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diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html index 26ef5c8..fe38101 100755..100644 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html @@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination (e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and <STRONG>Cx</STRONG> represents a single- or dual-consonant conjunct (e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">-k-, -tt-, - -p-</FONT></STRONG>). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may + -šp-</FONT></STRONG>). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination of these categories. These variations are described below.</P> @@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ into eight additional forms depending on which of nine sanctions applies to the associated verb (see <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o3">Sec. 6.3</A> below on Sanction). These affixes are shown in Table 18 below. Examples. <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ar, - ac, axx, aks, akk, amra<IMG src="assets/tone-rising.gif" width="10" height="10" align="top"></FONT></STRONG>.<BR> + ac, axx, aks, akká, amra<IMG src="assets/tone-rising.gif" width="10" height="10" align="top"></FONT></STRONG>.<BR> </LI> <LI>If an aspectual adjunct shows a single aspect, it takes the form <STRONG>V<FONT size="1">A</FONT> + Cx (+ a)</STRONG>, where Va is the vocalic aspectual prefix followed by @@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ + Cx + Vs</STRONG>, that is two aspectual vowel forms, the first in as a prefix, the second as a suffix, separated by the validation-phase-sanction consonantal affix. Examples: <STRONG> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">eurai, - ksi, iakkua</FONT></STRONG>. </LI> + ňksëi, iakkua</FONT></STRONG>. </LI> </OL> </DIV> <P align="justify">Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we @@ -149,17 +149,17 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> <P align="justify">Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories - are usually termed evidentials or factives in various + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction with Mood (see <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o5">Section 6.5</A> below) to indicate the precise factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain. - Validation in turn fine tunes this distinction into levels of + Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity - of a statement, e.g., must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, - presumably, apparently etc. The nine validations are <FONT size="2">CONFIRMATIVE, + of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, + presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are <FONT size="2">CONFIRMATIVE, REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE</FONT> and <FONT size="2">HORTATIVE</FONT>. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o2">Secs. 6.2</A> @@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.</P> <P align="center"><BR> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A name="Table18"></A>Tables - 18 (a </FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + 18 (a </FONT></STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">–<STRONG> i): Cx Affixes By Validation, Phase and Sanction</STRONG></FONT></P> <P><BR> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>Table 18(a): Cx Affixes for @@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ </DIV> <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">CONFIRMATIVE</FONT> indicates that a statement is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker. - It can be considered the default validation, in that it can be + It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect being conveyed.<BR> @@ -236,10 +236,10 @@ <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">REPORTIVE</FONT> validation indicates that the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct - testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that partys - or sources personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree - of factivity can be translated into English by the terms most likely - or probably.<BR> + testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s + or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree + of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ + or ‘probably.’<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -252,9 +252,9 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> </DIV> <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INTUITIVE</FONT> validation indicates that - the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or gut - feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as I feel that - or Ive got a feeling that.<BR> + the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” + feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ + or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -268,8 +268,8 @@ </DIV> <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">INFERENTIAL</FONT> validation indicates that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial - evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as (it) - must (be that), or must have as in the sentences + evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) + must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences <EM>I must be dreaming</EM> or <EM>It must have rained last night</EM>.<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> @@ -286,8 +286,8 @@ that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity - can be translated by the English phrases presumably (so) or apparently - (so).<BR> + can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently + (so).’<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -303,8 +303,8 @@ that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply - by may or might, or more exactly by allegedly - or purportedly.<BR> + by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ + or ‘purportedly.’<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -320,7 +320,7 @@ the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately - translated by English supposedly.<BR> + translated by English ‘supposedly.’<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -336,8 +336,8 @@ the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can - be approximately translated by English must not (have), - must not be, or not likely to. Thus + be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ + ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus the sentence overtly structured as <EM>He caught the bus in time</EM> but marked for the <FONT size="2">PUTATIVE</FONT> would actually translate as <EM>He must not have caught the bus in time</EM>.<BR> @@ -354,8 +354,8 @@ </DIV> <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">HORTATIVE</FONT> validation indicates that the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it - to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as if only, - I wish that or Were that.</P> + to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ + ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’</P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> 6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use</H3> <DIV align="justify"> @@ -406,7 +406,7 @@ instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., - <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG><BR> + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">—</FONT></STRONG><BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -422,7 +422,7 @@ or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It - can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT></STRONG><BR> + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">•</FONT></STRONG><BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -439,8 +439,8 @@ itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, the whole comprising a single <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> event. </P> -<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - </STRONG></FONT></P> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• + • • •</STRONG></FONT></P> <P align="justify"></P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -456,8 +456,8 @@ brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual - representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - </STRONG></FONT><BR> + representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>— — + — —</STRONG></FONT><BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -476,9 +476,9 @@ be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc. </P> -<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - <FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> <FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - <FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> </STRONG></FONT><BR> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + • <FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> • <FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + • <FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> •</STRONG></FONT><BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -496,11 +496,11 @@ where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl. </P> -<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><BR> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT> + —</STRONG></FONT><BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -517,14 +517,14 @@ the whole considered as a single <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> event. Examples would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short bursts of a jackhammer.</P> -<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - </STRONG></FONT><BR> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT>• + • •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• • + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• • + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• • + • </STRONG></FONT><BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -539,15 +539,15 @@ <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">FRAGMENTATIVE</FONT> indicates a random pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single <FONT size="2">CONTEXTUAL</FONT> event. </P> -<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><BR> +<P align="justify">Visual representation: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT>• + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + • •</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT>• + • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>• + </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>• • + • •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> + • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>• + • </STRONG></FONT><BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -560,19 +560,19 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> </DIV> <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">FLUCTUATIVE</FONT> indicates a random pattern - of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the sputtering + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of birds in the wild, etc. </P> -<P align="justify">Visual representation:<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> </STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> </STRONG></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF"></FONT></STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT> - </STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></P> +<P align="justify">Visual representation:<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>— + • •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT></STRONG></FONT> + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> —</STRONG></FONT> + •</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG> •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></FONT> —<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>• + • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>— </STRONG></FONT>• + • • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT>• + •<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG><FONT color="#FFFFFF">—</FONT></STRONG></FONT> + —</STRONG></FONT>— • <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>—</STRONG></FONT> + • •</STRONG></FONT><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT></P> <P align="justify"> </P> <H3 align="justify">6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use</H3> <DIV align="justify"> @@ -624,7 +624,7 @@ of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. - Example of such statements would be <EM>That is a mountain</EM>, or <EM>Im + Example of such statements would be <EM>That is a mountain</EM>, or <EM>I’m hungry</EM>.<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> @@ -656,7 +656,7 @@ </DIV> <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">ALLEGATIVE</FONT> identifies an utterance as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition - expressing ones opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge or refutation. Examples would be <EM>That mountain is beautiful</EM> or <EM>No one in the United States goes hungry</EM>.<BR> </P> @@ -674,7 +674,7 @@ as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be <EM>He knows - how to drive</EM> [e.g., because he owns a car] or <EM>She cant be hungry + how to drive</EM> [e.g., because he owns a car] or <EM>She can’t be hungry now</EM> [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant]. <BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> @@ -771,9 +771,9 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> </DIV> <P align="justify">Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information - about the verb, not in relation to the speakers present moment of utterance + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance (as with Perspective in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o3">Sec. - 3.3</A>), but rather in relation to the contextual present of + 3.3</A>), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial @@ -805,23 +805,23 @@ with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays conflation (see <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o4o1">Sec. 5.4.1</A>) but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation - adjunct can be eliminated and the verbs format can be indicated by forms - 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verbs aspectual adjunct. Thus, + adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms + 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, in the sentence <IMG src="assets/6-4-2c.gif" width="108" height="16" align="absmiddle">, the conflation adjunct <IMG src="assets/6-4-2d.gif" width="15" height="17" align="absmiddle"> indicating <FONT size="2">INSTRUMENTATIVE</FONT> format for the <FONT size="2">ACTIVE</FONT> conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix - <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG></STRONG></FONT>- - on the aspectual adjunct to <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>- + <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>â</STRONG></FONT>- + on the aspectual adjunct to <FONT size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>wâ</STRONG></FONT>- and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:</P> <P align="justify"><IMG src="assets/6-4-2a.gif" width="126" height="30"><BR> - <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Wloi uatumul.</FONT></STRONG><BR> + <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Wâloi uatumul.</FONT></STRONG><BR> <IMG src="assets/6-4-2b.gif" width="212" height="16" align="absbottom"> <BR> - <EM>The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring</EM> + ‘<EM>The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring</EM>’ <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG><BR> - <EM>Whats indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an - asteroid</EM>.</P> + ‘<EM>What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an + asteroid</EM>.’</P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> 6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories</H3> <P align="justify">The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below. </P> @@ -836,11 +836,11 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT>, - the <FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT> can be translated by English have - already as in Ive already done it. With the <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, + the <FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT> can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, the <FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT> is equates with the English simple past tense. With the <FONT size="2">NOMIC</FONT> and <FONT size="2">ABSTRACT</FONT>, - it adds a sense of and its always been that way to the + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the verb. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -855,10 +855,10 @@ conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT>, the <FONT size="2">PROSPECTIVE</FONT> equates with the English future tense. With the <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, - it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., will have). + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). With the <FONT size="2">NOMIC</FONT> and <FONT size="2">ABSTRACT</FONT>, it - adds a sense of and itll always be that way or from - now on to the verb. <BR> + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -869,8 +869,8 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> When used with the <FONT size="2">MONADIC</FONT> perspective, this aspect conveys - the idea of always or continues to, while with the - <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, the English used to construction + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the + <FONT size="2">UNBOUNDED</FONT>, the English ‘used to’ construction offers an equivalent translation, as in <EM>She used to come see me on Wednesdays</EM>.<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -882,7 +882,7 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction - in the midst of [verb] + ing or the use of the present participle + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle in Spanish. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -894,7 +894,7 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such - as (just) about to or on the verge of as in <EM>I + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in <EM>I think Carl is about to cry</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -906,7 +906,7 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates - such phrases as just or just now, as in <EM>We just + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in <EM>We just saw a clown in the toy store</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -919,8 +919,8 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the - contextual present. Translates English phrases such as engaged in - or involved in as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of the new bridge. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -931,10 +931,10 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">EXPERIENTIAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - Translates English ever in the sense of within the realm - of ones experience or at some point in ones experience, + Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ as in <EM>Does he ever shut up?</EM> Note the <FONT size="2">EXPERIENTIAL</FONT> - does not equate to ever when it means always, as + does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as in <EM>Ever does he seek his destiny</EM> nor as an adverb of mere emphasis as in <EM>Was she ever tired</EM>. <BR> <BR> @@ -959,7 +959,7 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English - phrases such as stop, discontinue, or cease, + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ as in T<EM>hey stopped dancing at midnight</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -983,8 +983,8 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to - resume. Translates phrases such as take a break from or pause - in as in <EM>Mother took a break from cleaning to </EM><EM>gossip with + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in <EM>Mother took a break from cleaning to </EM><EM>gossip with her friends</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -997,7 +997,7 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as - translated by the phrase return to. The <FONT size="2">REGRESSIVE</FONT> + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The <FONT size="2">REGRESSIVE</FONT> should be distinguished from the <FONT size="2">RESUMPTIVE</FONT> above, which merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change of state or situation. An example would be <EM>Mr. Yates returned to golf after @@ -1012,8 +1012,8 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception - to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as all - at once, all in one go, without stopping, + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ etc. as in <EM>Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp</EM>.<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1025,11 +1025,11 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases - such as keep on, still, stay, yet, - etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English no - longer or not anymore as in <EM>She kept on singing, Youre - still staring at me, Ive yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam - doesnt love you anymore</EM>.<BR> + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in <EM>She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore</EM>.<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1040,8 +1040,8 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates - such English adverbials as on and on or away - as in <EM>They danced the night away</EM> or <EM>Theyve been battling + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in <EM>They danced the night away</EM> or <EM>They’ve been battling on and on since last year</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1053,10 +1053,10 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, - as translated by such English phrases as for once or just - once, as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, - as translated by phrases such as at last, after all this - time, finally, and for the first time. <BR> + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’ <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1067,7 +1067,7 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such - English phrases as once and for all or for the last time. + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’ <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1095,9 +1095,9 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as - translated by phrases such as for the time being or but - only for the moment or for now as in <EM>This will be sufficient - for now</EM> or <EM>For the time being youll have to drink water</EM>. + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in <EM>This will be sufficient + for now</EM> or <EM>For the time being you’ll have to drink water</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1110,8 +1110,8 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases - as be off -ing or go off to as in - <EM>Dads off hunting</EM> or <EM>They went off to cavort with the clowns</EM>. + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in + <EM>Dad’s off hunting</EM> or <EM>They went off to cavort with the clowns</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1124,7 +1124,7 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases - such as go ahead and or anyway, as in <EM>She went + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in <EM>She went ahead and bought the furniture</EM> or <EM>I decided to go there anyway</EM>. <BR> <BR> @@ -1136,10 +1136,10 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SEQUENTIAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - This aspect conveys the idea a sequential progressive in which + This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English - use of off as in <EM>He's checking off each item as it is inventoried</EM>, + use of ‘off’ as in <EM>He's checking off each item as it is inventoried</EM>, or <EM>The sheep died off from the disease</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1151,7 +1151,7 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English - hurry (up) as in <EM>Hurry up and finish</EM> or <EM>They ate + ‘hurry (up)’ as in <EM>Hurry up and finish</EM> or <EM>They ate in a hurry</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1163,8 +1163,8 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases - such as turn out to be, turn out that and - be revealed that. <BR> + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’ <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1175,8 +1175,8 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term - context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as end up, - come to, reach the point where, as in <EM>I ended up crashing the car</EM> + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in <EM>I ended up crashing the car</EM> or <EM>He drank to the point where he passed out</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1190,7 +1190,7 @@ Similar to the <FONT size="2">CONCLUSIVE</FONT> above, but with a focus on the eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the <FONT size="2">CONCLUSIVE</FONT> - aspect above: <EM>In the end, Ill have to leave town; Things got to the + aspect above: <EM>In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1203,8 +1203,8 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, - or background context, as translated by the phrases at some point - or somewhere along the way. <BR> + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’ <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1217,8 +1217,8 @@ Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. - Translates such phrases as to get tired of, peter out, - trail off, etc. <BR> + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1229,9 +1229,9 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization - to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as take up, - start to, etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, - as in <EM>Im planning to take up golf</EM>. <BR> + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in <EM>I’m planning to take up golf</EM>. <BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1241,9 +1241,9 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">INTERCOMMUTATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - Conveys the idea of sequential reciprocity, meaning that the action + Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating - action or event. It translates the English verbal particle back + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ as in <EM>The boy threw it back</EM> or <EM>She stared back at the men ogling her</EM>. <BR> <BR> @@ -1256,47 +1256,47 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents - other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as spend - ones time or away as in <EM>Mother spends her life - worrying</EM> or <EM>Hes pining away</EM>. </DIV> + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in <EM>Mother spends her life + worrying</EM> or <EM>He’s pining away</EM>. </DIV> <H3 align="justify"><BR> 6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct</H3> <P align="justify">Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other. For example, the <FONT size="2">PROSPECTIVE</FONT> aspect complements the <FONT size="2">RETROSPECTIVE</FONT> aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally - dont appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same + don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered - an optional shortcut to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct + an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct with the second verb.</P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> <A name="Sec6o4o5"></A>6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus</H3> <P align="justify">All of the aspectual prefixes shown in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Table19">Table 19 above</A> can in turn take an initial prefix <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT>- - (or <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>y</STRONG></FONT>- + (or <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>yď</STRONG></FONT>- before a <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">w</FONT></STRONG>-) to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described in <A href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm#Sec3o5">Sec. 3.5</A>), i.e., it is an alternate to the usual -<FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>w</STRONG></FONT>- - infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>stiu - <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> ystiu, + infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>ęstiu + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> yęstiu, iwuil <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> yiwuil, - wttu <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> - ywttu</STRONG></FONT>.</P> + wďttu <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + yďwďttu</STRONG></FONT>.</P> <P align="justify">This <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</FONT></STRONG>- - (or <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</FONT></STRONG>-) - prefix can in turn be augmented to <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</FONT></STRONG> - (spelled <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</FONT></STRONG> - before a vowel but still pronounced <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y</FONT></STRONG>) + (or <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yď</FONT></STRONG>-) + prefix can in turn be augmented to <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yď’</FONT></STRONG> + (spelled <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’</FONT></STRONG> + before a vowel but still pronounced <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yď’</FONT></STRONG>) to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning - indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stiu</FONT> - <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ystiu</FONT>, + indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ęstiu</FONT> + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">y’ęstiu</FONT>, <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">iwuil</FONT> <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> - yiwuil</FONT>, <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">wttu</FONT> - <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ywttu</FONT></STRONG>.</P> + y’iwuil</FONT>, <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">wďttu</FONT> + <IMG src="assets/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">yď’wďttu</FONT></STRONG>.</P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> 6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use</H3> <DIV align="justify"><STRONG><A href="Sound_Files/Ch-6-3.mp3"><IMG src="assets/6-4-6.gif" width="489" height="661"> @@ -1317,14 +1317,14 @@ </TBODY></TABLE> </DIV> <P align="justify">Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known - as mood, serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), - subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by may/might + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., <EM>Go now!, Sing it for us!</EM> ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., <EM>She would travel if she could</EM>), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., - <EM>I wish hed go, I expect him to be here</EM>), and hortative (indicating + <EM>I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here</EM>), and hortative (indicating exhortations, e.g., <EM>May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!</EM>).</P> <P align="justify">We have already seen in <A href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm#Sec5o1">Section 5.1</A> above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages @@ -1352,7 +1352,7 @@ </DIV> <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">FACTUAL</FONT> mood is shown by penultimate stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the - factuality of the speakers statement is certain and that there either + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the <FONT size="2">FACTUAL</FONT> @@ -1361,7 +1361,7 @@ Examples:</P> <P align="justify"><EM>His kids are ill.</EM> [i.e., it is known he has kids and it is known they are ill]</P> -<P align="justify"><EM>Were taking a walk later on. </EM>[i.e., it is our +<P align="justify"><EM>We’re taking a walk later on. </EM>[i.e., it is our intention and we have the opportunity to do so]<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> @@ -1377,10 +1377,10 @@ <P align="justify">The <FONT size="2">SUBJUNCTIVE</FONT> mood is shown by ultimate stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement - is certain, but the factuality of the speakers statement itself is questionable + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly - with English may, maybe or might, + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition is true. Examples:</P> <P align="justify"><EM>Maybe his kids are ill.</EM> [i.e., it is known that he @@ -1403,16 +1403,16 @@ adjunct. This mood functions identically to the <FONT size="2">FACTUAL</FONT> except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something - else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English maybe - and will (where will primarily conveys possibility, + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:</P> -<P align="justify"><EM>His kidsll be ill</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> +<P align="justify"><EM>His kids’ll be ill</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>If he has kids, they are ill.</EM> [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, but if he does, they are certainly ill.]</P> -<P align="justify"><EM>Well take a walk later on</EM> [i.e., if we can] +<P align="justify"><EM>We’ll take a walk later on</EM> [i.e., if we can] <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>We intend to take a walk.</EM> - [i.e., but we dont know if well be able to]<BR> + [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1427,8 +1427,8 @@ <P align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific - context, sometimes corresponding to may, maybe or - might, and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary would. + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ Compare the examples below to those above:</P> <P align="justify"><EM>Maybe his kids are ill</EM> [i.e., it is unknown if he has kids but if he does, they may be ill].</P> @@ -1449,15 +1449,15 @@ <P align="justify">Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise - be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary would - or would have in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.</P> <P align="justify"><EM>His kids would be (would have been) ill</EM> [i.e., if - he had kids they would be ill, but he doesnt].</P> + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].</P> <P align="justify"><EM>We would take (would have taken) a walk later on</EM> [i.e., - it is our intention but we wont have the opportunity].<BR> + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1472,15 +1472,15 @@ <P align="justify">Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. - It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary might have + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.</P> -<P align="justify"><EM>His kids mightve been ill</EM> [if he had kids, - but he doesnt, so well never know].</P> -<P align="justify"><EM>We mightve taken a walk later on</EM> [i.e., but - we wont have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].<BR> +<P align="justify"><EM>His kids might’ve been ill</EM> [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].</P> +<P align="justify"><EM>We might’ve taken a walk later on</EM> [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1497,14 +1497,14 @@ determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying - presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an epistemic - conditional. Examples are shown below. </P> + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below. </P> <P align="justify"><EM>His kids are (must be) ill</EM> [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].</P> -<P align="justify"><EM>If she wears a blue dress, well be taking a walk - later on</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>Shes wearing - a blue dress, so that means well be taking a walk later on</EM> [i.e., - the dress implies something has happened that well make the walk a certainty].<BR> +<P align="justify"><EM>If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on</EM> <STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on</EM> [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].<BR> </P> <DIV align="justify"> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1523,9 +1523,9 @@ <P align="justify"><EM>His kids may be ill</EM> [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].</P> <P align="justify"><EM>If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later - on </EM><STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>Shes wearing a + on </EM><STRONG><FONT size="2">OR</FONT></STRONG> <EM>She’s wearing a blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on</EM> [i.e., the - dress implies something has happened that well make the walk a possibility].</P> + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].</P> <H3 align="justify"><BR> 6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use</H3> <DIV align="justify">The following examples compare the seven non-<FONT size="2">FACTUAL</FONT> @@ -1558,7 +1558,7 @@ </DIV> <P align="justify">Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias - categories, each of which has an additional intensive form which + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation (previously discussed in <A href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm#Sec6o1">Sec. 6.1</A>), often triggering a translation change as well.</P> @@ -1568,12 +1568,12 @@ <DIV align="justify"> <OL> <LI>as a word-initial consonantal prefix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal - stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">nurs, - ssillui</FONT></STRONG><BR> + stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">n’urs, + ss’illui</FONT></STRONG><BR> </LI> <LI> as a word-final consonantal suffix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal - stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ursaun, - illuiss</FONT></STRONG><BR> + stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ursau’n, + illui’ss</FONT></STRONG><BR> </LI> <LI> as a consonantal infix to an aspectual adjunct, which substitutes this consonantal infix for the Cx consonantal infix of the adjunct; this infix @@ -1582,11 +1582,11 @@ </LI> <LI> as a word-initial consonantal prefix to formative if the formative begins with a vowel; a glottal stop is infixed between the prefix and the formative, - e.g., <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>nexalt, ssimlatku</STRONG></FONT></LI> + e.g., <FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><STRONG>n’exalt, ss’imlatku</STRONG></FONT></LI> </OL> </DIV> <P align="justify">These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20 - below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the intensive forms + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.</P> <P align="justify"><BR> <STRONG><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 20: Morpho-Phonological @@ -1604,9 +1604,9 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, - translatable by such phrases as of course, after all, - or needless to say. The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness - quality conveyed by I told you so! or You see?!<BR> + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1617,10 +1617,10 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial - expressions as a prolonged so or totally as in <EM>I - so dont care!</EM> or <EM>That is totally not what I wanted.</EM> The - intensive form adds a sense of one-upmanship as conveyed by the - expression <EM>Thats nothing, wait till you hear this!</EM><BR> + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in <EM>I + so don’t care!</EM> or <EM>That is totally not what I wanted.</EM> The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression <EM>That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!</EM><BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1631,10 +1631,10 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the - use of happen in<EM> I happened to run into Jane</EM> or <EM>It - just so happens that Im busy</EM>. The intensive form adds a sense of - serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as as luck would have it, - luckily or fortunately.<BR> + use of ‘happen’ in<EM> I happened to run into Jane</EM> or <EM>It + just so happens that I’m busy</EM>. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1645,9 +1645,9 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression - its just as well that. The intensive form conveys resignation - to fate, as expressed by phrases such as like it or not or and - theres nothing to be done about it!<BR> + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1657,9 +1657,9 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">REACTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as my goodness! - or its surprising that. The intensive form raises this - sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by Wow! or Amazing!<BR> + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1670,10 +1670,10 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the - phrase its a wonder that as in <EM>Its a wonder - he didnt break a bone in that fall</EM>. The intensive raises this sense - to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as Well Ill be! - or Who wouldve thought.<BR> + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in <EM>It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall</EM>. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1683,10 +1683,10 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CONTEMPLATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as I wonder - how, thats odd, I dont - get it, or a quizzical hmmmm. The intensive form - raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in Huh? What do you mean?<BR> + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1697,9 +1697,9 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed - by I dont know how to say this, but or Im - afraid that. The intensive form raises this to the level of outright - despair, as in Oh, God or Oh, no!.<BR> + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1710,9 +1710,9 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as - No wonder. or So thats why. - The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in Aha!. - or Well, well, well!.<BR> + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1723,9 +1723,9 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions - such as Its pleasant to or I like to. - The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in Oh, theres - nothing like. or (Sigh) What bliss it is to.<BR> + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1735,10 +1735,10 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SOLICITIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English please. + This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in - Cmon!, Whatre you waiting for? or - the phrase soalready! as in the sentence <EM>So dance already! + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence <EM>So dance already! </EM><BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1750,12 +1750,12 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions - such as Look at it this way, As I see it,, - Subjectively speaking,, or From one point of view,. + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as - conveyed by expressions such as It can only mean one thing, - and thats that! and thats all there is to - it! or Theres no two ways about it,.<BR> + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1768,7 +1768,7 @@ This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying - Well! That was fun! after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.<BR> + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1779,10 +1779,10 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions - such as Look, dont you get it? or Look, Im - trying to tell you. In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, - or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a persons + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s words back at them in contempt.<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1794,12 +1794,12 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed - by the English phrases technically speaking or Context - aside for a moment, as in <EM>Technically speaking, thats - not a polka</EM> (i.e., its a polka version of a non-polka song). In + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in <EM>Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka</EM> (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, - expressed in English by phrases such as strictly speaking or to - put it in clinical terms. as in <EM>Strictly speaking, thats + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in <EM>Strictly speaking, that’s not a polka</EM> (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> @@ -1811,11 +1811,11 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in - English by that is to say, What I mean(t) to say - is or I mean. The intensive form indicates - a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by in a manner - of speaking, so to speak, or for all intents and - purposes.<BR> + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1826,10 +1826,10 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, - as expressed in English by in other words or to - put it more exactly. The intensive form conveys a sense of outright - euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as Lets just - say that. or Well, let me put it this way.<BR> + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1839,10 +1839,10 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">SKEPTICAL</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by Its - (a little) hard to believe that. The intensive form raises this - sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive Oh, yeah! Suuuure! - or a sneering Yeah, right!<BR> + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1853,10 +1853,10 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, - as in You mean to tell me? or You gotta be kidding - me, . The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon - the discovery, as in So! You just had to go and or Well, - wouldnt you know it, or Oh, nice!.<BR> + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1866,10 +1866,10 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">CONTEMPTIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as I - dont like the fact that or It bothers me that. + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by - Shit! or What nonsense! or What bullshit!<BR> + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1880,11 +1880,11 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed - in English by sorry, but or Its nothing. - Its just as in Its just a small cut or Sorry, but - its only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal - or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as Is that it? - Big deal! or So what!?<BR> + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1894,11 +1894,11 @@ <TD width="63%"><STRONG><FONT size="2">INDIGNATIVE</FONT></STRONG></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> - This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by Im - sorry, what did you say? or Say again? You want me to what? - or I beg your pardon? The intensive form shifts this sense to - outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as The nerve! - or How dare!?<BR> + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1909,10 +1909,10 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases - as what if or It could be that. The + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, - as in Consider this: or Posit the following: - or Assume for the sake of argument that.<BR> + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’<BR> <BR> <TABLE width="45%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> <TBODY><TR> @@ -1923,12 +1923,12 @@ </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English - phrases such as How about, We could, or general + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general suggestions, as in the sentences <EM>How about going for a stroll?</EM>, <EM>We could meet behind the barn if you want</EM>, or <EM>You can sit on my lap</EM>. The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases - such as take it or leave it, this is your last chance, - or its now or never. </DIV> + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’ </DIV> <P align="justify"> </P> <H3 align="justify">6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use<BR> </H3> @@ -1997,7 +1997,7 @@ <TD valign="top"><FONT face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><A href="ilaksh/Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <FONT face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</FONT>laksh</A></FONT></TD> </TR> </TBODY></TABLE> -<P><FONT size="-1">2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +<P><FONT size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. </FONT></P> <P> </P> |