STRONG>d d</STRONG>og</EM> when spoken rapidly.
Example sound file: </P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-33a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A>
</P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify">The aspirated plosives <STRONG><IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3b.gif" width="135" height="17" align="absbottom"></STRONG>
are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon
release, much like the two <EM>t</EM>-sounds in the English phrase <EM>ho<STRONG>t
t</STRONG>ar</EM> when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>k’,
<IMG src="assets/k-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="17" align="absbottom">’,
p’, q’, </STRONG></FONT>and<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>
t’</STRONG></FONT> are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic
ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-36a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-36a.gif" width="242" height="16" border="0"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-36a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify">The pronunciation of affricates (<IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3c.gif" width="337" height="15" align="absbottom">)
when geminated depends on whether or not they are in word-final position. If
not in word-final position, they are pronounced by momentarily holding the initial
stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative
or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during
release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., <IMG src="assets/Cv-geminate.gif" width="18" height="15" align="absmiddle">
is pronounced as IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ttš</STRONG></FONT>].
For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (<IMG src="assets/1-3-1-3d.gif" width="137" height="16" align="absbottom">),
geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening
the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of
each affricate). Thus, <IMG src="assets/Cv-geminate.gif" width="18" height="15" align="absmiddle">
in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>tšš</STRONG></FONT>],
<IMG src="assets/Qv-geminated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absbottom">
as IPA [<IMG src="assets/IPA l lambda-bar plus l-loop.gif" width="21" height="14" align="absmiddle">].
Example sound files: </P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35c.gif" width="302" height="15" border="0"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-35c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-35e.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35e.gif" width="315" height="15" border="0"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-35e.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0"></A><BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-1a.wav"></A><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> <A href="Sound_Files/cons-35f.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-35f.gif" width="384" height="16" border="0"></A>
<FONT color="#FFFFFF"><A href="Sound_Files/cons-35f.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A></FONT>
</P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P align="justify"><STRONG>1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates</STRONG>.
Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g.,
<STRONG> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">bb, dd, nn, šš</FONT></STRONG>.
Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled
followed by a single superscript h, e.g., <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4a.gif" width="118" height="17" align="absbottom">
Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character
doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4b.gif" width="87" height="18" align="absbottom">
Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ç</FONT>’</STRONG>,
<STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</FONT>’</STRONG>,
and <STRONG><IMG src="assets/x-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom">’</STRONG>.
Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond
to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written
as <IMG src="assets/1-3-1-4c.gif" width="116" height="18" align="absbottom"></P>
<H3 align="justify"><BR>
1.3.2 Pitch and Tone</H3>
<P align="justify">Ithkuil is a tone language like Chinese, Vietnamese, and other
Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages
and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is
used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone
and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic
features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question,
while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other
attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words
themselves (such as with affixes or variances in mood categories). </P>
<P align="justify">There are five tones used in Ithkuil, one of which, mid-low
tone, is considered morpho-phonologically neutral. The other four tones are
falling, high, broken (i.e., mid to low to mid-low), and rising (i.e., mid-low
to mid-high) and are considered functionally significant. Each word carries
one significant tone, pronounced beginning with the stressed syllable and continuously
carried through any following syllables until the end of the word. Unstressed
syllables prior to the stressed syllable have neutral mid-low tone. Therefore,
the function of mid-low tone is solely to indicate the start of a new word since
any preceding word must end in a tone other than mid-low. Like most tone languages,
the tones do not correspond to any exact pitch, but are relative for each individual
speaker and utterance. The relative pitch of the tones is illustrated below:</P>
<TABLE width="78%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="16%" height="74"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2a.gif" width="59" height="6" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD>
<TD width="22%"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2b.gif" width="92" height="39"></DIV></TD>
<TD width="18%" valign="top"> <DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2a.gif" width="59" height="6" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD>
<TD width="20%"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2c.gif" width="59" height="37"></DIV></TD>
<TD width="24%"><DIV align="center"><IMG src="assets/1-3-2d.gif" width="96" height="36"></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(mid-low)</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">falling</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">high</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">broken</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rising</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify">The four significant tones are indicated in the Roman transliteration
by small superscript symbols at the end of each word, as follows: falling tone
is unmarked, high tone is marked by a superscript hyphen (or macron), broken
tone by a superscript backslash, and rising tone by a superscript forward slash.
This is illustrated in the example words/sound files below.</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P><A href="Sound_Files/cons-37a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-37a.gif" width="212" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-37a.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
[falling tone]<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-37d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-37d.gif" width="170" height="15" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-37d.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
[high tone]<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-37b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-37b.gif" width="268" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-37b.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
[broken tone]<BR>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-37c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/cons-37c.gif" width="308" height="17" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
<A href="Sound_Files/cons-37c.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></A>
[rising tone]<BR>
</P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<H3 align="justify"><BR>
1.3.3 Syllabic Stress<A name="Sec1o3o3"></A></H3>
<P align="justify">Stress normally falls on the <STRONG>penultimate</STRONG> (next-to-last)
syllable but can shift to either the <STRONG>ultimate</STRONG> (last) syllable
of a word, to the <STRONG>antepenultimate</STRONG> (third-from-last) syllable,
and occasionally to the <STRONG>preantepenultimate</STRONG> (fourth-from-last)
syllable, as determined by morphological (grammatical) considerations. </P>
<P align="justify">When transliterating Ithkuil into Roman characters, the number
of vowels in Ithkuil requires the use of diacritics due to the limited number
of Roman vowel characters. As a result, the orthographic representation of stress
using the system of romanization becomes complicated. It is explained as follows:
</P>
<TABLE width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR valign="top">
<TD width="4%" height="35">1)</TD>
<TD width="96%">All monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress.</TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD height="52">2)</TD>
<TD>The grave accent ( <STRONG><FONT size="4" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">`</FONT></STRONG>
) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted,
e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as <STRONG>au</STRONG>
and <STRONG>ei</STRONG> from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts <STRONG>aů
</STRONG>and<STRONG> eě</STRONG>.</TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD height="70">3)</TD>
<TD><STRONG>Penultimate stress</STRONG>. Polysyllabic words having penultimate
stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic
phonemes <STRONG>ě</STRONG> or <STRONG>ů</STRONG> as the penultimate
syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>iskoůt</STRONG></FONT>
(stress on the <STRONG>o</STRONG>), if adding the syllable -<FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ma</STRONG></FONT>,
becomes <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>iskoútma</STRONG></FONT>
(stress on the <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u</FONT></STRONG>).</TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD height="19">4)</TD>
<TD><P><STRONG>Ultimate stress</STRONG>. Polysyllabic words which have ultimate
stress indicate this in one of the following ways:</P></TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD height="184"> </TD>
<TD><UL>
<LI>the unmarked vowels <STRONG>a</STRONG>, <STRONG>e</STRONG>, <STRONG>i</STRONG>,
<STRONG>o</STRONG>, <STRONG>u</STRONG>, and the marked disyllabic vowels
<STRONG>ě</STRONG> and <STRONG>ů</STRONG> take an acute
accent, e.g., <STRONG>á</STRONG>, <STRONG>é</STRONG>,
<STRONG>í</STRONG>, <STRONG>ó</STRONG>, <STRONG>ú</STRONG>.</LI>
<LI>if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other
than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid
or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate
syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rňihnäl</FONT></STRONG>.</LI>
<LI>If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs
in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over
the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress
(as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate
stress), e.g. <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ňspätlök</FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</FONT></LI>
<LI>if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate
syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent)
then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ksűtpäär</STRONG></FONT>.
</LI>
</UL></TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD>5)</TD>
<TD><STRONG>Antepenultimate stress</STRONG>. To show antepenultimate stress
(third syllable from the end):</TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD height="162"> </TD>
<TD><UL>
<LI>if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant)
does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the
acute accent, e.g., áksiyor</LI>
<LI>if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave
accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on
the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate
stress, e.g., <STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëitlŕrrun</FONT></STRONG>,
<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ôrümzěl</FONT></STRONG>.
(Note that the use of the grave accent over the <STRONG>i</STRONG> in
<STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ôrümzěl</FONT></STRONG>
would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore
its presence implies antepenultimate stress). </LI>
<LI>if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules,
then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>öömoläk</STRONG></FONT>.</LI>
</UL></TD>
</TR>
<TR valign="top">
<TD>6)</TD>
<TD><STRONG>Preantepenultimate stress</STRONG>. To show preantepenultimate
stress (i.e., fourth syllable from the end) apply the same rules as for
antepenultimate stress above, but to the preantepenultimate syllable.</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify"> Note that the acute accent on the stressed second member of
the bi-syllabic geminate clusters <IMG src="assets/1-3-3a.gif" width="132" height="18" align="absmiddle">
distinguishes them from their standard geminate counterparts <IMG src="assets/1-3-3b.gif" width="165" height="16" align="absbottom">.
</P>
<P align="justify"> </P>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <P><STRONG><FONT size="4">1.4 PHONOTAXIS<A name="Sec1o4"></A></FONT></STRONG></P></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify">In addition to phonological processes such as gemination, stress-shifting,
and tone, all languages employ their own individual and arbitrary rules as to
what combinations of consonants and vowels are permissible in a syllable or
word. This concept is called <STRONG>phonotaxis</STRONG> and such rules are
known as phonotactical rules. These rules, peculiar to each language, explain
why <EM>sprelch</EM> could be a hypothetical word in English, while <EM>znatk</EM>
could not be, even though <EM>znatk</EM> is as easily pronounced by a linguist
as <EM>sprelch</EM>. Rules governing syllable structure, diphthong formation,
and overall phonetic euphony are all part of phonotaxis</P>
<P align="justify">Equally important are the optional rules each language employs
to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics
or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly
responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound”
of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are
described in the sections below.</P>
<H3 align="justify"><BR>
<A name="Sec1o4o1"></A>1.4.1 Syllable Structure</H3>
<P align="justify">The permissible syllable structure depends on whether the syllable
forms a monosyllabic word, is a word-initial syllable, a word-final syllable,
or is word-medial (i.e., between two other syllables). These structures are
shown in Table 2 below, where (C) represents an optional consonant and V represents
a mandatory vowel or diphthong. </P>
<P align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 2:
Syllabic Structure</STRONG></FONT></P>
<TABLE width="97%" border="1" cellpadding="5">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="15%" height="35"> <DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Syllable
Type</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="37%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Structure</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="48%"><DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Examples</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="48" valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Consonantal
Word</FONT></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>C(C)(C)</STRONG>
<FONT size="2"><EM>where final consonant is a nasal, liquid, or voiceless
fricative continuant</EM></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s,
h,<IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">,
ll, mm, pçç</FONT></STRONG></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="32" valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Monosyllabic</FONT></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)</STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">a, ui, öt,
isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršt</FONT></STRONG></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="30" valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-initial</FONT></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>(C)(C)(C)V(C)-</STRONG>
<EM><FONT size="2">or</FONT></EM> <STRONG>l</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">,
<IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">,
<STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><FONT size="2"><STRONG><FONT color="#0000FF" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">u</FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ran,
<FONT color="#0000FF">ta</FONT>hin, <FONT color="#0000FF">ui’</FONT>wá,
<FONT color="#0000FF">pri</FONT>nu, <FONT color="#0000FF">klat</FONT>ma,
<FONT color="#0000FF">xmois</FONT>kra, <FONT color="#0000FF">kstol</FONT>lap,
<FONT color="#0000FF">ltuir</FONT>bis, <FONT color="#0000FF">mpeil</FONT>t’um</FONT></STRONG></FONT></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-medial</FONT></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>-(C)(C)V(C)(C)-</STRONG>
<EM><FONT size="2"> or</FONT></EM> <STRONG>l</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">,
<IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">,
<STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="middle"><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ki<FONT color="#0000FF">a</FONT>lun,
ru<FONT color="#0000FF">en</FONT>tik, is<FONT color="#0000FF">teix</FONT>lam,
ďk<FONT color="#0000FF">spűz</FONT>qai, <IMG src="assets/1-4-1a.gif" width="68" height="16" align="texttop"></FONT></STRONG></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD valign="middle"><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Word-final</FONT></TD>
<TD valign="middle"> <DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>-(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)-</STRONG>
<EM><FONT size="2">or</FONT></EM> <STRONG>l</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle">,
<IMG src="assets/r-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">,
<STRONG>m</STRONG>, <STRONG>n</STRONG>, <IMG src="assets/n-cedilla.gif" width="10" height="14" align="absbottom"></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD><STRONG><FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">lu<FONT color="#0000FF">a</FONT>,
an<FONT color="#0000FF">toi</FONT>, ti<FONT color="#0000FF">al</FONT>, eif<FONT color="#0000FF">qés</FONT>,
pox<FONT color="#0000FF">šurn</FONT>, ul<FONT color="#0000FF">trönn</FONT>,
<IMG src="assets/1-4-1b.gif" width="25" height="16" align="baseline">
</FONT></STRONG></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify">The following rules apply: </P>
<DIV align="justify">
<UL>
<LI>A single non-syllabic intervocalic consonant is syllabically part of the
vowel following, not preceding. <BR>
</LI>
<LI>An intervocalic bi-consonantal conjunct is considered dissyllabic (i.e.,
each consonant is part of a different syllable), even if the conjunct is
a geminate consonant. <BR>
</LI>
<LI>If a triple-consonant conjunct occurs in the middle of a word, the first
consonant of the three must be in a separate syllable from the last consonant
of the three. The middle consonant will be in the same syllable as whichever
of the two surrounding consonants it forms a permissible word-initial or
word-final cluster. If it can form permissible clusters with either surrounding
consonant, it will be considered part of the syllable with which it is morphemically
associated. <A href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm#Sec1o4o4">Section 1.4.4</A> below details which specific
consonants can form such clusters.<BR>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H3 align="justify">1.4.2 Diphthongs</H3>
<P align="justify"> An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination
of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are
“falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives
the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred
to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs
in Ithkuil, described as follows:</P>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD width="10%" height="33" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ai
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-4.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD width="90%" valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Pronounced as in Spanish
or Italian; like English <EM>i</EM> in <EM>white</EM> or <EM>ice</EM>.
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="33" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">äi
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-5.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination
of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> plus an English <EM>y</EM>-sound.
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="33" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ei
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-6.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; like English
<EM>ai</EM> in <EM>rain</EM> or <EM>ei</EM> in <EM>rein</EM>.</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="55" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëi
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-7.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination
of the vowel sound in American English <EM>rut</EM> + an English <EM>y</EM>-sound.
Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the <EM>i</EM>
in <EM>ice</EM>. </DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="33" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">oi
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-8.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; as in English
<EM>boy</EM> or <EM>voice</EM>.</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="55" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">öi
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-9.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination
of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG> plus an English <EM>y</EM>-sound.
Somewhat like the French word <EM>oeil</EM>. </DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="74" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ui
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-10.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English
equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” <EM>u</EM>
(i.e., without the glide into -<EM>w</EM> as in English <EM>rude</EM>)
+ an English <EM>y</EM>-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this
diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the <EM>u</EM>-sound
is reduced to a <EM>w</EM>- (the result sounding like English <EM>wee</EM>).
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="31" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">au
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-11.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; like English
<EM>ou</EM> in <EM>loud</EM> or <EM>ow</EM> in <EM>cow</EM>. </DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="31" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">äu
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-12.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination
of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ä</STRONG> plus an English <EM>w</EM>-sound.
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="48" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eu
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-13.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As in Spanish or Italian; no English
equivalent. A combination of “pure” <EM>e</EM> (i.e., without
the glide into –y as in English <EM>they</EM>) + an English <EM>w</EM>-sound.
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="50" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ëu
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-14.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No standard English equivalent; a combination
of the vowel sound in American English <EM>rut</EM> + an English w-sound.
Somewhat like a rural British dialectal pronunciation of the word <EM>oh!</EM>.
</DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="51" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">iu
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-15.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent; a combination
of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>i</STRONG> (which is more open than the Spanish
or Italian “pure” <EM>i</EM> (i.e., closer to English <EM>i</EM>
in <EM>bit</EM>) + an English <EM>w</EM>-sound. </DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="33" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ou<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-16.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Like the <EM>o</EM> + <EM>w</EM>-glide
of English <EM>road</EM> or <EM>mode</EM>. Also as in Brazilian Portuguese
<EM>roupa</EM>. </DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="52" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>öu<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-17.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English Equivalent. A combination
of the Ithkuil vowel <STRONG>ö</STRONG> plus an English <EM>w</EM>-sound.
Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the
word <EM>oh!</EM>. </DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>aď,
eď, ëď, iď, oď, uď <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-18.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
</FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="132" valign="top">
<DIV align="center"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">Each of these is a combination of a
vowel with the back central vowel <STRONG>ď</STRONG>. No English
equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the
first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” <EM>l</EM>-sound
of American English <EM>lull</EM> but without touching the tip of the
tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should
remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like
English <EM>all</EM>, <EM>ell</EM> (as in <EM>bell</EM>), <EM>ull</EM>
(as in <EM>dull</EM>), <EM>eel</EM>, <EM>ole</EM> (as in <EM>pole</EM>),
and <EM>ool</EM> (as in <EM>tool</EM>), as pronounced by someone speaking
in an indistinct, slurred voice. For those familiar with IPA, these diphthongs
may be represented as <IMG src="assets/1-4-2a.gif" width="251" height="19" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">_</FONT>äď,
öď, üď<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <A href="Sound_Files/vowel-19.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A></FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD height="56" valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">As with the series of diphthongs immediately
above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels <STRONG>ä</STRONG>,
<STRONG>ö</STRONG>, and <STRONG>ü</STRONG> with the back central
vowel <STRONG>ď</STRONG>. IPA<IMG src="assets/1-4-2b.gif" width="129" height="18" align="absbottom"></DIV></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="center"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ae<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<A href="Sound_Files/vowel-20.mp3"><IMG src="assets/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absmiddle"></A>
</FONT></STRONG></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="justify">No English equivalent. A combination
of Ithkuil <STRONG>a</STRONG> + <STRONG>ę</STRONG>. Sounds like
a more “open” version of Ithkuil <STRONG>ai</STRONG>. Tolkien’s
Sindarin language also has this diphthong.</DIV></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P align="justify">All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are
pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing
the many two-vowel combinations beginning with <STRONG>u</STRONG>- and <STRONG>i</STRONG>-
into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a <EM>w</EM>-sound or <EM>y</EM>-sound.
This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives
the syllabic stress. </P>
<H3 align="justify"><BR>
1.4.3 Constraints on Vowels</H3>
<P align="justify">All the vowels, diphthongs, and dissyllabic vowel conjuncts
previously mentioned can occur in any syllable in any position with the following
exceptions:</P>
<UL>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">In a word of two syllables or more, the only vowels,
diphthongs, or vowel conjuncts that may occur in word-final position are:
-<STRONG>a</STRONG>, -<STRONG>â</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ď</STRONG>,
-<STRONG>u</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ü</STRONG>, <STRONG>ű</STRONG>,
-<STRONG>ia</STRONG>, -<STRONG>ua</STRONG> and diphthongs ending in <STRONG>i</STRONG>,
<STRONG>u</STRONG>, or <STRONG>ď</STRONG>. Note that this constraint
does not apply to monosyllabic words.<BR>
</DIV>
</LI>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">No more than two vowels may occur in conjunction within
a word, i.e., combinations of three vowels, even if two represent a diphthong,
are not permissible.</DIV>
</LI>
</UL>
<P> </P>
<H3 align="justify"> 1.4.4 Constraints on Consonants<A name="Sec1o4o4"></A></H3>
<UL>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">The consonants <STRONG>w</STRONG>, <STRONG>y</STRONG>,
and <IMG src="assets/Yv.gif" width="12" height="19" align="absbottom">cannot
appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel,
or in the case of <STRONG>w</STRONG> and <STRONG>y</STRONG>, by a glottal
stop plus a vowel (e.g., <STRONG>w’</STRONG>+vowel).<BR>
</DIV>
</LI>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">The glottal stop (<STRONG>’</STRONG>) does not
occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate
words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the
next word begins with a vowel, Ithkuil phonetically separates the words
by inserting a glottal stop at the beginning of the second word so that
the word-final vowel of the first word does not combine with the word-initial
vowel of the second. This serves to keep the two words separate and distinct.
This glottal stop is unmarked in both the Roman transliteration and in the
Ithkuil script. Elsewhere, the glottal stop may appear following <STRONG>w</STRONG>
or <STRONG>y</STRONG> if preceding a vowel, or may follow a vowel.<BR>
</DIV>
</LI>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">No more than four consonants can occur in conjunction.
Such four-consonant conjuncts can only occur intervocalically (or across
word boundaries), and the first two and last two consonants must each form
permissible syllable-final and syllable initial pairs respectively, or alternately,
the first three of the four consonants must form a permissible syllable-final
conjunct or the last three of the four consonants must form a permissible
syllable-initial conjunct. <BR>
</DIV>
</LI>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">For intervocalic three-consonant conjuncts either the
first consonant or the last consonant of the conjunct must be in a separate
syllable than the other two consonants. If the first consonant is dissyllabic
from the other two, then those other two consonants must be a permissible
syllable-initial conjunct. If the third consonant is dissyllabic from the
first two, then the first two must be a permissible syllable-final conjunct.<BR>
</DIV>
</LI>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">For word-initial and word-final triple consonant conjuncts,
these are generally permissible if the both the first two consonants are
permissible as a conjunct by themselves and the last two consonants of the
conjunct are permissible as a conjunct by themselves.</DIV>
</LI>
</UL>
<P align="justify">Table 3 below shows the permissible structures for word-initial
consonant conjuncts, while Table 4 shows the permissible structures for consonant
conjuncts in word-final position. Note that not all the possible conjuncts are
shown, merely examples of each type of combination. There are many combinations
of consonants permitted in Ithkuil which would never be allowed as conjuncts
in Western languages.</P>
<P align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><BR>
<STRONG>Table 3: Permissible Structure of Initial Consonant Conjuncts</STRONG><BR>
<BR>
<IMG src="assets/1-4-4a.gif" width="552" height="613"> </FONT></P>
<P align="justify"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><BR>
<STRONG>Table 4: Permissible Structure of Word-Final Consonant Conjuncts </STRONG></FONT></P>
<H3 align="justify"><IMG src="assets/1-4-4b.gif" width="531" height="551"></H3>
<H3 align="justify"><BR>
<A name="Sec1o4o5"></A>1.4.5 Phonaesthetic Rules</H3>
<P align="justify">Phonaesthetic rules refer to the generally applied rules and
preferences peculiar to each language for structuring the patterns of phonemes
for purposes of phonological euphony. The following such principles apply to
Ithkuil. </P>
<UL>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">While “open” syllables (syllables ending
in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, “closed” syllables
(i.e., ending in a consonant) are preferred, especially for the stressed
syllable of a word. Ithkuil morphology often allows for more than one way
to structure the various morphemes of a particular word, especially words
of three syllables or more. (Morphemes are the individual meaningful parts
of a word, e.g., the root, any affix, any mutation, or any other phonological
manifestation of a grammatical category.) It is common to restructure words
via morpho-phonological manipulation so that they contain closed syllables,
particularly in the stressed syllable. This rule is not often applied to
two-syllable words, which have fewer options in their structure. The rule
is inapplicable to monosyllabic words, where open syllables are common.<BR>
</DIV>
</LI>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify">Words of six syllables or more are considered euphonically
undesirable, and it is common to morphologically restructure a word to reduce
the number of syllables to five or less. This morpho-phonological restructuring
is accomplished by alternating adjunct and suffix forms (as explained in
<A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html" onclick="javascript:changenav6();">Chapters
7</A> and <A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8</A>).<BR>
</DIV>
</LI>
<LI>
<DIV align="justify"> In words having multiple affixes, it is common to use
one of the affixes in an adjunct form instead, if this will reduce the number
of syllables. </DIV>
</LI>
</UL>
<P align="right"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html" onclick="javascript:changenav2();">Proceed
to Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology >></A></STRONG></FONT></P>
<P align="justify"> </P>
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<TD width="37%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.html">5a
Verb Morphology </A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD width="27%" valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html">9
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<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-intro.html">Introduction</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.html">5b
Verb Morphology (continued)</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.html">10
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<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT size="2"></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="assets/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html">1
Phonology</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.html">6
More Verb Morphology</A></FONT></DIV></TD>
<TD valign="top"><DIV align="left"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch11-script.html">11
The Script </A></FONT></FONT></DIV></TD>
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<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.html">2
Morpho-Phonology</A></FONT><FONT size="2"> </FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.html">7a
Using Affixes </A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.html">12
The Number System</A></FONT></FONT></FONT></TD>
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<TD valign="top"><FONT size="2"> </FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.html">3
Basic Morphology</A></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.html">7b
Using Affixes (continued) </A></FONT></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-lexicon.html">The
Lexicon</A></FONT></FONT></TD>
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<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch4-case.html">4
Case Morphology </A></FONT> </TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html">8
Adjuncts</A></FONT></TD>
<TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD>
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