diff options
Diffstat (limited to '2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm | 1598 |
1 files changed, 1598 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f45078 --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1598 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 5 (Continued): Verb Morphology</title> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<script language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//--> +</script> +</head> + +<body> +<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br> + <br> +</div> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h2 align="center"> </h2> +<h2 align="center">Chapter 5 (continued): Verb Morphology </h2> +<div align="center"> + <table width="18%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="134"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec5o5">5.5 Modality</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec5o6">5.6 Level</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec5o7">5.7 Case-Frame</a></font></td> + </tr> + </table> + <br> +</div> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><font size="4"><strong>5.5 MODALITY</strong></font><a name="Sec5o5"></a></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><strong>Modality</strong> corresponds roughly to the function + of both modal verbs in Western languages (e.g., <em>can, may, must, should</em>, + etc.) as well as those verbs which modify a following verb such as t<em>o want + to, to choose to, to need to, to offer to, to demand that</em>, etc. However, + in Ithkuil, the effect of such modifications on a verb causes a fundamental + change in the cognitive interpretation of the verb, usually resulting in a modification + of both the Essence (see <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Sec. + 3.8</a>) and the Perspective (see <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Sec. + 3.3</a>) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> + case to mark the “subject” noun (see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">Sec. + 4.3.9</a>). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows:</p> +<p align="justify">As we saw in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Sections + 3.8</a> and<font color="#FF0000"> </font><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4.3.9</a>, + it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, + as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and + verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the + psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in + the following sentences.</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">1) <em>You must <strong>come home at once</strong></em>.<br> + 2) <em>That girl can <strong>sing better than anybody</strong></em>.<br> + 3) <em>Our troops should <strong>attack at dawn</strong></em>.<br> + 4) <em>Mother needs <strong>you to come with her</strong></em>.<br> + 5) <em>The teacher requests that <strong>I dance for you</strong></em>.<br> + 6) <em>The man believes <strong>clowns are dangerous</strong></em>.<em> </em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Each of the above sentences describe potential or unreal events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. In Sentence + (1) no one has yet come home, in Sentence (2) the girl may choose never to sing + again, Sentence (3) does not tell us whether any attack will actually occur, + Sentence (4) does not indicate whether you will come or not, Sentence (5) does + not indicate whether I will dance, nor does Sentence (6) establish whether or + not clowns are, in fact, dangerous.</p> +<p align="justify">Because the clauses following the verbs <em>must, can, should, + need, request, believe</em>, in the above sentences all refer to unrealized, + imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would + be marked in the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> perspective (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Sec. + 3.4</a></font>) and the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font> essence (see <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Sec. + 3.8</a>). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns + <em>you, girl, troops, mother, teacher</em>, and <em>man</em> in the six sentences + above) would be marked in the <font size="2">ACTIVATIVE</font> case (see <font color="#FF0000"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">Sec. + 4.3.9</a></font>). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily + invoke hypothetical or unrealized events. For example, in the sentence <em>She + chose to move to Australia</em>, the verb <em>chose</em> signals that the following + clause is spoken of abstractly (i.e., it is the act of choice that is being + talked about, not the move itself), but nevertheless refers to an actual event + (i.e., she did, in fact, move to Australia). Thus, the <em>move to Australia</em> + clause would be marked in the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> perspective but + would <em>not</em> be marked in the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font> essence. + Thus, the requirement that an Ithkuil modality construction invoke modifications + in the perspective, essence and case of the associated nouns and verbs is entirely + dependent on the semantics and cognitive intent of the utterance.</p> +<p align="justify">There are 30 modalities in Ithkuil. Modality is marked by a + word-final vocalic suffix to a conflational or valence adjunct (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">Secs. + 5.2</a><font color="#FF0000"> </font>and<font color="#FF0000"> <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5.4</a></font>). + In the absence of a conflational or valence adjunct, this vocalic suffix can + stand alone as an autonomous word, functioning as a <strong>modality adjunct</strong>. + The thirty modalities and their respective suffixes are described below.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DES</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Desiderative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DESIDERATIVE</font> more or less corresponds + to English constructions expressing desire, e.g., to want to, to desire that, + etc. as in <em>The teacher wants the students to study hard</em>. It is marked + by adding the suffix -<strong>a</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Aspirative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASPIRATIVE</font> corresponds to English + constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, + etc. It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>ü</strong> to a conflational + or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EPC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Expectative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXPECTATIVE</font> corresponds to English + constructions expressing expectation, as in <em>He expected her to be beautiful</em>, + or <em>I imagine he’s reached his destination</em>. It is marked by adding + the suffix -<strong>ï </strong>to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CRD</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Credential</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CREDENTIAL</font> corresponds to English + constructions expressing belief, as in <em>I think she has two sons</em>, or + <em>We believe the earth to be round</em>. Note that it does not correspond + to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating + sentences such as <em>I think she’s pretty</em>. It is marked by adding + the suffix -<strong>u</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>REQ</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Requisitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">REQUISITIVE</font> corresponds to English + constructions expressing requests, as in <em>I request his presence at the banquet</em>, + or <em>I’d like you to visit your father</em>. It is marked by adding + the suffix -<strong>â</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.<br> + <br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EXH</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Exhortative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">EXHORTATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions of exhortation or demand, as in <em>I demand you return my book</em> + or <em>Let the gates be opened!</em> It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>û</strong> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OPR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Opportunitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">OPPORTUNITIVE</font> corresponds to the + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in <em>Can we pass by our old house when we visit town?</em> or + <em>Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all</em>. It + is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>ai</strong> to a conflational or valence + adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CPC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Capacitative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CAPACITATIVE</font> corresponds to the English + modal verb <em>can/could/be able</em> where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in <em>Can she sing opera?</em> or <em>He could run + like the wind</em>. Note that it would also be used when translating English + generic statements implying ability or capacity as in <em>He speaks French like + a native</em> [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the + moment, but rather his general ability to do so]. It is marked by adding the + suffix -<strong>ei</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="63%"><font size="4"><strong>The Permissive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PERMISSIVE</font> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>can/could/be able</em> or <em>may/might</em> where they mean + ‘be permitted to,’ as in <em>Very well, you can have ice cream for + dessert</em>; or <em>Could I talk to you?</em> It is marked by adding the suffix + -<strong>oi</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.10</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PTN</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Potential</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">POTENTIAL</font> corresponds to the English + modal verb <em>can/could/be</em> able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in <em>Remember it can flood suddenly in + this area</em>, or <em>That man could fly into rages for no reason</em>. It + is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, + as in <em>It rains unpredictably in the Northwest</em>. It is marked by adding + the suffix -<strong>ëi</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.11</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CLS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Compulsory</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPULSORY</font> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>must</em> or <em>have to/had to</em> in their meaning of compulsory + obligation, as in <em>You must get up now</em>, or<em> I had to attend the ceremony</em>. + It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>ui</strong> to a conflational or + valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.12</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>OBG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Obligative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">OBLIGATIVE</font> corresponds to the English + modal verbs <em>should</em>, <em>ought to</em>, or other phrases expressing + optional but preferential obligation, as in <em>You ought to see a dentist, + I should tell her how I feel</em>, or <em>It would be best if the children stayed + away from clowns</em>. It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>iu</strong> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.13</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IMS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Impositive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMPOSITIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>be supposed to, be expected to</em>, or <em>be to</em> + which impose an expectation upon a party, as in <em>You’re supposed to + smile when introduced</em>, or <em>He is to give a speech at the banquet</em>. + It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>au</strong> to a conflational or + valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.14</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ADV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Advocative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ADVOCATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>suggest tha</em>t or <em>propose that</em> which advocate + a position, as in <em>I suggest you study harder</em> or <em>They proposed that + the clowns take their circus tent elsewhere</em>. It is marked by adding the + suffix -<strong>ia</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.15</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ITV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Intentive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INTENTIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>intend to</em>, <em>plan on</em> or <em>shall</em> which + convey an intention, as in <em>The girls plan on travelling to Europe</em>, + or <em>I shall see to it</em>. It is marked by adding the suffix -<strong>ou</strong> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.16</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ANT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Anticipative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ANTICIPATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>to look forward to</em> or <em>to eagerly await</em> + which convey positive anticipation, as in <em>We look forward to the clowns coming + to town</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>eu</strong> to a conflational + or valence adjunct. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.17</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DSP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Dispositive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DISPOSITIVE</font> corresponds to the English + expression <em>to be willing to</em>, conveying willingness as in <em>He is + willing to give his life to defeat the clowns</em>. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -<strong>äi</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct. +</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.18</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRE</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Preparative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PREPARATIVE</font> corresponds to the English + expressions <em>be ready to</em> or <em>be prepared to</em>, indicating readiness, + as in <em>She’s ready to host the party</em>, or <em>They are prepared + to endure harsh weather</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>öi</strong> + to a conflational or valence adjunct. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.19</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>NEC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Necessitative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NECESSITATIVE</font> corresponds to the + English expressions <em>need to</em> or <em>be necessary to</em>, indicating + necessity, as in <em>You need to do something about those clowns in the yard</em>, + or <em>It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities</em>. It is marked + by addition of the suffix -<strong>ëu</strong> to a conflational or valence + adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="18%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.20</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DEC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="62%"><font size="4"><strong>The Decisive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DECISIVE</font> corresponds to English expressions + such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in <em>Peter decided to cook + breakfast</em> or <em>Colleen chose to visit the clowns</em>. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -<strong>aï</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.21</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PTV</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Proclivitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROCLIVITIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>tend to, be apt to</em>, or <em>be prone to</em>, indicating + tendency, as in <em>The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs</em>, or <em>Boris + is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women</em>. It is marked by addition + of the suffix -<strong>eï</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.22</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>VOL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Voluntative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">VOLUNTATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering + as in <em>The foreman offered to put poison in my beer</em>, or <em>Mrs. Blathermot volunteered + to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event</em>. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -<strong>iï</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.23</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ACC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Accordative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ACCORDATIVE</font> corresponds to the English + expression <em>agree to</em>, as in <em>Constance agreed to perform her go-go + number at the talent show</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>oï</strong> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.24</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>INC</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inclinative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INCLINATIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>to feel like</em> or <em>be up for</em>, indicating + an impulsive desire, as in <em>He’s up for going to the shindig</em>, + or <em>Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake</em>. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -<strong>öu</strong> to a conflational or valence + adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.25</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>CML</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Compulsive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPULSIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>feel driven to</em> or<em> feel a need to</em>, indicating + compulsion, as in <em>Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines</em>, or <em>My hairdresser + feels a need to date bikers</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>uï</strong> + to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.26</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DVR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Divertive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DIVERTIVE</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>like to</em>, or <em>enjoy</em>, conveying simple likes + and pasttimes as in <em>Boys like to dream about cars</em>, or <em>My salamander + enjoyed biting people on their rump</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -<strong>äu</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.27</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DVT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Devotive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEVOTIVE</font> corresponds to English expressions + such as <em>be devoted to</em> or <em>be committed to</em>, indicating devotion + as in <em>Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town</em>, + or <em>They were devoted to rooting for the losing team</em>. It is marked by + addition of the suffix -<strong>ëï</strong> to a conflational or valence + adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.28</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PFT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Preferential</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PREFERENTIAL</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>prefer</em>, or <em>would rather that</em>, indicating + preference as in <em>He’d rather work by himself</em>, or <em>Muldane + prefers that his cats eat live food</em>. It is marked by addition of the suffix + -<strong>ua</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.29</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IPS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Impressional</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">IMPRESSIONAL</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>have an impression that, have a hunch that</em>, or + <em>feel that</em>, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in <em>I’ve + a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic</em>, or <em>Betty feels her husband + flirts too much with the secretarial pool</em>. It is marked by addition of + the suffix -<strong>üa</strong> to a conflational or valence adjunct.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="19%"><font size="4"><strong>5.5.30</strong></font></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PMS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="64%"><font size="4"><strong>The Promissory</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROMISSORY</font> corresponds to English + expressions such as <em>promise</em>, or <em>swear that</em>, indicating a self-imposed + obligation as in <em>She promised that her son would visit my daughter</em>, + or <em>Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient</em>. It + is marked by addition of the suffix -<strong>iù</strong> to a conflational + or valence adjunct.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 5.5.31 Examples of Modality in Use</h3> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%205/5-5-31.gif" width="452" height="697"> <br> + <font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-6.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-6.mp3"><img src="Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + </blockquote> +</div> +<blockquote> +<p align="justify"> </p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> + <table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + + <td height="26"> +<p><font size="4"><strong>5.6 LEVEL</strong></font><a name="Sec5o6"></a></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +<p align="justify"><strong>Level</strong> corresponds roughly to what is known + as degree of comparison in other languages. Many languages morphologically indicate + degrees of comparison as exemplified by the English suffixes -<em>er</em> and + -<em>est</em> seen in <em>great-greater-greatest</em>. Ithkuil incorporates + degrees of comparison morphologically into its valence scheme by means of tone + of the conflational adjunct (or valence or modality adjunct). Specifically, + the four tones are used to show four different comparisons, each of which is + termed a level of the verb. These levels are the <font size="2">INDETERMINATE</font>, + <font size="2">EQUATIVE</font>, <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> and <font size="2">DEFICIENT</font>, + and are explained below.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>5.6.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>IDT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Indeterminate</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by low or falling tone of the conflational, valence or + modality adjunct. The <font size="2">INDETERMINATE</font> is the default level + and indicates either 1) that no comparison is being made between the first party + and the second party, 2) that the degree of comparison between the first party + and the second party is unknown or irrelevant, or 3) that comparison is inapplicable + because the verb is monoactive (i.e., there is only one party participating).</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"><font size="4"><strong>5.6.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>EQU</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Equative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by high tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The <font size="2">EQUATIVE</font> level indicates that the first party + performs its “half” of the action equally well in comparison to + the second party. It corresponds to the English construction ‘as [well] + as’ as in <em>She sings as well as I do</em> or <em>He reads as fast as + you do</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>5.6.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>SUR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Surpassive</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by rising tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> level indicates that the first + party manifests a state or performs an action to a greater degree or extent + than the second party. It functions equivalently to English -<em>er</em> as + in <em>I ran farther than he</em>. It also corresponds to the English verbal + prefix <em>out</em>- as in <em>I out-sang him</em> (i.e., I sang longer or better + than he), although the <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> is more flexible than + the English construction, as it can be used with any of the thirteen valences + of the verb. For example, when used with the <font size="2">NONRELATIONAL</font> + valence for a verb such as ‘laugh,’ it would translate something + like <em>I laughed more/harder than anyone did anything else</em>. It can even + be used with the <font size="2">MONOACTIVE</font> valence, indicating that the + party performed the action superlatively and no one else did. For example, the + sentence <em>I laughed</em> in the <font size="2">MONOACTIVE</font> valence + and <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> level would translate as something like + <em>I was the only one laughing and my laughter was superlative</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">SURPASSIVE</font> can also be used to translate + the English -<em>est</em> superlative construction, as in <em>She is the nicest + (of all)</em> by simply naming a contextually universal second participant to + the verb, i.e., <em>She “out-nices” everyone else</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>5.6.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DFT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="69%"><font size="4"><strong>The Deficient</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Shown by broken tone of the conflational, valence or modality + adjunct. The <font size="2">DEFICIENT</font> level corresponds roughly to the + negative comparative <em>less</em> in English as in <em>This test is less difficult</em>, + as well as the verbal prefix <em>under</em>- as in <em>He under-performed tonight</em>. + Like the other levels, it can be used with any valence of the Ithkuil verb to + indicate that the performance or state of the first participant to a co-active + verb is worse or less than that of the second participant. It would thus render + sentences corresponding to <em>She “under-danced” tonight</em> (i.e., + she didn’t dance as well as she might have) or <em>The boy “under-weighs” + the girl </em>(i.e., he weighs less than her).</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 5.6.5 Examples of Level in Use</h3> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%205/5-6-5.gif" width="432" height="403"><br> + <font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-7.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">__</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-7.mp3"><img src="Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + </blockquote> +</div> +<blockquote> </blockquote> +<p align="justify"></p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="3" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td height="26"> +<p><font size="4"><strong>5.7 CASE-FRAME</strong></font><a name="Sec5o7"></a></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically + embedded within other sentences, a process termed <strong>subordination</strong>. + In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated + in the following sentences:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"> <em>The dog <strong>that ate my hat</strong> belongs to + them.<br> + I want <strong>him to stop shouting</strong>.<br> + The committee voted <strong>to fire the superintendant</strong>.<br> + We demand <strong>(that) you give us equal pay</strong>.<br> + <strong>Although he’s a college graduate</strong>, he acts like a child.<br> + This is the slot<strong> through which the letter is passed</strong>.<br> + <strong>In case you’re unaware</strong>, I’ll be leaving next + month.<br> + The boy <strong>walking toward us</strong> is my nephew.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The Ithkuil equivalent to relative or subordinate clauses is + known as a <strong>case-frame</strong>, or simply, <strong>frame</strong>. Conceptually, + the sentence to be embedded is simply treated as a noun participant to the main + verb of a sentence and is therefore marked for case like any other noun. For + example, take the following two sentences:</p> + +<blockquote> +<p align="justify"><em>She and I were working together. <br> + The two nations were at war.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal + context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + as in <em>She and I were working together while the two nations were at war</em>. + Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional + phrase, as in <em>She and I were working together during the time (that) the + two nations were at war</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided + by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> + (see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">Sec. 4.9.1</a>). A word + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the + <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> case to create a sentence corresponding to:</p> +<blockquote> +<p align="justify"><em>She and I were working together during the summer.<br> + She and I were working together at the time of the famine.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ + are placed in the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> case, so an entire sentence + such as <em>The two nations were at war</em> can be placed in the <font size="2">CONCURSIVE</font> + case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, + Ithkuil treats the entire subordinate sentence as a noun phrase to be declined + into any required case. That is the purpose of a frame, to place sentences into + noun cases. By doing so, Ithkuil accomplishes the same task for which Western + languages use relative and subordinate conjunctions. In theory, any sentence + can be placed into any of the 81 cases and inserted into another sentence wherever + a simple noun might be placed in the sentence using that same case.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 5.7.1 Placement of Frames<a name="Sec5o7o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">To construct a case-frame, the second-order sentence (i.e., + the sentence to be subordinated) is placed in the main sentence at the point + where a noun declined for the required case would appear. Unlike the usual verb-final + word order of main sentences in Ithkuil, a case-frame usually has its verb appear + as the first element of the case frame. This is to easily recognize the beginning + of the case frame. The actual case of the sentence is indicated in the verbal + formative in the same way as for nominal formatives, i.e., by mutation of the + stem vowel and mutation of the C<font size="1">2</font> radical consonant. Table + 17 below offers a review of these mutations for each of the 81 cases. If inserted + into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should + be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see <a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">Sec. + 8.1</a>) and carries a special affix which signifies the end of the frame if + this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside + the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main + sentence. </p> +<p><br> + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 17: Case-Frame Markers + (Mutation by Vowel Series and C<font size="1">2</font> Grade)</font></strong></p> +<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td width="47%" valign="top"> + <table width="86%" border="1" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td width="10%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="16%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Label</font></div></td> + <td width="47%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Case</font></div></td> + <td width="27%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Series<br> + & Grade</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OBL</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Oblique</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Absolutive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">3</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DAT</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Dative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">4</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ERG</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Ergative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">5</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EFF</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Effectuative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">6</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IND</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Inducive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">7</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFF</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Affective</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">8</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Instrumental</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">9</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ACT</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Activative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J1</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">10</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DER</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Derivative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">11</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SIT</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Situative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">12</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Possessive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">13</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Proprietive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">14</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GEN</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Genitive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">15</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ATT</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Attributive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">16</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">OGN</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Originative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">17</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PDC</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Productive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">18</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ITP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Interpretative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G2</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">19</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">APL</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Applicative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">20</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PUR</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Purposive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">21</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INH</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Inherent</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">22</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNV</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Conductive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">23</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">MED</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Mediative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">24</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CRS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Contrastive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">25</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PAR</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Partitive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">26</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CPS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Compositive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">27</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COR</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Correlative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">28</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">IDP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Interdependent</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">29</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRD</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Predicative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">30</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ESS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Essive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">31</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASI</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Assimilative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">32</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FUN</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Functive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">33</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TFM</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Transformative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">34</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REF</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Referential</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">35</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CSD</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Considerative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">36</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CLA</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Classificative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">37</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DFR</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Deferential</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H4</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">38</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COM</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Comitative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A6</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">39</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNJ</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Conjunctive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B6</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">40</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">UTL</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Utilitative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C6</font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> + </td> + <td width="53%" valign="top"> +<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="3"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><div align="center"></div></td> + <td width="18%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Label</font></div></td> + <td width="41%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Case</font></div></td> + <td width="26%"><div align="center"><font size="2">Series<br> + & Grade</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">41</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">BEN</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Benefactive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D6</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">42</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TSP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Transpositive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E6</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">43</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CMM</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Commutative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F6</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">44</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABE</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Abessive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">45</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CVS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Conversive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">46</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CON</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Concessive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">47</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EXC</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Exceptive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">48</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AVS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Adversative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">49</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PVS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Provisional</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">50</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PTL</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Postulative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">51</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SUP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Suppositive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H5</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">52</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Dependent</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G6</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">53</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CMP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Comparative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H6</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">54</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AVR</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Aversive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J6</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">55</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LOC</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Locative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">56</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ORI</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Orientative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">57</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PSV</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Procursive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">58</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALL</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Allative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">59</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABL</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Ablative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">60</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PLT</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Prolative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">61</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PEL</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Perlative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">62</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRV</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Pervasive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">63</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRH</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Peripheral</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J7</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">64</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INT</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Integral</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G9</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">65</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PSN</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Positional</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H9</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">66</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NAV</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Navigative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J9</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">67</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CNR</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Concursive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">68</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ACS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Accessive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">69</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DFF</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Diffusive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">70</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PER</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Periodic</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">71</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRO</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Prolapsive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">72</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PCV</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Precursive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">73</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PCR</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Postcursive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">G8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">74</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ELP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Elapsive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">H8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">75</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ALP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Allapsive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">J8</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">76</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INP</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Interpolative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A9</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">77</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EPS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Episodic</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">B9</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">78</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRL</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Prolimitive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">C9</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">79</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">SML</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Simultaneitive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">D9</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">80</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASS</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Assessive</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">E9</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">81</div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">LIM</font></strong></div></td> + <td>Limitative</td> + <td><div align="center"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">F9</font></div></td> + </tr> + </table> + <div align="right"></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><strong></strong>In general, the perspective of the verb in + the secondary sentence operates independently from that of the main verb, however, + it is also common for the perspective of the verb in the secondary sentence + to be placed in the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font>, which has the effect of + deferring all <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Perspective</a> + information about the verb to the main verb, similarly to the way English subordinate + clauses using gerunds and infinitives defer all tense information to the main + verb of the sentence.</p> +<p align="justify">Here is an example Ithkuil sentence containing a case frame:</p> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%205/5-7-1.gif" width="534" height="131"><br> + <font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-8.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-8.mp3"><img src="Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + </blockquote> +</div> +<blockquote> </blockquote> +<h3 align="justify"> 5.7.2 Reinterpreting the Notion of a Relative Clause</h3> +<p align="justify">There is no direct equivalent in Ithkuil to the relative clauses + of Western languages. Ithkuil treats such clauses the same as subordinate clauses + using case-frames as described above. However, the manner in which this is done, + while ultimately logical, is somewhat complex and confusing from a Western perspective. + Therefore, to analyze how Ithkuil reinterprets Western relative clauses into + subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative + clauses in Western languages such as English. </p> +<p align="justify">A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). + The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.</p> +<p align="justify">RESTRICTED CLAUSE<br> + (1) <em>Lions <strong>that like chasing their tails</strong> can be seen at + any circus.</em><br> + (2) <em>That book <strong>(that) I just finished reading</strong> was written + by a priest.</em></p> +<p align="justify">UNRESTRICTED CLAUSE<br> + (3) <em>Lions<strong>, which like chasing their tails,</strong> can be seen + at any circus.</em><br> + (4) <em>That book<strong>, which I just finished reading,</strong> was written + by a priest.</em></p> +<p align="justify">In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered + by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked + about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the + speaker was referring to.</p> +<p align="justify"> Note the difference in meaning, however, when comparing the + first two sentences to the third and fourth sentences. In the third sentence, + the speaker implies that all lions chase their tails regardless of whether they + are in the circus. In the fourth sentence, the identity of the book is already + known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts + about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. + Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and + after the clause.</p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <strong>5.7.2.1 Restricted Clauses</strong>. Ithkuil treats the above notions + about relative clauses in a different way. We will first analyze how Ithkuil + creates equivalents to restricted relative clauses. This can best be approached + by analyzing the underlying sentences which give rise to the main and relative + clauses. Analyzing Sentence No. 2 above, it can be broken up into two discrete + sentences:</p> +<p align="justify"><em>That book was written by a priest. (= A priest wrote that + book.)<br> + I just finished reading that book.</em></p> +<p align="justify"> In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on + what semantic role, i.e., case (see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 4</a>) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">Sec. + 4.1.2</a>), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the <font size="2">ABSOLUTIVE</font> + subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the <font size="2">OBLIQUE</font> + case (See <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">Section 4.3.1</a>). + Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have + the two sentences as:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-<font size="2">H</font>. + </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The ‘-<font size="2">H</font>’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common + reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked + by the OBLIQUE case (see <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">Sec. + 4.3.1</a>).</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">A priest wrote [<font size="2">OBL</font>]. I just finish + reading that book-<font size="2">H</font>. </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">As described in <a href="#Sec5o7o1">Sec. 5.7.1</a>, the verb + of the secondary sentence is moved to the beginning of the case-frame and takes + the relevant case marker (<font size="2">OBLIQUE</font>).</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">A priest wrote I just finished reading-<font size="2">OBL</font> + that book-<font size="2">H</font>.</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest + literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: <em>A priest wrote + what I just finished reading, that book</em>. However, this is how Ithkuil translates + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’</p> +<p align="justify">Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types + of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged + (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, + the exact same way that subordinate clauses are constructed in Ithkuil. Therefore, + as was previously stated, Ithkuil makes no distinction between subordinate and + relative clauses.</p> +<p align="justify">Similarly, the other example sentence from above, <em>Lions + that like chasing their tails can be seen at any circus</em> would become in + Ithkuil: <em>At any circus one can see certain lions-</em><font size="2">H</font><em> + like to chase-</em><font size="2">OBL</font><em> their tails</em>. A literal + translation into English would be: <em>At any circus one can see (that) certain + lions like chasing their tails.</em></p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <strong>5.7.2.2 Unrestricted Clauses</strong>. As for independent or unrestricted + clauses, as shown in example sentences (3) and (4) earlier, Ithkuil treats these + differently still. In Western languages, an unrestricted clause does not help + to identify a noun or provide a context for it, but simply adds additional information + about an already identified noun. Thus, unrestricted relative clauses serve + a wholly different cognitive-semantic purpose than restricted clauses, a fact + hidden by their nearly identical surface structures. Ithkuil acknowledges this + profound difference at the overt sentence level by not subordinating any clause + at all. Rather, the two sentences are given co-equal status as main clauses + and simply joined by a coordinating affix. Thus sentences (3) and (4) from earlier + become:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>One can see lions at any circus and they like chasing + their tails.<br> + A priest wrote that book and I just finished reading it.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><br> + <strong>5.7.2.3 Use of the <font size="2">INHERENT</font> Case In Lieu of Simple + Relative Clauses</strong>. In <a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">Section + 4.5.3</a> we analyzed how <font size="2">MONADIC</font> or <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font> + nouns in the <font size="2">INHERENT</font> case take on a special function + of existential identification corresponding to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ to render forms structured as “the my-wife woman,” + meaning ‘the woman who is my wife.” This construction allows a “short-cut” + way of rendering what in English would be simple relative clauses involving + descriptive identifications, eliminating the need in most cases to resort to + a case-frame. For example, the sentence <em>The man who came to dinner is my + father</em> is rendered as <em>The “my-father” man came to dinne</em>r, + where the noun father would be in the <font size="2">INHERENT</font> plus <font size="2">POSITIVE + </font>focus<font size="2"> </font> (see <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Sec. + 3.5</a>) to indicate that it is the new information being conveyed by the speaker, + i.e., to distinguish it from the reversed focus of <em>The man who is my father + came to dinner</em>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 5.7.3 Examples of Case-Frames in Use<br> + <br> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%205/5-7-3a.gif" width="561" height="154"> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-9.mp3"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Clowns/Clown7.GIF" width="74" height="91" border="0" align="top"></a><br> + <font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-9.mp3"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font>Listen!</a> + <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-5-9.mp3"><img src="Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font> + <br> +</h3> +<p align="justify"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090608022235id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%205/5-7-3b.gif" width="591" height="442"></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<blockquote> + <div align="right"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed + to Chapter 6: Additional Verb Morphology >></font></a></strong></div> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><font size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion + of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author + and this website. </font></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +</body> +</html> |