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diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm.orig b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm.orig new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b990e6c --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm.orig @@ -0,0 +1,1799 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 3: Basic Morphology</title> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<script language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//--> onLoad="javascript:changenav3();" +</script> +</head> + +<body> +<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br> + <img src="Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br> + <br> +</div> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h2 align="center"> </h2> +<h2 align="center">Chapter 3: Basic Morphology</h2> +<div align="center"> + <table width="43%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="183"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o1">3.1 Configuration</a></font></td> + <td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o5">3.5 Focus</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o2">3.2 Affiliation</a></font></td> + <td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o6">3.6 Context</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o3">3.3 Perspective</a></font></td> + <td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o7">3.7 Designation</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o4">3.4 Extension</a></font></td> + <td width="141"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec3o8">3.8 Essence</a></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><br> + As previously discussed in <a href= "ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o6o1" > + Section 2.6.1</a>, the distinction between nouns and verbs common to most languages + is rather blurred in Ithkuil. All lexical stems in Ithkuil function equally + as nouns or verbs and share many of the same morpho-semantic features and categories. + This is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns and verbs as being + cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations + of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components + are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as + verbs when discussing their morphology.</p> +<p align="justify">All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, + inflect for nine <strong>Configurations</strong>, four <strong>Affiliations</strong>, + four <strong>Perspectives</strong>, six <strong>Extensions</strong>, two <strong>Focus</strong> + distinctions, four <strong>Contexts</strong>, two <strong>Designations</strong>, + and two <strong>Essences</strong>, and can take any of more than 1300 optional + affixes. These morphological categories are explained in the sections which + follow. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <p><a name="Sec3o1"></a><strong><font size="4">3.1 CONFIGURATION</font></strong></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">To understand the Ithkuil concept of enumeration and quantification + of nouns (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze + three separate but related grammatical categories termed <strong>Configuration</strong>, + <strong>Affiliation</strong>, and <strong>Perspective</strong>. These concepts + are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which + are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical + level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological as + in Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed + by Affiliation in <a href="#Sec3o2">Section 3.2</a> and Perspective in <a href="#Sec3o3">Section + 3.3</a>.</p> +<p align="justify">Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity + or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, + sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal + composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential + structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain + English sets of words.</p> +<p align="justify">Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a + single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of + trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a + plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. + However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings + than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’</p> +<p align="justify">As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc. </p> +<p align="justify">Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further + configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships + between <em>car</em> versus <em>convoy</em>, <em>hanger</em> versus <em>rack</em>, + <em>chess piece</em> versus <em>chess set</em>, <em>sentry</em> versus <em>blockade</em>, + <em>piece of paper</em> versus <em>sheaf</em>, <em>girder</em> versus <em>(structural) + framework</em>, and <em>coin</em> versus <em>roll of coins</em> all exemplify + these principles.</p> +<p align="justify">Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary + sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two + identical referents as in <em>a pair of eyes</em>, however they are more often + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in <em>limbs</em>, + <em>ears</em>, <em>hands</em>, <em>wings</em>, etc.</p> +<p align="justify">In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above + examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis + of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made + by means of Affiliation (see <a href="#Sec3o2">Section 3.2</a> below) and by + the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in + detail in <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" onClick="javascript:changenav7();" >Chapter + 7: Using Affixes</a>.)</p> +<p align="justify">The nine configurations are the <strong><font size="2">UNIPLEX</font></strong>, + <strong><font size="2">DUPLEX</font></strong>, <strong><font size="2">DISCRETE</font></strong>, + <strong><font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font></strong>, <strong><font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font></strong>, + <strong><font size="2">COMPONENTIAL</font></strong>, <strong><font size="2">COHERENT, + COMPOSITE</font></strong>, and <strong><font size="2">MULTIFORM</font></strong>. + The function and morphology of these categories are explained below.</p> +<br> + + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>UNI</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="68%"><font size="4"><strong>The Uniplex</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> configuration is marked by + Grade 1 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and indicates + a single, contextual embodiment of the stem concept, i.e., one whole contextual + unit of the basic nominal stem, e.g., <em>a tree, a person, a screwdriver, a + grape, a hammer blow, a hole</em>. With verbs the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> + signifies a single, holistic act, state, or event, e.g., <em>to be a tree, to + become a person, to use a screwdriver, to eat a grape, to strike (once) with + a hammer, to dig a hole</em>.</p><br> + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DPX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Duplex</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> configuration is marked by + Grade 2 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and indicates + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two + identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., <em>a matched pair of + vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents</em>. Thus, the + Ithkuil word for <em>spouse</em> inflected for the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> + configuration would translate as <em>a man and wife</em> or <em>a married couple</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">One context in which the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> appears + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + exemplified by English words such as <em>bounce</em>, <em>flash</em>, <em>arc</em>, + <em>wag</em>, <em>swing</em>, <em>switch</em>, <em>breathe/respiration</em>, + indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, + in/out, empty/full, or on/off. Use of the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> in these + contexts implies a full cycling through the two complementary states involved. + For example the word for <em>hammer blow</em> inflected for the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> + would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected + for the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> signifies a single down-then-up cycle of + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + being divided by the impact.</p> +<br> + + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DCT</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Discrete </strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> configuration is marked + by Grade 3 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units that are more or less identiform (each + having the same design or physical appearance). This grouping or set-nature + can be either spatial, as in <em>a flock of gulls</em> (flying together), or + temporal (i.e., sequentially repetitive or iterative) as in <em>(a flock of) + gulls flying one after another</em>. Further examples of English nouns or noun + phrases which would be translated using the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> are + <em>a grove, a set of screwdrivers, a group of soldiers, a pile of leaves, a + bowl of grapes, a series of hammer blows, an area of holes</em>. Thus, the Ithkuil + word for <em>(identical) set</em> would simply be the word for <em>thing</em> + or <em>object</em> inflected for the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> configuration. + Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally + (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix, + -V<font size="1">1</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>šk</strong></font>, + specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o13" onClick="javascript:changenav7();">Sec. + 7.7.13</a>.</p> +<p align="justify">For verbs, the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> signifies a single + set of repetitions, whether spatially or temporally, viewed as a single holistic + event. The individual member components acts, states, or events within this + set can be either <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font>, e.g., <em>to take steps, to + flip through pages, to have spots, to dig holes in an area</em>, or <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> + in nature, e.g., <em>to hammer, to spin, to breathe</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">It should be noted that the Containment <font size="2"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#CNMaffix">CNM</a></font><a href="Ch-7%20Using%20Affixes%20Contd.htm"> + affix</a>, -V<font size="1">o</font><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">mt</font></strong>, + can be used with the <font size="2">DISCRETE, </font> as well as most of the + following configurations, to designate specifically the type of container, holder, + or means of conveyance for a configurative set (e.g., a sack, package, jar, + bottle, pile, load, etc.)<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="15%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>AGG</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Aggregative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">AGGREGATE</font> configuration is marked + by Grade 4 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and functions + like the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> above in referring to an associated + group or set of entities, except that the members of the configurational set + are not identical to one another. Examples of English words/entities which would + be translated using the <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> are <em>a forest</em> + (of different kinds of trees), <em>a toolset, a citizens group, a mixed pile + of leaves, an assortment of animals, an area of different-sized holes, a series + of musical notes</em>. With verbs, the <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> implies + a spatially or temporally repeated set of non-identical acts, events, or states + considered as a whole contextual unit. It would be used, for example, in translating + the sentence <em>This morning I dug holes in my garden</em> (i.e., of different + sizes).</p><br> + + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>SEG</strong></font></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Segmentative</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> configuration is marked + by Grade 5 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and indicates + a grouping or set of the basic stem units, the individual members of which are + physically similar or identical and are either in physical contact with one + another, physically connected via some linking medium, or in sufficiently close + contact with one another so that the group moves or operates together. Examples + would be <em>a web, a train of flatcars, a convoy of schoolbuses, a string of + pearls, a fall of leaves, a line of dancers, a parade of Barbie dolls</em> (e.g., + coming off an assembly line). To illustrate the difference between this configuration + and the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> above, we saw that the word <em>grape</em> + in the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> would be translated as <em>a serving of + grapes</em>, while in the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> it would mean <em>a + bunch of grapes</em> (i.e., still connected to each other on a portion of vine). +</p> +<p align="justify">With verbs, the use of the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> + versus the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> implies that the repetitive/iterative + nature of the act, state, or event occurs naturally due to the contextual nature + of the precipitating event or agent. It would thus be used to distinguish the + fuselage of bullets from a machine-gun from the simple hail of bullets from + single-fire weapons. Likewise, it would distinguish <em>The light is blinking + </em>from<em> The light is flashing</em>, where <em>blink</em> implies the way + in which the source naturally emits light, while <em>flash</em> implies that + the light is being made to emit repetitive bursts of light.<br> +</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>CPN</strong></font></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Componential</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COMPONENTIAL</font> configuration is marked + by Grade 6 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and operates + identically to the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> above, except that the + individual members of the configurational set are not physically similar or + identical to each other. Examples of English words/entities which would be translated + using the <font size="2">COMPONENTIAL</font> are <em>a freight train, a cascade + of (mixed) fruit (i.e., a continuous stream of fruit falling), a line of ticketholders, + a parade of floats, a pattern of musical notes</em>. With verbs, the <font size="2">COMPONENTIAL</font> + signifies a connected series of repetitions where the individual acts, events, + or states comprising the repetitive set are non-identical. It would distinguish + <em>The light twinkled </em>from <em>The light was blinking</em>. </p> +<br> + + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.7</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>COH</strong></font></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Coherent</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COHERENT</font> configuration is marked + by Grade 7 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and functions + similarly to the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> above, except that the individual + members of the configuration are connected, fused or mixed with one another + to form a coherent emergent entity, i.e., the total configuration of objects + constitutes an entirely new gestalt-like entity. Examples of English words which + would be translated using the <font size="2">COHERENT</font> are <em>a bookcase, + a phalanx, a xylophone</em>. </p> +<p align="justify">In the realm of verbs, finding English translations illustrating + the <font size="2">COHERENT</font> is difficult. If one can imagine the verb + <em>to glow</em> to mean a series of flashes blurred one into another to create + a continuous emanation, then <em>glow</em> versus <em>flash</em> might suffice. + Perhaps a better illustration would be the difference between <em>to buzz</em> + from <em>to make a set of repeating noises</em>.</p> +<br> + + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.8</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>CST</strong></font></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Composite</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"> The <font size="2">COMPOSITE</font> configuration is marked + by Grade 8 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and operates + the same as the <font size="2">COHERENT</font> above except that the individual + members of the configurational set are not identical or physically similar to + one another. Examples of words/concepts that would be translated using the <font size="2">COMPOSITE</font> + are <em>a building</em> (= a constructional set of walls, floors, doors, windows, + etc.), <em>a communications array, a conspiracy, a jungle thicket</em>. Thus + the Ithkuil words for <em>recipe, skeleton, </em>and<em> melody</em> would simply + be the words for <em>ingredient</em>, <em>bone</em>, and <em>musical note</em> + inflected for the <font size="2">COMPOSITE</font> configuration. For verbs, + the <font size="2">COMPOSITE</font> versus <font size="2">COHERENT</font> distinction + would distinguish <em>to rumble</em> from <em>to buzz</em>, or <em>to glitter</em> + from <em>to glow</em>. </p> +<br> + + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.1.9</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="4"><strong>MLT</strong></font></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Multiform</strong></font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> configuration is marked + by Grade 9 mutation of the C<font size="1">1</font> radical consonant and is + the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. + The <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> serves to identify the noun as an individual + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all + share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there + may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining + attributes of the set exclusively and exactly, other members of the set may + vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical + resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may + display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.</p> +<p align="justify">It is difficult to accurately translate into English without + resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses + using the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font>. For example, the Ithkuil word for + ‘tree’ inflected for the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> configuration + would mean something like <em>a group of what appear to be trees</em>, or better + yet, <em>a group of tree-like objects</em> (i.e., some being trees, and others + seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity + of membership varies by different degrees in comparison to an archetypical member + of the set can be expressed using the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font>. For examples, + the Ithkuil word for <em>library</em> would simply be a word meaning something + like <em>work</em> (i.e. thing authored/composed) inflected for the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font>, + signifying a hodge-podge assortment of writings and compositions (e.g., including + books, pamphlets, notebooks, ledgers, formulas, letters, journals, recordings, + magazines, etc.). Other example concepts translatable using the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> + would be <em>a rag-tag group of people, an incoherent pattern, lives in flux.</em></p> +<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">MULTIFORM</font> implies that + the individual repetitions comprising an act, state, or event have varying degrees + of spatio-temporal similarity to each other. A few English verbs such as <em>fluctuate, + sputter </em>or<em> flicker</em> capture this sense. </p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <p><a name="Sec3o2"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.2 AFFILIATION</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">While the category of Configuration from the preceding section + distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms + of physical characteristics, physical attributes or physical connections, the + category of Affiliation operates similarly to distinguish the member relationships + in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically + in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship + between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs + in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into + English.</p> +<p align="justify">Returning to our earlier example of the word <em>tree</em>, + we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes <em>a grove</em> in + the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> configuration. The word <em>grove</em> implies + that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in + regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may + be planted by design, in which case they become <em>an orchard</em>. We saw + how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed <em>a + forest</em>. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying + patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming + <em>a jungle</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">As another example, we saw how the word <em>person</em> becomes + <em>group</em>, or <em>gathering</em>, both of which are neutral as to subjective + purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates + words such as <em>team</em>, while the absence of purpose results in <em>crowd</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">There are four affiliations: <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font>, + <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font>, <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font>, and <font size="2">COALESCENT</font>. + Affiliation is marked by a word-initial vocalic prefix which varies depending + on the extension of the formative, as well as being dependent on the format + for verbs (see Sections 3.4 and 5.3 for an explanation of these respective categories). + For nouns, these prefixes are shown in <a href="#Sec3o4">Table 11 in Section + 3.4</a> on Extension. For verbs, these prefixes are shown in Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1" onClick="javascript:changenav5();">Section + 5.4.1</a>. The details of each affiliation are explained below.</p> +<br> + + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td width="16%" height="20"> <strong><font size="4">3.2.1 </font></strong></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <strong><font size="4">CSL</font></strong></td> + <td width="7%"></td> + <td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Consolidative</font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font> affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring + set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, + irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> + affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively + defined by human design. Examples are <em>tree branches, a grove, a mound of + rocks, some people, the clouds</em>. </p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font> is also the affiliation + normally applied to nouns in the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> configuration + when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> + specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: <em>a man, + a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf</em>. With verbs, the <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font> + would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral + as to purpose or design.</p> +<p align="justify">For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see Table + 11 in <a href="#Sec3o4">Section 3.4</a> below for nouns and Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1" onClick="javascript:changenav5();">Section + 5.4.1</a> for verbs.</p> +<br> + + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.2.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ASO</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Associative</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> affiliation indicates + that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective + function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the + Ithkuil word for soldier in the <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> configuration + and comparing its English translations when inflected for the <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font> + affiliation (= <em>a group of soldiers</em>) versus the <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> + (= <em>a troop, a platoon)</em>. It is this <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font> + versus <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> distinction, then, that would distinguish + otherwise equivalent <font size="2">DISCRETE</font> inflections of the Ithkuil + word for tree by translating them respectively as <em>a grove</em> versus <em>an + orchard</em>. </p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> affiliation can also + be used with nouns in the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> configuration to signify + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + For example, the word <em>person</em> inflected for the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> + and <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> would translate as <em>a single-minded + person</em>. Even nouns such as <em>rock</em>, <em>tree</em> or <em>work of + art</em> could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as <em>a well-formed + rock, a tree with integrity</em>, <em>a “balanced” work of art</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> signifies + that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The <font size="2">CONSOLIDATIVE</font> + versus <font size="2">ASSOCIATIVE</font> distinction could be used, for example, + with the verb <em>turn</em> in <em>I turned toward the window</em> to indicate + whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.</p> +<p align="justify">For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see <a href="#Sec3o4">Table + 11 in Section 3.4</a> below for nouns and Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Section + 5.4.1</a> for verbs.</p> +<br> + + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.2.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>VAR</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="6%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="66%"><font size="4"><strong>The Variative</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font> affiliation indicates that + the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, + state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees + (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at + complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font> + would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set + members (see the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> affiliation below). It would + thus be used to signify <em>a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, + a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of + books, a collection in disarray</em>. It operates with nouns in the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> + to render meanings such as <em>a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font> indicates an + act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that + those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably + be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in <em>She bought the house + for various reasons </em>or<em> My being at the party served several purposes</em>. + With non-<font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> configurations, the use of the <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font> + affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using + the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> configuration such as <em>The light is + blinking</em> in conjunction with the <font size="2">VARIATIVE</font> would + mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding + or following blinks.</p> +<p align="justify">For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see <a href="#Sec3o4">Table + 11 in Section 3.4</a> below for nouns and Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Section + 5.4.1</a><font color="#FF0000"> </font>for verbs.</p> +<br> + + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.2.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>COA</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Coalescent</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> affiliation indicates + that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship + with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For + example, the Ithkuil word translating English <em>toolset</em> would be the + word for <em>tool</em> in the <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> configuration + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> + affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function + in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example + would be the Ithkuil word for <em>finger</em> inflected for the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> + configuration and the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> affiliation, translatable + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the <font size="2">SEGMENTATIVE</font> + to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further + example would be using the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> with the word for + <em>(piece of) food</em> to signify <em>a well-balanced meal.</em></p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> naturally appears most + often in conjunction with the <font size="2">DUPLEX</font> configuration since + binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical + binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image + distinction, e.g., <em>one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings</em>. + Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., + <em>one’s eyes</em>) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> + affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., <em>one’s left and + right eye functioning together</em>).</p> +<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">COALESCENT</font> signifies + that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which + make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure + onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in + complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for + example, to distinguish the sentences <em>He traveled in the Yukon</em> from + <em>He ventured in the Yukon</em>, or <em>I came up with a plan</em> versus + <em>I fashioned a plan</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">For the set of prefixes which mark this affiliation, see <a href="#Sec3o4">Table + 11 in Section 3.4</a> below for nouns and Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Section + 5.4.1</a> for verbs.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top"> + <p><a name="Sec3o3"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.3. PERSPECTIVE</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<div align="justify"><br> + Perspective is the closest Ithkuil morphological category to the Number and + Tense categories of other languages (e.g., singular/plural and past/present/future). + However, the correspondence is only approximate because Perspective does not + specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within + a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the + manner in which it is <em>spatio-temporally instantiated</em>. Specifically, + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), + 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), + 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as + a spatio-temporally neutral abstraction. How this works requires separate explanations + for nouns and verbs. </div> +<p align="justify"><strong>Perspective with Nouns</strong>. What Perspective means + for nouns is that, in addition to merely indicating whether a given spatial + context contains one or more than one, it also specifies single versus multiple + manifestations in time, as well as along an axis of concreteness versus abstraction. + Complicating the picture is the fact that the categories of Configuration and + Affiliation (see<font color="#FF0000"> </font><a href="#Sec3o1">Secs. 3.1</a><font color="#FF0000"> + </font>and<font color="#FF0000"> </font><a href="#Sec3o2">3.2</a> above) already + contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided. </p> +<p align="justify"><strong>Perspective with Verbs</strong>. For verbs, the aspect + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + categories of Western languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly progressive + time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, + if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o4">Sec. + 6.4</a>).</p> +<p align="justify">There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: <font size="2">MONADIC</font>, + <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>, <font size="2">NOMIC</font>, and <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font>. + They are shown morpho-phonologically by shifts in a formative’s syllabic + stress patterns. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is detailed + below.</p><br> + + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.3.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>M</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Monadic</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MONADIC</font> signifies a bounded embodiment + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted + in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. + This is important, since configurations other than the <font size="2">UNIPLEX</font> + technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking + place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or + psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically + the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns as <em>spatially + reified</em> concepts while considering verbs to be their <em>temporally “activized”</em> + counterparts (<a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o6o1">see Section 2.6.1</a>).</p> +<p align="justify">Thus, using the word <em>tree</em> for example, while there + might be many trees present in terms of number, the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> + implies they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category + is manifested. Using the <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> configuration as + an example, the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> would mean there is only one <font size="2">AGGREGATIVE</font> + set of trees, i.e., one <em>forest</em>. </p> +<p align="justify">At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective + that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., <em>one apple, four boys, several + nations</em>), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., <em>water, + sand, plastic, air, laughter</em>). All nouns are countable in Ithkuil in that + all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations + of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”</p> +<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> superficially + corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories + except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed + by the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> means that the act, state, or event is + temporally contiguous and accessible from the point of view of the present context. + It would be used to describes an act, state, or event which:</p> +<ul> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">takes + place entirely in the present context</font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">started + in the accessible past and has continued on into the present context</font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">starts + within the present context and continues on into an accessible future </font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">started + in an inaccessible past, but only the portion taking place in the present + context is being addressed or is under consideration or relevant within + the context of the utterance</font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">starts + within the present context and may continue into an inaccessible future, + but only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance</font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, but + only the portion taking place in the present context is being addressed + or is under consideration or relevant within the context of the utterance + </font> </div> + </li> +</ul> +<p align="justify">By “accessible past” or “accessible future” + is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present + at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically + contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as + one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected + predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which + he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">MONADIC</font> is marked by penultimate + stress on the noun or verb (i.e. stress on the second-to-last syllable).</p><br> + + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.3.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>U</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Unbounded</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font> signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun + or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic + (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient + translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps + of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’ +</p> +<p align="justify">For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the + psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible + from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:</p> +<ul> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> occurs + entirely in the inaccessible past </font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">will + occur entirely in the inaccessible future </font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">may + be occurring in the present context but started in an inaccessible past, + and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account that past portion </font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">may + be occurring in the present context but will continue into an inaccessible + future, and the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood + without taking into account the future portion</font></div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">started + in an inaccessible past and will continue into an inaccessible future, and + the portion occurring in the present context cannot be understood without + taking into account these inaccessible portions</font></div> + </li> +</ul> +<p align="justify">If necessary to specify whether the <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font> + is referencing the past versus the future, additional aspectual markers can + be employed (see <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o4">Sec. 6.4</a> + on Aspect). Note that, even more so than with the <font size="2">MONADIC</font>, + translation of the <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font> into Western languages is + subjective, as the translation must necessarily convey linear tense information + which is not conveyed by the Ithkuil original.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font> is shown by ultimate syllabic + stress (i.e., on the final syllable).</p><br> + + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.3.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>N</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Nomic<a name="Sec3o3o3"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NOMIC</font> refers to a generic collective + entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative + set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). + Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, + this category is mutually exclusive from the <font size="2">MONADIC</font> or + <font size="2">UNBOUNDED</font>. For nouns, the <font size="2">NOMIC</font> + corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to + collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences <em><strong>The dog</strong> + is a noble beast, <strong>Clowns</strong> are what children love most, There + is nothing like <strong>a tree</strong></em>. </p> +<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">NOMIC</font> designates an action, + event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently + true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific + instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances + or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of + expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. + Examples of usage would be <em>The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele + is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">NOMIC</font> is shown by antepenultimate + stress (i.e., on the third-from-last syllable).</p> +<p align="justify"></p><br> + + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.3.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>A</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Abstract<a name="Sec3o3o4"></a></strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes + such as -hood or -ness, the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> transforms a configurative + category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless + context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via + suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into + abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., + <em>grove</em> <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + <em>the idea of being a grove</em> or <em>“grovehood”</em>; <em>book</em> + <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> everything + about books, having to do with books, involvement with books</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">With verbs, the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> is used in verbal + constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship + of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, + similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes + for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: + <em><strong>Singing</strong> is not his strong suit; It makes no sense <strong>to + worry</strong> about it; I can't stand her <strong>pouting</strong></em>. As + a result, the <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> acts as a "timeless" + verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in + conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. + The <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> is often used in conjunction with certain + modalities and moods of the verb (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm#Sec5o5">Sec. + 5.5 on Modality</a> and <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o5">Sec. + 6.5 on Mood</a>) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which + the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">ABSTRACT</font> is marked in either of two + ways: (1) by preantepenultimate stress, i.e., on the fourth-to-last syllable, + or (2) by a combination of ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic + vowel -<strong>ï</strong>- or -<strong>a</strong>- in any morpho-phonologically + permissible position of the word (as previously described in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o7o3o3">Sec. + 2.7.3.3</a>). This extra vowel can be placed at any position within the word + except within the stem, as long as the vowel does not lead to confusion or ambiguity + in interpreting the phonological boundaries of any other suffixes to the stem. + (Note that in word-final position, only anatyctic -<strong>a</strong>, not -<strong>ï</strong>, + is permitted.)</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> + +<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top"> + <p><a name="Sec3o4"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.4 EXTENSION</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Extension is another Ithkuil morphological category for which + there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives + and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms + of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. There are six extensions: <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font>, + <font size="2">PROXIMAL</font>, <font size="2">INCEPTIVE</font>, <font size="2">TERMINATIVE</font>, + <font size="2">DEPLETIVE</font>, and <font size="2">GRADUATIVE</font>, shown + by a vocalic prefix to the formative in conjunction with Affiliation for nouns + (see <a href="#Sec3o2">Sec. 3.2</a> above) and Affiliation plus Format for verbs + (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Section 5.4</a> on Format). + The table below shows these prefixes for nouns. The prefixes for verbs are shown + in Table 14 in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4">Section 5.4</a>. + How Extension operates is explained in detail following the table.</p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table 11: Word-Initial Affiliation/Extension + Prefixes for Nominal Formatives</strong></font></p> +<table width="77%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="3"><div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AFFILIATION</font></div> + <div align="center"></div></td> + <td colspan="6"><div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"></div> + <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">EXTENSION</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="12%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEL</font></div></td> + <td width="10%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PRX</font></div></td> + <td width="11%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ICP</font></div></td> + <td width="12%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TRM</font></div></td> + <td width="12%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DPL</font></div></td> + <td width="13%"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">GRD</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DELIMITIVE</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">PROXIMAL</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">INCEPTIVE</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="1">TERMINATIVE</font></font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="1">DEPLETIVE</font></font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="1">GRADUATIVE</font></font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong>CSL</strong></div></td> + <td width="21%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CONSOLIDATIVE</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>(a-)*</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>â-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ai-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>au-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ä-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ö-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong>ASO</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ASSOCIATIVE</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>u-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>û-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ui-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>iu-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ü-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ë-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong>VAR</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">VARIATIVE</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>e-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ê-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ei-</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>eu- </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ëi- </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ëu-</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong>COA</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COALESCENT</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>i- </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>î- </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>o- </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ô- </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ae- </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>ea-</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<strong>*</strong> <font size="2">This <strong>a-</strong> prefix is optional +if the nominal versus verbal status of the formative can be determined from other +morphological elements or if the meaning of the phrase or sentence is clear regardless +of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.</font><br> +<p> +</p> +<br> + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.1</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DEL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Delimitive</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font> extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with + clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, + edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be + considered the neutral or default view, e.g., <em>a tree, a grove, a set of + books, an army</em>. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence + <em>He climbed the ladder</em> would be translated with the word <em>ladder</em> + in the <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font> to show it is being considered as a + whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is + being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., <em>She diets + every winter</em> (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet).</p> +<table width="87%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td><div align="justify">The <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font> can be thought + of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, + beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to + the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in + the <font size="2">DELIMITIVE</font> to the context at-hand (i.e., the + spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td> + <td><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-1.gif" width="344" height="203"></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.2</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>PRX</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Proximal</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">PROXIMAL</font> extension indicates that + a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the + portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. + It would be used to translate the words <em>tree</em>, <em>journey</em>, and + <em>ladder</em> in the sentences <em>That tree is hard there</em> (e.g., in + the spot where I hit against it), <em>She lost weight during her journey</em>, + or <em>He climbed on the ladder</em> (i.e., it is not relevant to the context + to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, + the <font size="2">PROXIMAL</font> does not refer to a specific or delineated + piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that + delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the + tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this + extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which + is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., <em>She’s on a diet + every winter</em> (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + the total time spent dieting from start to finish). </p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="55%"><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates + the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the <font size="2">PROXIMAL</font> + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td> + <td width="45%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-2.gif" width="356" height="251"></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.3</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>ICP</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Inceptive</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INCEPTIVE</font> extension focuses on the + closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion + of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would + be used in translating the nouns <em>tunnel</em>, <em>song</em>, <em>desert</em>, + <em>daybreak</em> and <em>plan</em> in the following sentences: <em>We looked + into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song </em>(i.e., from the + first few notes)<em>, They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan</em> (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in <em>He began reading, It’s + starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter</em>.</p> +<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the <font size="2">INCEPTIVE</font> + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td> + <td><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-3.gif" width="361" height="227"></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.4</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>TRM</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Terminative</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">TERMINATIVE</font> extension focuses on + the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without + focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would + be used in translating the words <em>water</em>, <em>story</em>, and <em>arrival</em> + in the sentences <em>There’s no water</em> (i.e., we ran out), <em>I like + the end of that story</em>, and <em>We await your arrival</em>. With verbs, + it is illustrated by the sentences <em>It finished molting</em> or <em>She’s + come off her diet</em>.</p> +<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the <font size="2">TERMINATIVE</font> + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td> + <td><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-4.gif" width="378" height="246"></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.5</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>DPL</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Depletive</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">DEPLETIVE</font> extension focuses on the + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the + at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. + It would be used in translating the words <em>water</em>, <em>strength</em>, + and <em>twilight</em> in the sentences <em>He drank the last of the water, I + have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight</em>. With verbs, + it is exemplified by the phrases <em>to wind down, to fade out, to disappear + gradually</em> and similar notions, e.g., <em>She’s eating less and less + these days</em>.</p> +<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="38%"><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the <font size="2">DEPLETIVE</font> + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td> + <td width="62%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-5.gif" width="373" height="237"></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify"> </h3> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><font size="4"><strong>3.4.6</strong></font></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>GRD</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="7%"><div align="center"><font size="4"></font></div></td> + <td width="67%"><font size="4"><strong>The Graduative</strong></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">GRADUATIVE</font> extension is the inverse + of the <font size="2">DEPLETIVE</font>, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words <em>darkness</em>, + <em>wonder</em>, and <em>music</em> in the following sentences: <em>Darkness + came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first</em>. + With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as <em>to fade in, to + start gradually, to build up</em>, and similar notions, e.g., <em>She’s + been eating more and more lately</em>.</p> +<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="50%"><div align="justify">The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal + relationship of a noun in the <font size="2">GRADUATIVE</font> to the + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).</div></td> + <td width="50%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-6.gif" width="371" height="215"></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"></p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<h3 align="justify">3.4.7 Examples of Configuration, Affiliation, and Extension</h3> +<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="26%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7a.gif" width="73" height="69"></td> + <td width="23%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7b.gif" width="78" height="66"></td> + <td width="9%"> </td> + <td width="15%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7c.gif" width="73" height="65"></td> + <td width="27%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7d.gif" width="76" height="67"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>‘piece of clothing’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td> + <td><em>‘set/suit of clothes’</em></td> + <td> </td> + <td><em>‘hand’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td> + <td><em>‘pair of hands’</em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<em><br> +<br> +</em> +<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%" height="79"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7e.gif" width="70" height="70"></td> + <td width="34%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7f.gif" width="79" height="75"></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="15%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7g.gif" width="71" height="72"></td> + <td width="27%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7h.gif" width="116" height="74"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>‘oak tree’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td> + <td><em>‘trailing edge of an oak forest’</em></td> + <td> </td> + <td><em>‘upland’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td> + <td><em>‘foothills’</em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<em><br> +<br> +</em> +<table width="88%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7i.gif" width="73" height="68"></td> + <td><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7j.gif" width="78" height="65"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>‘something yellow’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td> + <td><em>‘a mess of varying yellow things as far as the eye can see’</em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<table width="92%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%" height="73"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7k.gif" width="71" height="73"></td> + <td width="17%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7l.gif" width="72" height="70"></td> + <td width="66%"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-4-7m.gif" width="315" height="69"> + <a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-1.mp3"><img src="Images/Clowns/Clown4.GIF" width="89" height="67" border="0"></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>‘clown’</em></td> + <td><em>‘running <br> + stride’ <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em></td> + <td><em>‘Something makes the group of running clowns begin stumbling’ + </em><strong>or</strong><em><br> + ‘The group of clowns are made to begin stumbling as they run.’</em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<font color="#FFFFFF"> _______________________________</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-1.mp3">Listen!</a> +<a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-1.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br> +<br> +<em></em><br> +<br> + +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <p><a name="Sec3o5"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.5 FOCUS</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Focus, is a two-way, positive versus negative distinction labeled + <strong>+FC</strong> <font size="2">FOCUSED</font> and <strong>-FC</strong> + <font size="2">UNFOCUSED</font> which is applicable to all formatives, whether + functioning as nouns or verbs. The concept of semantic focus refers to what + information in an utterance is to be considered new information as opposed to + background context. The specifics are explained below and are best understood + through various English illustrations.</p> +<p align="justify">In any given discourse (i.e., a contextual series of utterances + such as a conversation, a story, an account of an event, etc.), any single sentence + of that discourse will likely make reference to previously mentioned material + as background, as well as present new material to further the purpose of the + discourse. Semantic focus refers to those elements of a sentence which constitute + new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence + <em>My dog jumps through hoops</em> could function as an answer to several different + questions such as 1) <em>What tricks can your dog do?</em>, or 2) <em>Does your + dog do anything with hoops? </em>or 3) <em>Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops?</em> or even 4) <em>What’s up with you?</em> + In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + would have semantic focus while the dog is background material. In answering + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + focus while both the dog and the hoops would be background material. In answering + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + while jumping through hoops would be backgrounded. Lastly, in answering the + fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all + elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. + In general, English conveys focus by a shift in vocal inflection (tone and pitch + contours) to provide emphasis.</p> +<p align="justify">Focus does not necessarily require a full discourse to have + semantic relevance; it can occur within a single autonomous sentence, in which + case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously + begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In + English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + responding, e.g., <em>Oh, you have a dog?</em> or <em>Oh, does he do any other + tricks? </em>or <em>Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops?</em> or an equally + neutral response such as <em>Oh, you don’t say?</em></p> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil uses the Focus category to accomplish the same options + that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. Any formative or formatives + within an Ithkuil sentence can be marked as <font size="2">FOCUSED</font> to + convey semantic focus. The <font size="2">UNFOCUSED</font> option operates as + the opposing neutral default condition. Focus can be used to subtly distinguish + what in Ithkuil would otherwise be identical sentence. For example, compare + the following two English sentences:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>After I shopped, I went home. <br> + I shopped before I went home</em>.</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Both sentences indicate two sequential events: shopping, then + going home. The difference between them is one of focus. In the first sentence, + <em>I went home</em> has semantic focus, as that is the new information being + conveyed, while in the second sentence it is <em>I shopped</em> that has focus. + In Ithkuil, both sentences would be translated as <em>(First) I shopped then + went home</em>, the only distinction being the <strong>+FC</strong> <font size="2">FOCUSED</font> + distinction applied to the verb phrase <em>went home</em> in the first sentence, + and to the verb <em>shopped</em> in the second sentence.</p> +<p align="justify">As a further examination of Focus, compare these two very similar + English sentences:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>Mother entered the room and turned on the lights.<br> + Mother entered the room and she turned on the lights.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">In the first sentence, the absence of the reduplicative pronoun + ‘she’ before ‘turned’ implies that the entire sentence + is to considered as one reported event with no particular element having the + focus. In the second sentence, however, the reduplicative ‘she’ + implies the sentence is to viewed as two separate events, the first reported + as background, the second having the focus. (For example, one might utter the + second sentence as a complaint about the lights being turned on.) The Ithkuil + equivalents to these sentences would contain no such pronoun distinction. Instead, + the nuances of the second sentence would be conveyed by marking the equivalent + of the verb form as <font size="2">FOCUSED</font>.</p> +<p align="justify">Finally, Focus functions to disambiguate sentences such as + <em>Chicago defeated Oakland, too</em>, which means either (1) ‘Chicago + was one of the teams that defeated Oakland,’ or (2) ‘Oakland was + one of the teams that Chicago defeated.’ Ithkuil would mark one team name + or the other as <font size="2">FOCUSED </font>to show which of these two meanings + is implied.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">UNFOCUSED</font> attribute is morpho-phonologically + unmarked in Ithkuil, i.e., it is indicated by the absence of any overt change + in the phonological structure of a formative, or by any affix or adjunct. The + <font size="2">FOCUSED</font> attribute is shown in one of three ways for formatives:</p> +<ul> + <li>by insertion of a -<strong>w</strong>- infix within a formative immediately + following the <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radical consonant(s), + or</li> + <li>by addition of the suffix -<strong>V<font size="1">1</font>’</strong> + in several of its degrees (see <a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm#Sec7o7o13">Sec. + 7.7.13</a>)</li> + <li><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o2">Sec. 5.2</a> and <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o4o5">Sec. + 6.4.5</a> will show additional ways to manifest positive focus within certain + types of adjuncts.<br> + </li> +</ul> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top"> + <p><a name="Sec3o6"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.6 CONTEXT</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Context is yet another morphological category with no equivalent + in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects + of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There + is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four + contexts: the <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font>, the <font size="2">FUNCTIONAL</font>, + the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font>, and the <font size="2">AMALGAMATE</font>, + marked by each of the four tones on the formative. They are explained and illustrated + below.</p> +<br> + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.6.1 </font></strong></td> + <td width="10%" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="4">EXS</font></strong></td> + <td width="7%"><font size="4"> </font></td> + <td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Existential</font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<div align="justify"><br> + The <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font> context is marked by falling tone on the + formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically + objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, + beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font> + is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font> + serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective + entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun + or verb. </div> +<p align="justify">For example, consider the sentence <em>A cat ran past the doorway</em>. + If the Ithkuil words corresponding to <em>cat</em>, <em>run</em>, and <em>doorway</em> + are in the <font size="2">EXISTENTIAL</font>, then the sentence merely describes + an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature + of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that + two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; + those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely + conveys the nature of the spatial relationship. </p> +<br> + +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.6.2</font></strong></td> + <td width="10%" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="4">FNC</font></strong></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Functional</font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<div align="justify"><br> + The <font size="2">FUNCTIONAL</font> context is marked by high tone on the formative. + It focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, + attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, + etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that + the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose. +</div> +<p align="justify">For example, in our previous sentence <em>A cat ran past the + doorway</em>, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into + the <font size="2">FUNCTIONAL</font>, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) + significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could + get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the <font size="2">FUNCTIONAL</font> + now implies the furtive nature of the cat.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.6.3</font></strong></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="4">RPS</font></strong></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Representational<a name="Sec3o6o3"></a></font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<div align="justify"><br> + The <font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font> context is marked by rising tone. + It focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym*, in that it indicates + that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other + concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical + connotations of the English sentence <em>That pinstripe-suited dog is checking + out a kitty</em>, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font> + context. The <font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font> is one of several ways that + Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from + a grammatical standpoint). </div> +<p align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">* Metonymy + is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from <em>the White House</em>,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook <em>the ham-and-cheese</em> wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘<em>You-know-who</em> just showed up.’<br> + </font><br> +</p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.6.4</font></strong></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong><font size="4">AMG</font></strong></td> + <td width="7%"> </td> + <td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Amalgamate<a name="Sec3o6o4"></a></font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> The <font size="2">AMALGAMATE</font> context is marked by + broken tone. It is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western + linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, + componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective + totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the + interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary + appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun + and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) + within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting + the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, + psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with + the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, + intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. + Thus the <font size="2">AMALGAMATE</font> version of our sentence <em>The cat + ran past the doorway</em> would take on quite melodramatic implications, with + the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, + the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of + change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while + the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of + movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<br> + +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top"> + <p><a name="Sec3o7"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.7 DESIGNATION</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><strong>Designation</strong> is a somewhat subjective category, + with no equivalent in Western languages. Previously mentioned briefly in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Sec. + 2.3</a>, it refers to a two-fold distinction in a formative regarding its contextual + status, authority, permanence, or extra-contextual relevance. The two designations + are the <font size="2">INFORMAL</font> and the <font size="2">FORMAL</font>, + explained below.<br> +</p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="16%"><strong><font size="4">3.7.1 </font></strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="4">-FR</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="5%"> </td> + <td width="67%"> <strong><font size="4">The Informal</font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">INFORMAL</font> designation is marked by + Form I of vocalic mutation (see <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Section + 2.2.3</a>). It indicates that the noun or verb in question does not exist in + a necessarily permanent state, or is to be considered only for the duration + of the context in which it is spoken, with any lasting effect, influence or + permanency beyond the context being either absent, unknown or irrelevant.<br> +</p> +<table width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="17%"><strong><font size="4">3.7.2</font></strong></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="4">+FR</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + <td width="68%"> <strong><font size="4">The Formal</font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FORMAL</font> designation is marked by Form + II of vocalic mutation (see<font color="#FF0000"> <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Section + 2.2.3</a></font>). The <font size="2">FORMAL</font> imparts a sense of permanency + and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional + manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if + the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ + ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the <font size="2">INFORMAL</font> + would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and + ‘archetype’ in the <font size="2">FORMAL</font>.</p> +<p align="justify">The <font size="2">FORMAL</font> achieves several subtle purposes + from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate + the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., <em>to hurt, to float, + breath, to fall, shade, sleep, cough</em>), many stems would have different + translations in English depending on their designation. For example, the stem + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>qum</strong></font> with the + affiliated meanings <em>person <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + group <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> gathering + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> crowd <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + throng</em>, etc. in the <font size="2">INFORMAL</font> designation would change + to the following series of approximate translations when placed in the <font size="2">FORMAL</font> + designation: <em>official <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + team <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> association/congregation + <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> assembly <img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + masses</em>, etc.</p> +<p align="justify">Further examples of lexical shifts in translation due to <font size="2">INFORMAL</font><em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + <font size="2">FORMAL</font> designation are listed below:</p> +<table width="80%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="6%"> </td> + <td width="58%">to grow something <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + to cultivate</td> + <td width="36%">wander <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + travel</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>obtain/get <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + procure/requisition</td> + <td>lake <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + reservoir</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>(natural) holder <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + container</td> + <td>see <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + observe</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>to create <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + construct/build</td> + <td>heap <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + pile</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>animal <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + domesticated animal</td> + <td>a thought <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + an idea</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>natural environment <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em>“man-made” + environment</td> + <td>awareness <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + consciousness</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>[natural] exchange <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + trade/commerce</td> + <td>house <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + home</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>assortment of animals <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + zoo collection </td> + <td>grouping <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + set</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>to group/gather <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + collect</td> + <td>wall <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + barrier</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>get some exercise <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + to work out</td> + <td>placidity <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + peace</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td>problem situation <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + crisis</td> + <td>to populate <em><img src="Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></em> + to settle</td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> As can be seen from the above list, the exact interpretation + of Designation for each word-root is specific to each word-root, depending on + its associated semantic context.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p><br> + +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> +<p><a name="Sec3o8"></a><font size="4"><strong>3.8 ESSENCE</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which + has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to + various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English + sentences:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"> 1a) <em>The boy ran off to sea.</em><br> + 1b) <em>The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.</em></p> + <p align="justify">2a) <em>The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.</em><br> + 2b) <em>The dog you saw doesn’t exist.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences + in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences + (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized + contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would + make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the + plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store + owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is now no longer there.</p> +<p align="justify">Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world + meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, + but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative + versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is + essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western + languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated + by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., <em>must, can, should</em>, etc. + as seen in the following:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify">3) <em>You must come home at once.</em><br> + 4) <em>That girl can sing better than anybody.</em><br> + 5) <em>We should attack at dawn.</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, + not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, + in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home + is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever + again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether + any attack will actually occur.<br> +</p> +<br> +<table width="51%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="14%"><strong><font size="4">3.8.1</font></strong></td> + <td width="13%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><strong><font size="4">NRM</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + <td width="70%"> <strong><font size="4">The Normal<a name="Sec3o8o1"></a></font></strong></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><div align="center"><font size="4"><strong>RPV</strong></font></div></td> + <td> </td> + <td><strong><font size="4">The Representative</font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The Ithkuil category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world + actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The + two essences are termed <font size="2">NORMAL</font> and <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font>, + the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the + latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, + Ithkuil allows a speaker to express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world + versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from + an explanatory context.</p> +<p align="justify">Essence is morpho-phonologically marked by primary versus secondary + mode of vocalic mutation, as previously described in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o3">Sec. + 2.2.3</a> and fully illustrated in <a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm#Sec2o2o5">Sec. + 2.5</a>. The <font size="2">NORMAL</font> is marked by the primary mode while + the <font size="2">REPRESENTATIVE</font> is marked by secondary mode. </p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 3.8.2 Examples of Essence in Use</h3> +<p align="justify"><img src="Images/Ch%203/3-8-2a.gif" width="450" height="119"><font color="#FFFFFF">_</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-2.mp3">Listen!</a> + <a href="Sound_Files/Ch-3-2.mp3"><img src="Images/Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font></p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <img src="Images/Ch%203/3-8-2b.gif" width="609" height="210"></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="right"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm" onClick="javascript:changenav4();">Proceed + to Chapter 4: Case Morphology >></a></strong></font></p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><font size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. 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