diff options
Diffstat (limited to '2004-en/Chapter_10.html')
| -rw-r--r-- | 2004-en/Chapter_10.html | 1478 |
1 files changed, 1478 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/2004-en/Chapter_10.html b/2004-en/Chapter_10.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac48a1f --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/Chapter_10.html @@ -0,0 +1,1478 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title>Untitled Document</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +.style2 { font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; + font-weight: bold; + color: #999999; +} +.style3 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; font-size: small; color: #0000FF; } +.style7 { font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style8 {color: #FF0000} +.style9 { + font-size: large; + font-weight: bold; +} +.style10 {font-size: large} +.style11 {font-weight: bold; font-size: small; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;} +.style12 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif} +.style13 {font-size: small} +.style14 {font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small; } +.style32 {font-size: x-small} +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> +<h2 align="center" class="style2">Ilaksh: A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</h2> +<table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="22%" rowspan="7"><div align="center" class="style2"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></div></td> + <td width="23%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="24%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="31%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18" class="style11"><a href="index.html">Home</a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style11">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style11">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18" class="style11"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style11">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style11">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style11">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style11">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style11">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style11">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style11">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style11">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style11">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style11">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style11">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<h2 align="center"><strong>Chapter 10: Lexico-Semantics </strong></h2> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="21%"> </td> + <td width="34%"><a href="#Sec10o1">10.1 Systemic Morphological Derivation </a> </td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + <td width="37%"><a href="#Sec10o5">10.5 Lexical Generalization </a> </td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec10o2">10.2 Phonological Classification of Roots </a> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec10o6">10.6 Lexical Differentiation </a></td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec10o3">10.3 Dimensional and Descriptive Oppositions </a></td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec10o7">10.7 Comparison to Western Categorization </a></td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#Sec10o4">10.4 Spatial Position and Orientation </a></td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p>The term <strong>lexico-semantics</strong> refers to the relationship + between the lexicon of a language (i.e., its root-words and word-stems) and + the various possible semantic categories created by the human mind. Every language + (and particularly every language family) divides the world up differently in + terms of what sorts of concepts are made into words and how the meanings of + those words reflect the reality around us. In other words, the lexico-semantics + of a language answers the questions <em>what semantic concepts does this language + psycho-linguistically categorize into autonomous words and how are each of these +categories internally organized?</em></p> +<p align="justify">Lexico-semantics is extremely important in Ilaksh for two + related reasons:</p> +<p align="justify">1) Ilaksh morpho-phonology only allows for 3600 possible root + words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be + conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range + of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.</p> +<p align="justify">2) We have seen throughout this work how Ilaksh’s matrix-like + grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of + morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from + word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. + In order to ensure the maximum amount of dynamism in deriving new concepts morphologically + from existing word-roots, it is important that those initial roots be carefully + selected in terms of meaning.</p> +<p align="justify">In this chapter, we will examine the many considerations that + go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally + accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics + of Ilaksh morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.” </p> +<p align="justify">We will start first with a review of key components in the + systemic design of Ilaksh morphology. This will be followed by sections on + those areas of Ilaksh lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from + Western languages. </p> +<p align="justify">The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, + examining how Ilaksh lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.</p> +<p> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>10.1 SYSTEMIC MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATION<a name="Sec10o1" id="Sec10o1"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh systematically uses its myriad of morphological categories + to derive secondary concepts from more basic concepts, often eliminating the + need for separate lexicalization, i.e., eliminating the need to create separate + word-roots for new but related concepts as is so often the case in Western languages. + We will explore this system of morphological derivation more closely, particularly + in regard to its universality across the spectrum of Ilaksh word-roots.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.1.1 Stem Derivation from Roots<a name="Sec10o1o1" id="Sec10o1o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">We have already seen many applied examples of the above-described + concepts, particularly in <a href="Chapter_2.html">Section + 2.4</a> et seq. regarding the use of the three different syllabic stress patterns to derive a trinary array of interrelated stems from a root, as well as mutating the root-consonant of those trinary stems to in turn derive two separate arrays + of complementary stems from the initial holistic array of stems. Through this + system of stress patterns and consonant mutation, we saw how a single root generates no + less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This + is illustrated below using the example root <span class="style10"><strong>dù-</strong></span>‘<font size="2">TRANSLATIVE MOTION</font>’. </p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="638" height="29" colspan="4"><div align="center"><strong>DÙ- </strong>‘<font size="2">TRANSLATIVE MOTION</font>’</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="34" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style12"><span class="style13">INFORMAL</span> Designation</div></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style12"><span class="style13">FORMAL</span> Designation</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="53" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>1. <strong>dù</strong>- <span class="style14">move/motion from one place to another</span></div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>1. <strong>ùdu</strong>- <span class="style14">travel/traverse; journey</span></div> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="54" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>2. <strong>adù</strong>- <span class="style14">set in motion/self-directed movement from one place to another</span></div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>2. <strong>udù</strong>- <span class="style14">set off for/journey to/directed travel toward</span></div> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="70" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>3. <strong>àdu(la)</strong>- <span class="style14">move/movement between one place and another (i.e., along line between two points)</span><br /> + <br /> + </div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>3. <strong>ùdu(la)</strong>- <span class="style14">travel/journey along way between two places</span></div> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="32" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style12">COMPLEMENTARY STEMS</div></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style12">COMPLEMENTARY STEMS</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="160" height="60" valign="top"><div>1. <strong>tpù</strong>-<span class="style14"> go = movement outward/away</span><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>1. -<strong>ddù</strong>- <span class="style14">come = movement inward/toward</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>1. <strong>ùtpu</strong>- <span class="style14">go traveling, be off</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>1. <strong>ùddu</strong>- j<span class="style14">ourney to(ward)</span></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="160" height="87" valign="top"><div>2. <strong>atpù</strong>- <span class="style14">go away/move away = increase distance from a starting point</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>2. <strong>addù</strong>- <span class="style14">come toward/to close the distance = decrease distance toward endpoint</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>2. <strong>utpù</strong>- <span class="style14">travel/journey further away from starting point</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>2. <strong>uddù</strong>- <span class="style14">reach vicinity of, close in on destination</span></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>3. <strong>àtpu(la)</strong>-<span class="style14"> leave/depart = move away from one point towards another</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>3. <strong>àddu(la)</strong>- <span class="style14">approach = approach one point from direction of another</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>3. <strong>ùtpu(la)</strong>- <span class="style14">depart/departure from starting point on journey toward elsewhere</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>3. <strong>ùddu(la)</strong>- <span class="style14">arrive/arrival, reach destination </span></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br /> + As described in <a href="Chapter_2.html">Chapter 2</a>, this hierarchical pattern of stem + derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically + interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically + from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other + languages. The above root<strong> <span class="style10">dù</span>-</strong> demonstrates how concepts such <em>come</em> versus <em>go</em> are expressed as complementary derivations of a single underlying concept <font size="2">TRANSLATIVE + MOTION</font>. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective +are similarly patterned, e.g., <em>lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take</em>, etc.</p> +<p align="justify">Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological + taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated + below:</p> +<table border="1" align="center" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="638" height="29" colspan="4"><div align="center"><strong>BẸ- </strong>‘<font size="2">MAMMAL</font>’</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="34" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style12"><span class="style13">INFORMAL</span> Designation</div></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style12"><span class="style13">FORMAL</span> Designation</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="53" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>1. <strong>bẹ</strong>- <span class="style14">marsupial</span></div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>1. <strong>ụbe</strong>- <span class="style14">tamed/domesticated/pet marsupial </span></div> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="54" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>2. <strong>abẹ</strong>- <span class="style14">ovoviviparous (egg-laying) mammal </span></div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>2. <strong>ubẹ</strong>-<span class="style14">tamed/domesticated/pet </span><span class="style14">ovoviviparous (egg-laying) mammal</span></div> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="51" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>3. <strong>ạbe(la)</strong>- <span class="style14">placental mammal </span><br /> + <br /> + </div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2" valign="top"><blockquote> + <div>3. <strong>ụbe(la)</strong>-<span class="style14">tamed/domesticated/pet </span><span class="style14">placental mammal</span></div> + </blockquote></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="319" height="32" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style12">COMPLEMENTARY STEMS</div></td> + <td width="319" colspan="2"><div align="center" class="style12">COMPLEMENTARY STEMS</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="160" height="60" valign="top"><div>1. <strong>pkẹ</strong>-<span class="style14"> bat </span><br /> + </div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>1. -<strong>bbẹ</strong>- <span class="style14">primate</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>1. <strong>ụpke-<br /> + </strong><span class="style14">tamed/domesticated/pet bat </span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>1.<strong> ụbbe</strong>- <span class="style14">tamed/domesticated/pet primate </span></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="160" height="87" valign="top"><div>2. <strong>apkẹ</strong>- <span class="style14">rodent</span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>2. <strong>abbẹ</strong>- <span class="style14">small common mammal (e.g., cat, dog, weasel, ferret, etc.) </span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>2. <strong>upkẹ- </strong><span class="style14">tamed/domesticated/pet rodent </span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>2. <strong>ubbẹ</strong>- <span class="style14">tamed/domesticated/pet small common mammal </span></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="160" height="84" valign="top"><div>3. <strong>ạpke(la)</strong>-<span class="style14"> large non-primate mammal (e.g., rhino, hippopotamus, etc.) </span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>3. <strong>ạbbe(la)</strong>- <span class="style14">large common mammal (e.g., horse, cow, pig, sheep, goat, etc.) </span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>3. <strong>ụpke(la)</strong>- <br /> + <span class="style14">tamed/domesticated/pet large non-primate mammal </span></div></td> + <td width="160" valign="top"><div>3. <strong>ụbbe(la)</strong>-<span class="style14"> tamed/domesticated/pet large common mamal </span></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Using the nine degrees of the Stem + Specific Derivative <a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style12"><strong>SSD</strong></span> affix</a> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>-V<font size="1">1</font>k</strong></font> from Section 7.4.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific + parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or + hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree + of Maturity <a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style12"><strong>MAT</strong></span> affix</a> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>-V<font size="1">0</font>ç</strong></font> from Section 7.4.10 is also applied to indicate the developmental stage of the +animal.</p> +<p align="justify">A different pattern applies to individual animal species, first + dividing the two Forms (Designations) of the root into the animal itself versus + the animal as a resource, the holistic stems indicating first the generic species + then male versus female. The complementary stems then make the further distinction + between wild versus domesticated for the informal stem and between food/prey + and derived or processed products for the formal stem. The <strong>SSD</strong> affix is again used to specify parts or products of the animal, while the<strong> MAT </strong>affix distinguishes the developmental stages, providing derived equivalents + to words such as <em>foal</em>, <em>fawn, lamb</em> or <em>cub</em>, from <em>horse, + deer, goat,</em> or <em>lion</em>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.1.2 The Use of Affixes<a name="Sec10o1o2" id="Sec10o1o2"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., <em><strong>xäl</strong></em> ‘hill’ + V<font size="1">1</font><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">x</font></strong>/7 + ‘very large’ → <strong><em>xälïx</em></strong> ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., <em><strong>xäl</strong></em> ‘hill’ + V<font size="1">2</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x</strong></font>/7 + ‘very large’ → <strong><em>xälëx</em></strong> ‘mountain’). As an example, + here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes + from the stem <span class="style10"><strong>allá</strong></span>- ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:</p> +<table width="81%" border="0" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="26"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lalloákt</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘share a secret’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffix = DSR<span class="style32">2</span>/8</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="28"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lalliépt</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘news’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffix = ATC<span class="style32">2</span>/3</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="28"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lalliávz</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘quip’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffix = SCO<span class="style32">2</span>/5</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="29"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lalluikyá</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘praise’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffix = NTR<span class="style32">2</span>/9</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="28"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lalliëépt</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘lie’ [= tell a lie]</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffix = REA<span class="style32">2</span>/7</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="29"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lalloált</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘shout out a message’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffix = STR<span class="style32">2</span>/8</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="29"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lallién</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘persuasive person, a persuader’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffix = AGC<span class="style32">2</span>/3</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="30"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lalliëén</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘liaison, a go-between’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffix = AGC<span class="style32">2</span>/7</div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="29"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lallëhiókç</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘whisper sweet nothings’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffixes = AFT<span class="style32">2</span>/1 + FRC<span class="style32">2</span>/2</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<table width="81%" border="0" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> + <tr> + <td width="158" height="29"><blockquote class="style9"> + <div>lallëciéps</div> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="258"><div><em>‘cuss, curse ’</em></div></td> + <td width="349"><div class="style12">suffixes = UNQ <span class="style32">2</span>/1 + MTA <span class="style32">2</span>/3</div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<p align="justify"> Similarly the use of the Consent <span class="style7">CNS</span> suffix, the Reason <span class="style7">RSN</span> suffix, the Expectation <span class="style7">XPT</span> suffix, the Deliberateness <span class="style7">DLB</span> suffix, the Enablement <span class="style7">ENB</span> suffix, the Agency/Intent <span class="style7">AGN</span> suffix, and the Impact <span class="style7">IMP</span> suffix from <a href="Chapter_7.html">Section + 7.4.12</a> in conjunction w/ Transrelative cases (<a href="Chapter_4.html">Sec. + 4.3</a>), provides a means for describing extremely subtle scenarios of causation, + willingness, enablement, hindrance, etc. which other languages can only capture + via long-winded paraphrase. Employing this array of affixes and cases, a sentence + such as <em>The singer stopped the boys from playing around</em> can be translated + into Ilaksh in many syntactically equivalent (but morphologically distinct) + ways to indicate whether the singer used physical force or persuasion to stop + the boys, whether she stopped them via an indirect enabling means (such as turning + out the lights), or whether it was the boys themselves who stopped upon hearing + her voice or seeing her beauty, or even by her mere presence interrupting them + (such as walking in on them inadvertently), as well as the degree of willingness + or consent with which they stopped. The following example sentence further illustrates + the complex detail which these suffixes make possible:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><span class="style9">Eňt aktäiliornüùls tlẹiliërz ustançirbūams.</span><br /> + <span class="style14"><span class="style8"><strong>XPT<span class="style32">1</span>/2</strong></span> IFL</span><span class="style12">-‘</span>man<span class="style12">’-</span><span class="style13"><span class="style12">EFF-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-<span class="style8"><strong>DLB<span class="style32">2</span>/2</strong></span>-<span class="style8"><strong>ENB<span class="style32">1</span>/6</strong></span> IFL</span></span><span class="style12">-‘</span>bird<span class="style12">’-</span><span class="style13"><span class="style12">ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI-<span class="style8"><strong>IMP<span class="style32">2</span>/7</strong></span> FML-OPR</span></span><span class="style12">-‘</span>room<span class="style12">’-</span><span class="style13"><span class="style12">DEL/U/COA/CST-DEV<span class="style32">1</span>/1-<span class="style8"><strong>AGN<span class="style32">2</span>/9</strong></span></span></span><br /> + <em> Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + it out of the house.<font color="#FFFFFF"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_________</font></font></em><font color="#FFFFFF"><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">_</font></font></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><br /> + The <span class="style7">DEV</span> suffix from <a href="Chapter_7.html">Sec. 7.4.9</a>, + in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ilaksh this suffix is productive + for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality + (<a href="Chapter_6.html">Section 6.1</a>) + and the Modality suffixes from <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090312010531id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ilaksh/Chapter_7.htmlSec7o4o11">Section 7.4.11</a> to extend the system of modalities, as illustrated by the following:</p> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote><em>promise to +</em><strong> DEV/1 </strong><em>= + foreswear, vow never to<br /> + can (know how to) + </em><strong> DEV/1 </strong><em> = be ignorant of<br /> + decide to + </em><strong> DEV/1 </strong><em> = avoid<br /> + offer to + </em><strong> DEV/1 </strong><em> = refuse to<br /> + agree upon/to + </em><strong> DEV/1 </strong><em> = decline to/abstain from<br /> + like to + </em><strong> DEV/1 </strong><em> = loathe<br /> + fear to + </em><strong> DEV/1 </strong><em> = love to<br /> + need to + </em><strong> DEV/1 </strong><em> = dispensable, unnecessary to, can dispense with</em></blockquote> +</div> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify">10.1.3 The Use of Configuration, Affiliation, and Context </h3> +<p align="justify">Each of these categories has means to generate amalgamate, + holistic, or emergent concepts from a more basic underlying stem.</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>10.1.3.1 Configuration</strong>: In <a href="Chapter_3.html">Sec. + 3.1</a> we saw how applying each of the nine Configuration categories to a stem + often generates forms based on amalgamation of sets which require complete relexification + when translated into English. Examples are:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>bone </em><strong>→</strong><em> skeleton <br /> + strut/girder </em><strong>→</strong><em> frame </em><strong>→</strong><em> framework <br /> + component </em><strong>→</strong><em> structure </em><strong>→</strong><em> system <br /> + ingredient </em><strong>→</strong><em> compound <br /> + food </em><strong>→</strong><em> dish </em><strong>→</strong><em> meal <br /> + tool </em><strong>→</strong><em> toolset <br /> + do/perform </em><strong>→</strong><em> coordinate <br /> + vehicle </em><strong>→</strong><em> convoy <br /> + person </em><strong>→ </strong><em>group </em><strong>→</strong><em> crowd </em><strong>→</strong><em> masses <br /> + activity </em><strong>→ </strong><em>process</em>.</p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><strong>10.1.3.2 Affiliation</strong>: In <a href="Chapter_3.html">Sec. + 3.2</a> we saw how the four Affiliations can generate new concepts based on + delineations of purpose, benefit, or function. Examples include: </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>group </em><strong>→</strong><em> team, <br /> + grove </em><strong>→</strong><em> orchard<br /> + assortment </em><strong>→</strong><em> collection </em><strong>→</strong><em> junk<br /> + process </em><strong>→</strong><em> plan</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><strong>10.1.3.3 Context</strong>: In <a href="Chapter_3.html">Sec. + 3.5.4</a> we encountered the <font size="2">AMALGAMATE</font> context, which + serves to identify a stem specifically as a gestalt entity, composed of objective + and subjective/social elements or components which contribute to the overall + nature of the stem. Depending on the stem to which it is applied, the use of + the amalgamate can cause relexification in translating to English. Examples: </p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><em>demeanor </em><strong>→</strong><em> personality<br /> + craftsmanship </em><strong>→</strong><em> artistry<br /> + career </em><strong>→</strong><em> livelihood<br /> + (one’s) past </em><strong>→</strong><em> (one’s) + life<br /> + to look after/tend </em><strong>→</strong><em> nurture</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"></p> +<h3 align="justify">10.1.4 The Use of Designation and Version</h3> +<p align="justify">In <a href="Chapter_3.html">Section + 3.6</a> on Designation as well as <a href="Chapter_5.html">Sec. + 5.5</a> on Version, we saw how both of these morphological categories create + distinctions in word-stems which usually require relexification in translation. + The following word pairs illustrate such relexification:</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="65%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="50%"><em>(the) past </em><strong>→</strong><em> history</em></td> + <td width="50%"><em>see </em><strong>→</strong><em> observe</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>writings </em><strong>→</strong><em> literature</em></td> + <td><em>one </em><strong>→</strong><em> single/singular</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>wordplay </em><strong>→</strong><em> rhetoric</em></td> + <td><em>hear </em><strong>→</strong><em> listen</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>behavior </em><strong>→</strong><em> demeanor</em></td> + <td><em>desire </em><strong>→</strong><em> request</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>wander </em><strong>→</strong><em> travel</em></td> + <td><em>query </em><strong>→</strong><em> research</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>eat </em><strong>→</strong><em> dine</em></td> + <td><em>ponder </em><strong>→</strong><em> analyze</em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><em>containment </em><strong>→</strong><em> storage</em></td> + <td><em>path </em><strong>→</strong><em> route</em></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><em> </em> Again we see that application of morphological categories + to word-stems serves to generate forms which substitute for lexical distinctions + in other languages, thus helping to reduce the size of the Ilaksh lexicon.</p> +<div align="justify"> + <blockquote> </blockquote> +</div> +<h3 align="justify">10.1.5 The Use of Phase and Extension</h3> +<p align="justify">The use of the nine Phases, as explained in <a href="Chapter_5.html">Sec. + 5.3</a>, used in conjunction with the category of Extension (<a href="Chapter_3.html">Sec. + 3.4</a>) gives rise to an elaborate means by which to describe phenomena in + terms of duration, periodicity, repetition, iterativity, and cyclic phenomena. + When used in conjunction with the twelve Modulative affixes from <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090312010531id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ilaksh/Chapter_7.htmlSec7o4o7">Sec. + 7.4.7</a>, the Iteration <span class="style7">ITN</span> and Repetition <span class="style7">RPN</span> affixes from <a href="Chapter_7.html">Sec. 7.4.5</a> and the Intensity <span class="style7">ITY</span> affix from <a href="Chapter_7.html">Sec. 7.4.10</a>, + Phase becomes an extremely powerful means to describe with great subtlety all + phenomena which display vibratory, oscillative, wavering, on-off, or variative + movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various + phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to + a single stem <span class="style9">ččà-</span> ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + English words:</p> + +<div align="justify"> + <table width="71%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td width="25%"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">acoustic<br /> + audible<br /> + auditory<br /> + bang<br /> + blast<br /> + boom<br /> + buzz<br /> + cacophony<br /> + calm<br /> + click<br /> + clickety-clack<br /> + clink<br /> + crack<br /> + crackle<br /> + crash<br /> + din<br /> + discord<br /> + dissonance<br /> + drone<br /> + echo<br /> + explosion</font></td> + <td width="25%"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">faint + sound<br /> + fizz<br /> + gag<br /> + grate<br /> + hiss<br /> + howl<br /> + hullabaloo<br /> + hum<br /> + hush<br /> + jangle<br /> + kerplunk<br /> + knock<br /> + loud(ness)<br /> + lull<br /> + moan<br /> + muffle<br /> + murmur<br /> + mute<br /> + noise<br /> + pandemonium<br /> + peal<br /> + </font></td> + <td width="28%"><p><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">pit-a-pat<br /> + plink<br /> + pop<br /> + quaver<br /> + quiet<br /> + racket<br /> + rap<br /> + rat-a-tat<br /> + rattle<br /> + raucous<br /> + resonant<br /> + reverberate<br /> + ring<br /> + roar<br /> + rumble<br /> + rush of sound<br /> + rustle<br /> + screech<br /> + shrill<br /> + silence<br /> + snap</font></p></td> + <td width="22%"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">sonorous<br /> + sound<br /> + staccato<br /> + stifle<br /> + strident<br /> + stutter<br /> + swirl<br /> + swish<br /> + tap<br /> + thump<br /> + tick<br /> + toot<br /> + twang<br /> + uproar<br /> + vibration<br /> + whir<br /> + whistle<br /> + whiz<br /> + whoosh</font></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The same principles applied to other types of stems give rise + to a plethora of complex and subtle means for describing motions, paths, trajectories, + movement in situ, light emanation, reflection, consistency, texture, variation + in shape, visual complexity, etc.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><strong><font size="4">10.2 PHONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROOTS<a name="Sec10o2" id="Sec10o2"></a></font></strong></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Many languages have class systems for both nouns and verbs, + in which a specific pattern of morpho-phonological markers are assigned to a + specified set of roots. Often, class membership is quite arbitrary as in the + three conjugational classes of Spanish, Italian, or French verbs. In other cases, + class membership roughly corresponds to an underlying semantic category, as + seen in the masculine versus feminine versus neuter class system of many languages. + Non-Western languages often delineate a greater number of classes determined + by categories of shape, purpose, socio-cultural factors, and other objective + or subjective semantic factors.</p> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh displays a pattern of ten morpho-semantic classes for + its 3600 roots. In Ilaksh, class is delineated by a combination of the <strong>V</strong><font size="1"><strong>r</strong></font> vocalic component of the stem (see <a href="Chapter_2.html">Section + 2.2</a>) plus the stem’s tone, i.e., the <strong>V<font size="1">r</font></strong> plus tone indicates + to which of the ten classes a root belongs. In this manner, the consonant pattern + of an Ilaksh root always provides a clue as to general meaning of the root. + The ten Ilaksh classes with their corresponding <strong>V<font size="1">r</font></strong> plus tone combinations are shown + in the table below. </p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><br /> + Table 34: Ilaksh Morpho-Semantic Classes</strong></font></p> +<table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="62"><div align="center"><font size="2"><strong>CLASS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><font size="2"><strong>Vr+tone MARKERS</strong></font></div></td> + <td width="974"><div align="center"><font size="2"><strong>SIGNIFICATION</strong></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">1</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">à</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> è</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ù</span></div></td> + <td>concepts relating to the physical attributes of organic matter, taxonomies of organic life</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">2</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">ạ</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ẹ</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ụ</span></div></td> + <td>taxonomies of organic life</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">3</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">ì</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ò</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ĭ</span></div></td> + <td>concepts relating to the physical attributes of inorganic matter, taxonomies of physical substances</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">4</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">ị</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ọ</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ŏ</span></div></td> + <td>taxonomies of physical substances</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">5</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">ā</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ē</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ū</span></div></td> + <td>spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">6</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">í</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ó</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> î</span></div></td> + <td>concepts relating to change and causation; relational concepts, identity, associations; concepts relating to existence, state, occurrence, subjectiveness</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">7</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">ī</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ō, ô</span></div></td> + <td>numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics, temporal concepts, concepts relating to order, arrangement, configuration</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">8</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">á</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> é</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ú</span></div></td> + <td>intellectual concepts, thought, ideas, propositions; concepts relating to communication, learning and language</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">9</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">â</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ê</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> û</span></div></td> + <td>personal affect, emotion, feelings, preferences; concepts relating to individual volition and choice</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><div align="center">10</div></td> + <td width="88"><div align="center"><span class="style9">ă</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ĕ</span><span class="style10">,</span><span class="style9"> ŭ</span></div></td> + <td>socially or externally-induced affectations; concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations</td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br /> +</p> +<table width="100%" border="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>10.3 DIMENSIONAL AND DESCRIPTIVE OPPOSITIONS<a name="Sec10o3" id="Sec10o3"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Another area of the lexicon where Western languages tend to + divide up reality into binary oppositions is the realm of spatial dimensions, + where pairs such as <em>near/far, small/large, thin/thick, narrow/wide, tall/short, + light/heavy, hot/cold</em>, etc. are commonplace. As with the perspective-based + oppositions seen in the preceding section, again Ilaksh lexico-semantics treats + such concepts in a wholly different way. Rather than lexicalize such concepts + as pairs of binary oppositions, Ilaksh delineates these qualities as <em>varying + points along a continuous range</em>. In other words, in Ilaksh you do not + say <em>X is cold</em> and <em>Y is hot</em>, but rather <em>X has less temperature</em> and <em>Y has greater temperature</em>. Similarly, one does not say <em>A is + near to me</em> and <em>B is far from me,</em> but rather <em>the distance from + me to A </em>(or proximity of A to me)<em> is less than the distance from me + to B</em> (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ilaksh formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ilaksh as + mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, + or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.</p> +<p> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>10.4 SPATIAL POSITION AND ORIENTATION<a name="Sec10o4" id="Sec10o4"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Concepts of spatial position and orientation are expressed + very differently in Ilaksh as compared to Western languages such as English. + The three major differences are explained below, each of which will be explored + in detail in the sections which follow.</p> +<p align="justify">1) Ilaksh does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial + relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.</p> +<p align="justify">2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + intent, Ilaksh subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic + level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What + this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, + the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful + relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), + the Ilaksh sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial + relationship. For example, in answer to the question <em>Where’s Billy?</em> an English speaker might give answers such as (a) <em>He’s standing right + next to Sam</em>, or (b) <em>He’s in bed</em>, or (c) <em>He’s in + the bathtub</em>. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only + the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while + sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ilaksh speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question <em>Where’s + Billy?</em> is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial + information, he/she would have asked the Ilaksh equivalent of <em>What’s + Billy doing?</em> or <em>What’s happening with Billy?</em> to which a + Ilaksh speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions + of (b) or (c), not their original versions.</p> +<p align="justify">3) Ilaksh utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative + spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as <em>He’s standing to the left + of the desk</em>. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate + system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ilaksh + spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective + of a participant (e.g., the speaker or addressee) or referent object (i.e., + the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative + coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ilaksh system allows listeners + to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + perspective. </p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions</h3> +<p align="justify">Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- + and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ilaksh + has no prepositions. Rather, Ilaksh utilizes formatives which describe a spatial + relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.”</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify"> 10.4.2 Underlying Cognitive Purpose of an Utterance</h3> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh grammar considers the functional relationship between + two objects to be primarily relevant, not their spatial orientation or position + relative to each other (or between an object and its background). When it comes + to describing an object against a background or the relationship between two + objects, Ilaksh grammar is more interested in answering the question <em>How + do X and Y function relative to each other</em>, rather than <em>How are X and + Y positioned in space relative to each other?</em> </p> +<p align="justify">For example: in uttering the English sentence <em>The vase + is on the table</em>, is the intention of the sentence to tell the listener + the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, + or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against + gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ilaksh + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + against gravity, the Ilaksh sentence would not utilize a spatial reference + at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as <em>The table is supporting + the vase</em>. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in + Ilaksh are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial + constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ilaksh + using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.</p> +<table width="85%" border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="3"> + <tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ENGLISH + SENTENCE </font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">CONCEPT + CORRESPONDING TO 'IN(SIDE or INTO)' </font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">NEAREST + TRANSLATION TO Ilaksh EQUIVALENT</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">The man works in(side) that building.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">general locational + reference where idea of interiority or containment is incidental</font></td> + <td><font size="2"><em>The man works at that building.</em></font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">The book is in that box.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">physical containment + only with no specific purpose</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2"> That box contains the book.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">incidental, temporary, + or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravity</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">The small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">I poured soup in(to) the bowl.</font></em></td> + <td>same as above</td> + <td><em><font size="2">I enabled the bowl to hold soup</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">We stayed in(side) due to the rain.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">shelter, containment + for purpose of protection</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">We shelter ourselves from the rain.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">He placed the sword in(side or into) its sheath.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">containment in fitted + covering for purposes of protection</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">He sheathed the sword.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">He stayed in(side) his room.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">containment for purpose + of privacy</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">He shuttered himself.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">The tiger was kept in(side) a cage.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">containment to prevent + escape</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">The tiger remained captured.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">There are high concentrations of lead in(side) that + pottery.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ingredient, composite + substance </font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">That pottery contains much lead.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">Microchips can be found in(side) any machine these + days.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">inherent or integral + component</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">These days, any machine incorporates microchips.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">I put fuel in the gas tank.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">integral component + having function to hold or contain other component</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">I (re-)fueled the gas tank.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">intangible containment</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">We’ll never know her thoughts.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2"> He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">enveloped to inaccessible + depth by surrounding medium</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">His pancreas “harbors” a tumor.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="23"><em><font size="2">He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">fastening/connecting</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">He fastened the nail to the wall with a hammer.</font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><em><font size="2">The child tried putting the square block in(side or + into) the round hole.</font></em></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">fitting together one + object to another</font></td> + <td><em><font size="2">The child tried to fit the round hole and the square + block together.</font></em></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /> + </font> This functional prioritization notwithstanding, Ilaksh is nevertheless + able, if necessary, to describe true spatial relationships and orientations + quite specifically. However, it does so in ways that are very unfamiliar in + terms of Western grammar. These are described in the following section.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates<a name="Sec10o4o3" id="Sec10o4o3"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">While Western languages are capable of describing the physical + position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., <em>My hometown + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N</em>), it is not normal + to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation + is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two + objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, + but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of + objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where + the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external + absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, + W).</p> +<p align="justify">In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ + change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?</p> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute + coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar + in nature to the absolute system used in navigation based on the four cardinal + points.). Very few languages on Earth utilize such absolute systems to the exclusion + of relative systems. (Examples include Guugu Yimidhirr, an Australian aboriginal + language; Tzeltal, a Yucatec Mayan language; and Yurok, an Algonquian Indian + language of Northern California). Ilaksh utilizes three different absolute + coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These + coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid + superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three + points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. + The three schemes are as follows:</p> +<p align="justify">1) <strong>Solar-based system</strong>. This is the standard + Ilaksh system of reckoning. The line of the Y-axis runs parallel to the rising + and setting points of the sun in mid-summer, with the vector oriented in the + direction of the setting sun. Note that the alignment of this Y-axis relative + to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting + points of the sun merely designate the <em>direction</em> of the Y-axis, not + it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative + to each other (this will be illustrated below). </p> +<p align="justify">Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of + the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective + understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to + the solar-based Y-axis (i.e., everyone in the room can still tell the orientation + of the outdoor Y-axis, whether by sight through windows, or by noticing that + the length-width ratios of the room are aligned with the outdoor Y-axis).</p> +<p align="justify">2) <strong>Length vs. width of enclosed space or room</strong>. + In indoor situations where the orientation of the outdoor solar-based Y-axis + is unknown (or cannot be readily determined on a continuous basis as new speakers + enter the room), an arbitrary Y-axis is connoted by the length of the room in + a direction away from whichever end of the room displays a visibly unique feature + (e.g., the doorway, a window, an alcove, an imposing piece of furniture, a stage + or dais, etc.), this symbolically substituting for the position of the rising + sun. This is the coordinate system which would be employed in theaters, enclosed + banquet halls without windows, and cellars without windows or ready access to + outside orientation.</p> +<p align="justify">3) <strong>Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, + objects, or persons</strong>. This is similar to a Western relative system in + which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ilaksh + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined + reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the <font size="2">NAVIGATIVE</font> case (see <a href="Chapter_4.html">Sec. 4.7.6</a>). + The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such + as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes + to describe spatial relationships solely within the context of the story in + order to convey a mental map or image of the goings-on to his/her audience.</p> +<p align="justify"><br /> + <strong>10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects</strong>. + Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ilaksh then lexically divides + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight quadrants.</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"> +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant + 1 = Root: <span class="style10"><strong>plā</strong>-</span><br /> + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root:<strong> </strong><span class="style10"><strong><strong>ň</strong>ā</strong>-</span><br /> + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root:<span class="style10"><strong> r<strong>ā</strong>-</strong></span><br /> + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root:<span class="style10"><strong> řā</strong>-</span><br /> + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: <span class="style10"><strong>tlā</strong>-</span><br /> + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: <span class="style10"><strong>ps<strong>ā</strong>-</strong></span><br /> + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: <span class="style10"><strong>ks<strong>ā</strong>-</strong></span><br /> + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: <span class="style10"><strong>p</strong></span><strong>ŧ</strong><span class="style10"><strong><strong><strong>ā</strong>-</strong></strong></span></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above + where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + indicated in the illustrations below.</p> +<p align="justify">Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based + X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the + other axis), any two objects whose relative positions are to be described can + be made to fall within two different quadrants, as illustrated in figures A, + B, C and D below (Figure A represents the background context for which Figures + B, C and D present varying positional frames of reference).<br /> + <br /> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090312010531id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ilaksh/images/10-5-3-1a.gif" width="593" height="354" /> </p> +<blockquote> + <p> <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090312010531id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ilaksh/images/10-5-3-1b.gif" width="361" height="402" /></p> + <p> </p> + <p><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090312010531id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ilaksh/images/10-5-3-1c.gif" width="354" height="394" /></p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<blockquote> + <p><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090312010531id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ilaksh/images/10-5-3-1d.gif" width="352" height="369" /></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify"><br /> + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + grid that allows Ilaksh to easily describe the relative position of objects + in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects + each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships + between the two objects can be lexified. Thus, each of the above roots has a + stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship + between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any + of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. + Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.) </p> +<p align="justify">Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker + to describe exactly the spatial relationships between two objects in motion relative + to each other. This is done in Ilaksh by stating that two object are moving + from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily + describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ilaksh speaker is describing + exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship the two objects have to start with, and + the quadrant-to-quadrant relationship they will have when the motion is ended. + The root used to describe the motion indicates the nature of the motion in terms + of its smoothness, speed, etc.</p> +<p align="justify">To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing + where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two + objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.</p> +<p align="justify">Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ilaksh can be + in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This + is best illustrated by narrowly translating into English an Ilaksh sentence + which describes a three-party positional situation.<br /> +</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="left"><span class="style10"><strong>Akkà’ui<strong>la</strong>fs àgmël äxän-nā emplatōk uxöò’ausk zza’yal </strong></span><strong>ŧ</strong><span class="style10"><strong>äāwäl.</strong></span><br /> + <span class="style12"><span class="style13">IFL</span>-</span>‘woman’<span class="style12">-<span class="style13">COR</span>-<span class="style13">DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span>-<span class="style13">MVT<span class="style32">1</span>/5</span> <span class="style13">IFL</span>-</span>‘child’<span class="style12">-<span class="style13">ABS-DEL/M/CSL/UNI</span> </span>‘run’<span class="style12">-<span class="style13">NNR</span> <span class="style13">SCH</span>-<span class="style13">TNV</span>-</span>‘motion-from-Quadrant-1’<span class="style12">-<span class="style13">DEL/U/CSL/UNI</span>-<span class="style13">SSD<span class="style32">1</span>/8</span> <span class="style13">FML</span>-<span class="style13">OPR</span>-</span>‘see’<span class="style12">-<span class="style13">CNR</span>-<span class="style13">PRX/M/CSL/UNI</span> <span class="style13">1m/IND</span>-<span class="style13">ua/OBL</span> <span class="style13">IFL</span>-</span>‘Position: +X / Y=0 / -Z’<span class="style12">-<span class="style13">LOC</span></span><span class="style12">-<span class="style13">DEL/U/CSL/UNI</span></span><br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">There is no way to translate this Ilaksh sentence into everyday + English except via inadequate approximation, thus: <em>The woman stood still + as something made the boy run from ahead and above her, then past her, while + I watched them from behind and below</em>. However, a more exact, narrow translation + of this sentence, capturing all of the positional/orientational specificity + of the original, would run as follows: <br /> +</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"><span class="style8"></span><em>As the woman held still, something made the boy run from + a position above, ahead of, and to the right of her relative to the direction + of the sunrise-to-sunset vector, a plane perpendicular to it, and the axis + of gravity, toward a position still above, but behind and to the left of her + relative to the same directional vector, perpendicular plane and gravitational + axis, as I was watching them from below, behind, and to the right of her relative + to the same vector, plane, and axis.</em><span class="style8"><br /> + <br /> + </span></p> +</blockquote> +<div align="justify"><strong>10.4.3.2 Object-Internal Shape and Orientation</strong>. Note that, in + addition the above concepts of a positional grid for locating objects in space + and in positional relation to each other, Ilaksh also employs a whole set of + vocabulary to describe the physical topology, shape and internal self-orientation + of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, + front, sides, top, bottom, appendage, tail, arm, etc., although it should be noted + that the equivalent Ilaksh terms are wholly autonomous and bear no metaphorical + relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” + of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” + in Ilaksh, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a + word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” + or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase + cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”). </div> +<p> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>10.5 LEXICAL GENERALIZATION <a name="Sec10o5" id="Sec10o5"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">In a word-for-word comparison to a Eurocentric vocabulary, + especially one as large as that of English, the Ilaksh lexicon appears very + overgeneralized in many respects. At first impression, it appears that shades + of meaning expressed by multiple words in English are expressed by only one + root in Ilaksh. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this work, this is primarily + due to the fact that shades of meaning for a single underlying cognitive concept + are normally differentiated at the morphological level in Ilaksh, as opposed + to the lexical. Nevertheless, there are several lexico-semantic areas where + Ilaksh truly does generalize in comparison to Western languages. This occurs + primarily where (1) Western vocabulary distinguishes separate lexemes for a + redundant concept based on different participants to, practitioners of, or manifestations + of that concept, and (2) where lexification is at an arbitrarily detailed or + particularized level. These topics are discussed in detail in the following + sections.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.5.1 Consolidation of Unnecessary Distinctions</h3> +<div align="justify">As an example of lexical generalization in Ilaksh (or over-lexicalization + in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: <em>meow, + bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray</em>, etc. Each of these words mean merely to + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ilaksh utilizes only + a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning <em>vocal sound/vocalize</em> – from the same root which gives the stem for <em>(human) voice</em>), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making + the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English + allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in <em>The + sergeant barked out orders to the platoon</em>, or <em>The baby squealed in + delight.</em> Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ilaksh via the <font size="2"><a href="Chapter_4.html">ESSIVE</a></font> and <font size="2"><a href="Chapter_4.html">ASSIMILATIVE</a></font> cases, as in <em>He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog</em>, or <em>The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight,</em> or + via the manipulation of Function, Incorporation and Format (see <a href="Chapter_6.html">Sections 6.4</a> and <a href="Chapter_6.html">6.5</a>). </div> +<p align="justify">Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem + in Ilaksh would be (1) <em>herd, flock, pride, gaggle</em>, etc.; (2) <em>hair, + fur, fleece, coat</em>, etc.; (3) <em>skin, hide, pelt, pellicle, peel, rind, + lambskin, leather, integument</em>, etc.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify"> 10.5.2 Translative Motion, Paths and Trajectories</h3> +<p align="justify">By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving + (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich + in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as <em>to + toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run</em>, or <em>pass</em> a ball or + other object. In reaching its destination, the object can <em>fly, float, wing, + pass, arc, sail, plummet, drop, fall, thread, hop, leap, bounce, roll, zig-zag, + slide, glide, slither</em>, or <em>jump</em> its way there.</p> +<p align="justify">As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ilaksh lexifies + concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + Essentially, Ilaksh is less concerned with how the object gets there and is + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :</p> +<div align="justify"> + <table width="65%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="55%"><blockquote> + <p><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">I tossed it into + the basket.</font></font></em></p> + </blockquote></td> + <td width="45%"><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">It sailed + into the basket.</font></font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><blockquote> + <p><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">I flung it into the + basket.</font></font></em></p> + </blockquote></td> + <td><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">It flew into the basket.</font></font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><blockquote> + <p><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">I hurled it into + the basket.</font></font></em></p> + </blockquote></td> + <td><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">It arced its way into + the basket.</font></font></em></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><blockquote> + <p><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">I pitched it into + the basket.</font></font></em></p> + </blockquote></td> + <td><em><font color="#FF0000"><font color="#000000">It fell into the basket.</font></font></em></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify"><font color="#000000">The sentences in the lefthand column + describes how I initiate the action while those in the righthand column describe + how the object moves. In Ilaksh the lefthand column of sentences would normally + all be translated by a single sentence narrowly translatable as <em>I made it + end up inside the basket</em>, while the righthand column of sentences would + all be translated by the exact same sentence minus the <font size="2"><a href="Chapter_4.html">ERGATIVE</a></font> personal referent <em>I</em>, thus: <em>It ended up inside the basket</em>.</font></p> +<p align="justify">So where are the words translating the range of descriptive + nuance surrounding the means of sending it into the basket and the different + trajectories it takes there? In normal Ilaksh speech, such distinctions would + be considered irrelevant. This is because Ilaksh grammar questions all acts, + conditions and events as to their underlying cognitive purpose. For the above + sentences, Ilaksh views them as all having the same underlying purpose: to + express that I have caused an object to pass from a state of being in my alienable + possession to a state of being within the basket, by passing through the physical + space between me and the basket. Therefore there is only one translation for + the varying sentence pairs.</p> +<p align="justify">Before the reader begins to think that Ilaksh is incapable + of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should + be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes + and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ilaksh can + augment the sentence <em>I made it end up inside the basket</em> to include + affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes + indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly + translatable as <em>Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I + caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket</em>.</p> +<p align="justify">While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances + of English “flung,” Ilaksh first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force + initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information + any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? + All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ilaksh lexico-semantics: if + a complex, highly detailed morphology already conveys a high degree of semantic + and cognitive nuance, why belabor the obvious by reinforcing such nuances at + the lexical level if the context and underlying cognitive purpose of the utterance + does not require it? Thus the Ilaksh language not only captures levels of cognitive + detail beyond the scope of Western languages, but it also allows the speaker + to avoid having to provide such detail when it is inessential.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<h3 align="justify"> 10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying + Processes</h3> +<p align="justify">In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ilaksh perspective, + an example would be <em>limp</em>, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + Ilaksh recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not + the condition <em>per se</em> that is relevant, but rather the manner in which + the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + expectation of walking. Ilaksh speakers would consider English <em>limp</em> to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative + movement. To a Ilaksh speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity + which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead + of <em>He has a limp because of his war wound,</em> a Ilaksh speaker would + say <em>He walks asymmetrically/irregularly because of his war wound</em>. </p> +<p align="justify">To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when + dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the + sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + sentence <em>She spreggles to rock music</em>. Yet, from the Ilaksh standpoint, + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’</p> +<p align="justify">Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ilaksh has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ilaksh, one simply says <em>He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + move</em>, or alternately <em>His faculty of sight </em>(or other sense or innate + faculty)<em> doesn’t function/no longer functions</em>. [Note: each of + these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, + case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, + whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally + caused or inherently developed, etc.]</p> +<p> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>10.6 LEXICAL DIFFERENTIATION<a name="Sec10o6" id="Sec10o6"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">While we have examined the many ways in which the dynamism + and logic of Ilaksh grammar eliminates whole swaths of equivalent English vocabulary, + there are, nevertheless, many concepts where Ilaksh provides autonomous lexical + roots and stems for which neither English nor other Western languages provide + similar words and must resort to paraphrase in order to translate. Such concepts + are particularly found in the realm of human emotions, social relationships, + functional interrelationships between objects, philosophy, psychology, and sensory + phenomena. </p> +<p align="justify">Underlying such differentiation is the idea that the Ilaksh + language is meant to reflect in linguistic terms as close a representation of + human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible + in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure + mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language + which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require + many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing + human languages. </p> +<p> </p> +<table width="99%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <tr> + <td><div><font size="4"><strong>10.7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN CATEGORIZATION<a name="Sec10o7" id="Sec10o7"></a></strong></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which + there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ilaksh. These include the concepts + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ilaksh + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ilaksh grammar + and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or + inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental + cognitive primitives.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”</h3> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, + at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. + The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ilaksh grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different + from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + else. Fundamental to Ilaksh grammar are the notions of function and purpose, + not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. + This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ilaksh, + both being mere differences in functional roles played by any given formative + concept whose underlying meaning is not inherently nominal or verbal, but rather + a conceptual primitive waiting to be manifested as either (1) a representation + of an action, process, or event, (i.e., a verb), or (2) as a concrete or abstract + entity that is representative of, or embodies the underlying concept (i.e., + a noun).</p> +<p align="justify">So, an Ilaksh speaker does not say <em>I am John, She is a + cook, The leaf is green, Stan is ill,</em> or <em>Murder is wrong,</em> but + rather <em>One calls me John, She cooks [for a living], The leaf [currently] + manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease],</em> and <em>Murder + controverts morality</em>.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’</h3> +<p align="justify">In regard to “have” or “having,” Ilaksh + views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional + states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation + to each other.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.7.3 Translating Questions</h3> +<p align="justify">As was discussed earlier in <a href="Chapter_5.html">Section + 5.7.6</a> on the <font size="2">INTERROGATIVE</font> illocution, the Ilaksh + language does not have a way of forming questions. Instead, Ilaksh grammar + treats an interrogative as reflecting an underlying cognitive demand for information + and/or a validation of the truth or factuality of a statement. Therefore, a + specific kind of imperative command is employed, telling the addressee to provide + the required validation or information. In some instances, questions in Western + languages are rhetorical and in fact represent a request or command. As might + be expected, Ilaksh translates such rhetorical questions as the commands they + truly are. The following examples illustrate how questions are handled in Ilaksh.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>Do you know the way to San Jose?<br /> + [= Validate whether you know the way to San Jose.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>Will you please leave me alone?<br /> + [= I request that you leave me alone.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>Will you sing us a song?<br /> + [= We request that you sing us a song.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>What is the square root of 400?<br /> + [= State the square root of 400.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>Do you speak Ilaksh?<br /> + [= Demonstrate that you can speak in Ilaksh.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>Which bird is the one that was injured?<br /> + [= Indicate which bird was injured.]</em></p> +<p align="justify"><em>How old are you?<br /> + [= State the amount/number of years you have lived.]</em></p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections</h3> +<p align="justify">As there are no interjections in Ilaksh, there are no true + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ilaksh. Nevertheless, + there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands + for validation that substitute for questions in Ilaksh. The closest approximations + are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”</p> +<p align="justify">Observe how this operates in the following examples.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>“Do you want to dance?” “No.”<br /> + [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”</em></p> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh grammar also allows for the use of Bias affixes (see <a href="Chapter_6.html">Sec. 6.6</a>) to function + as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to + interjections in Western languages. This phenomenon has already been discussed + in <a href="Chapter_8.html">Section 8.5</a>. + Additionally, <a href="Chapter_8.html">Section + 8.3</a> described how affixual adjuncts may be used to convey information similarly + to autonomous interjections.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br /> + 10.7.5 Translating Metaphorically Structured Phrases </h3> +<p align="justify">Ilaksh grammar recognizes that much of our understanding and + expression of everyday experience is structured in terms of metaphor and metonymy + (the latter being the reference to an entity by one of its attributes, associations + or activities, as in <em><strong>The ham-and-cheese</strong> wants fries with + his order</em> or <em><strong>The White House</strong> has its nose in our business</em>). + Ilaksh allows for the overt designation of metaphorical concepts by several + means. These include the <a href="Chapter_3.html"><font size="2">REPRESENTATIONAL</font></a> context, <a href="Chapter_6.html">Function</a> and <a href="Chapter_6.html">Incorporation</a>, + the <a href="Chapter_7.html">metonymic MET </a> affix + -V<font size="1">0</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>py</strong></font>, + and the two <a href="Chapter_7.html">part-whole + affixes</a> -V<font size="1">0</font><span class="style10"><strong>rs</strong></span> and -V<font size="1">0</font><span class="style10"><strong>š</strong></span>.</p> +<p align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090312010531id_/http:/ithkuil.net/ilaksh/Ch-11%20The%20Script.htm"></a></strong></font></p> +<blockquote> + <p align="right"><strong><a onclick="javascript:changenav2();" href="Chapter_11.htm">Proceed to Chapter 11: The Writing System >></a></strong></p> + <table width="100%" border="0"> + <tr> + <td width="24%" rowspan="7"><div align="left" class="style2"><img src="images/ilaksh-logo.gif" alt="Ilaksh Logo" width="140" height="159" align="top" /></div></td> + <td width="26%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="28%"><p class="style3"> </p></td> + <td width="22%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18" class="style11"><a href="index.html">Home</a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_4.html"><span class="style11">4 Case Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_9.html"><span class="style11">9 Syntax</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18" class="style11"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html">Introduction</a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_5.html"><span class="style11">5 Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_10.html"><span class="style11">10 Lexico-Semantics</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="18"><a href="Chapter_1.html"><span class="style11">1 Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_6.html"><span class="style11">6 More Verb Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_11.htm"><span class="style11">11 The Writing System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_2.html"><span class="style11">2 Morpho-Phonology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_7.html"><span class="style11">7 Suffixes</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_12.htm"><span class="style11">12 The Number System</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><a href="Chapter_3.html"><span class="style11">3 Basic Morphology</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Chapter_8.html"><span class="style11">8 Adjuncts</span></a></td> + <td><a href="Lexicon.htm"><span class="style11">The Lexicon</span></a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p align="justify">©2007-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. </p> +</blockquote> +<blockquote> + <p></p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +</body> +</html> |