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diff --git a/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..80601fd --- /dev/null +++ b/2004-en/ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2138 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>A Philosophical Grammar of Ithkuil, a Constructed Language - Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology</title> +<META name="resource-type" content="document"> +<META name="description" content="A constructed philosophical language design showing NOT how artificial languages do function, but rather how they COULD function."> +<META name="keywords" content="constructed language, conlang, philosophical language, hypothetical language, fictional language, artificial language, constructed languages, conlangs, philosophical languages, hypothetical languages, fictional languages, artificial languages"> +<META name="distribution" content="global"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<script language="JavaScript" type="text/JavaScript"> +<!-- +//-->onLoad="javascript:changenav2();" +</script> +</head> + +<body> +<div align="center"><font color="#999999" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Ithkuil: + A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language</strong></font><br> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Title-Script5.gif"><br> + <br> +</div> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<h2 align="center"> </h2> +<h2 align="center">Chapter 2: Morpho-Phonology </h2> +<div align="center"> + <table width="53%" border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="223"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o1">2.1 Grammatical Typology</a></font></td> + <td width="178"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o5">2.5 Vocalic Mutation</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o2">2.2 Root and Stem Formation</a></font></td> + <td width="178"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o6">2.6 Parts of Speech</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o3">2.3 Semantic Instantiation of Stems</a></font></td> + <td width="178"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o7">2.7 Affixes</a></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o4">2.4 Consonantal Mutation</a></font></td> + <td width="178"><font size="2"><a href="#Sec2o8">2.8 Note On Terminology</a></font></td> + </tr> + </table> + <p align="justify">Morpho-phonology refers to how a language uses its phonemes + (meaningful sounds) and phonological features (e.g., stress, tone, etc.) to + generate patterns for word-formation and for morphological categories (e.g., + singular versus plural, verb tense, etc.) to be applied to words.</p> +</div> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<div align="justify"> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="19" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><font size="4"><strong>2.1 + GRAMMATICAL TYPOLOGY<a name="Sec2o1"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> + </table> +</div> +<p align="justify">The general method in which a language structures its morpho-phonology + determines what is known as its grammatical type. There are generally four distinct + grammatical types: <em>analytic, agglutinative, synthetic, </em>and<em> polysynthetic</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>Analytic</em> languages (also called isolating languages) + rely on separate individual function words such as prepositions, determiners + and auxiliaries to morphologically manipulate root nouns and verbs. Example + languages are Chinese and Vietnamese.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>Agglutinative</em> languages rely upon affixes (e.g., prefixes, + suffixes) added one-by-one onto roots to morphologically manipulate words. Example + languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>Synthetic</em> languages (also called fusional, flexional, + or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation + and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” + affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.</p> +<p align="justify"><em>Polysynthetic</em> (sometimes called incorporating) languages + generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative + elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting + a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit + (Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several + Paleo-Siberian languages.</p> +<p align="justify">Many languages rely upon a mixture of the above in their morpho-phonology. + For example, the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, etc.) are primarily + analytic, secondarily synthetic, and occasionally agglutinative. On the other + hand, English is primarily analytic, secondarily agglutinative, and occasionally + synthetic.</p> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil morpho-phonology is primarily synthetic and secondarily + agglutinative. That is, the manner in which morpho-semantic stems, inflections + and derivations are formed, and how those elements combine meaningfully into + words, is primarily via phonetic modification of the word stem itself and secondarily + via affixation. Specifically, Ithkuil morpho-phonology utilizes both consonantal + and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different + kinds of affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.</p> +<p align="justify">For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the + Ithkuil word <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-1a.gif" width="122" height="18" align="absbottom">(<font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-2-1.mp3">Listen:</a> + </font><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-2-1.mp3"><img src="Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a>). + The stem of this word, <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ciùk</strong></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"></font>, + meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed + into the nearly unrecognizable form <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-1c.gif" width="73" height="18" align="absbottom">, + all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem, + are then added the prefix <font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>eu</strong></font>-, + an infix -<font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>w</strong></font>-, + and the affix -[V<font size="1">1</font>]<strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font>’</strong>, + where [V<font size="1">1</font>] represents a vowel increment to be determined + by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into + a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct + word-components). These eleven morphemes and the mutation and affixation process + by which they combine to create this word can be analyzed as follows:</p> +<p><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-1e.gif" width="85" height="31" align="top"> <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-1a.gif" width="122" height="18" align="top"> + =</p> +<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td><div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Morphological + Category<br> + <br> + </font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Specific + morpheme</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Shown + by:</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td width="15%" height="53"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">STEM:</font></td> + <td width="33%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>ciùk</strong></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17" align="absmiddle"> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-1f.gif" width="31" height="23" align="top"> < + root: </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>c </strong></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+</font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong> + k</strong></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/aspiration-h.gif" width="4" height="17"></font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + “sheep”<br> + = “derived product of ewe” </font></td> + <td width="52%"><font size="2"> </font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Perspective:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ABSTRACT</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(preantepenultimate + stress)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affiliation:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COALESCENT</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(prefix <strong>eu</strong>- + in conjunction with TERMINATIVE extension)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Extension: + </font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">TERMINATIVE</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(prefix <strong>eu</strong>- + in conjunction with COALESCENT affiliation)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Configuration:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">COHERENT</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Grade 7 mutation of + C<font size="1">1</font> radical)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="25"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Focus:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">POSITIVE FOCUS</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(-<strong>w</strong>- + infix immediately following C<font size="1">1</font> radical)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="24"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Designation:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">FORMAL</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Form II of root-vowel + mutation)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="26"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Essence:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REPRESENTATIVE</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Secondary Mode of + root-vowel mutation)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="26"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Case:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">REFERENTIAL</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Series E root-vowel + mutation + Grade 4 mutation of C<font size="1">2</font> radical)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td height="27"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Context:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">AMALGAMATE</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(high tone)</font></td> + </tr> + <tr valign="top"> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix:</font></td> + <td><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<font size="1">1</font>t</font><font size="2">’</font><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">- + (8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool")</font></td> + <td><font size="2"> </font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<pre><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font size="2"><strong>APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION:</strong></font> <em>“concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”</em> +</font></pre> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <p><font size="4"><strong>2.2 ROOT AND STEM FORMATION</strong></font><a name="Sec2o2"></a></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">All words in Ithkuil which translate into English as nouns + or verbs are based on a monosyllabic or disyllabic <strong>stem</strong>, which + in turn derives from an semantically abstract <strong>root</strong>. This process + is explained in the sections below.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 2.2.1 The Root <a name="Sec2o2o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">The <strong>root</strong> in Ithkuil forms the semantic basis + from which actual noun/verb stems are derived. The root consists of a combination + of two consonantal forms, <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> and <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>, + each of which we will call a <em>radical</em>. Together they create an <em>interfix</em>, + that is, an affix consisting of two parts, between which some other morpho-phonological + element is <em>infixed</em> (i.e., inserted). We will see that it is vowels + that will be infixed between the two radicals, . These radicals can consist + of a single consonant or a biconsonantal conjunct (i.e., made up of two consonants). + There are 60 possible forms for <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> and + 60 possible forms for <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>, giving a total + of 3600 possible roots. Examples of these <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> + + <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> radical interfixes are shown below.</p> +<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="26"> +<div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">p + + x </font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tr + + c’</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">ks + + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/q-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absbottom"></font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xl + +<img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom"></font></strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">The root is the basic semantic unit in Ithkuil. For example, + the radical interfix <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>r</strong></font> + is a root whose semantic referent is <font size="2">NAME/DESIGNATION</font>. + To generate functional word-stems (or simply <strong>stems</strong>) from the + roots, vowels are infixed into the <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>+<strong>C<font size="1">2</font> + </strong> radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>a</strong></font> + would be infixed into the radical interfix <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>r</strong></font> + to give the stem <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tar</strong></font>, + an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are + infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite + complex. It is described in the next several sections.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 2.2.2 The Stem </h3> +<p align="justify">The Ithkuil semantic root described in the previous section, + in turn diversifies into stems which are the actual bases of words in Ithkuil. + Furthermore, the stems of each root in turn divide into different Forms, Modes + and Patterns, all of which change the actual vowels infixed into the root. These + different vowel patternings for each stem are used to help differentiate the + complex array of morphological categories available to any stem. The specifics + of how Form, Mode, and Pattern operate for each stem are discussed below.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + <a name="Sec2o2o3"></a>2.2.3 Pattern, Form, and Mode</h3> +<p align="justify">There are three stems associated with each root. It is at the + level of stem that Ithkuil roots become actual words with instantiated meaning. + Each stem in turn manifests itself in three separate <strong>Patterns</strong>, + which in turn come in two <strong>Forms</strong>. Furthermore, this array of + Pattern and Form is duplicated within a two-fold framework called <strong>Mode</strong>. + Thus, each stem has twelve different vowel patternings associated with it, as + shown in Table 5 below.</p> +<p><strong><br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 5: Vocalic Infixes for Stems + by Mode, Pattern and Form</font></strong></p> +<table width="49%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </td> + <td colspan="3" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <div align="center"><strong><font color="#0000FF" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Primary + Mode</font></strong></div></td> + <td colspan="3" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <div align="center"><strong><font color="#FF0000" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Secondary + Mode</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 1</font></div></td> + <td width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 2</font></div></td> + <td width="12%" bordercolor="#0000FF"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 3</font></div></td> + <td width="13%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 1</font></div></td> + <td width="12%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 2</font></div></td> + <td width="20%" bordercolor="#FF0000"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pattern + 3</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="10%" rowspan="3"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form + I</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 1</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">a</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">e</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ä</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">aî</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">eì</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">aì</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 2</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">u</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">o</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ö</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">uî</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">oi</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4">uì</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 3</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">i</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ë</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ü</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">eî</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">oì</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4">ëì</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td rowspan="3"><div align="center"><strong><font color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form + II</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 1</font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">â</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ê</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ae</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">aû</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">aè</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">aù</font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 2 </font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">û</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ô</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ø</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">oû</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">où</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ëù</font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font color="#009900" size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">stem + 3 </font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">î</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">ÿ</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#0000FF" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">iu</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">eû</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">eù</font></font></div></td> + <td valign="middle" bordercolor="#FF0000" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><font size="4"><font color="#009900">iù</font></font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and + Pattern 3. Pattern is used to divide a stem into a tripartite grouping consisting + of a <strong>holistic</strong> stem and two <strong>complementary</strong> sub-stems. + An example would be the holistic stem <em>spouse</em>, with its two complementary + sub-stems <em>husband</em> and <em>wife</em>. This distinction of holistic versus + complementary patterns is one way in which Ithkuil systematizes at the morphological + level what in other languages constitute lexical distinctions (i.e., differences + in word-choice when translating). It is one of the many ways by which Ithkuil + can function fully as a conceptually sophisticated and subtle language while + having such a small number of semantic word roots.</p> +<p align="justify">The two forms are labelled Form I and Form II. In <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Section + 3.7</a> we will see how Form is used to indicate a morphological category called + <strong>Designation</strong>. Designation is an important concept, in that, + like Pattern above, it operates to make morphological distinctions within a + stem that, in languages like English, often entail lexical differences, e.g., + the difference between English <em>tool</em> versus <em>utensil</em>. </p> +<p align="justify">Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary. + Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence, + detailed in <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">Section + 3.8</a>. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within + hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise + be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ + in the sentence <em>The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes</em> (e.g., in the newspaper + account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <p><a name="Sec2o3"></a><font size="4"><strong>2.3 SEMANTIC INSTANTIATION + OF STEMS</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into + the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological + category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it + will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three + for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This + will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems + associated with Patterns 2 and 3, the complementary stems.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 2.3.1 Holistic Stems</h3> +<p align="justify">The three stems for Form I, Pattern 1, have the designated + vowels <strong>a</strong>, <strong>u</strong>, and <strong>i</strong>. Thus, + the previously mentioned root <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>r</strong></font> + generates the following stems:</p> +<blockquote> + <p> 1. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tar</strong></font> + <em>‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’</em><br> + 2. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tur</font></strong> <em>‘designation + or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’</em><br> + 3. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tir</strong></font> <em>‘a + (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary + or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying + root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem + 1 usually refers to the most fundamental, basic, generalized, or common manifestation + of the root concept, while Stem 2 is a more specific application or tangible + manifestation thereof, or otherwise a subset of the meaning of Stem 1. Stem + 3 may represent yet a further manifestation of the root, a further subset of + Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship + between the individual stems for the root <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>r</strong></font> + above with that of the Form I root <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>x</strong></font>+<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>n</strong></font> + (<font size="2">‘VISION/SIGHT’</font>) below.</p> +<blockquote> + <p> 1. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xan</strong></font> + <em>‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’</em><br> + 2. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xun</strong></font> <em>‘an + eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’</em><br> + 3. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xin</font></strong> <em>‘an + image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’</em></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal + meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal + morphology. It should also be noted that the meanings given for the verb forms + above are approximate and incomplete, as we will see later that the exact meaning + of a verb form in Ithkuil is determined by the important morphological categories + of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">Section + 5.4</a>).</p> +<p align="justify">Looking at the Form II counterparts of the above two roots + below shows a difference in meaning from the Form I stems as determined by the + morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a + temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative + interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the + vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are <strong>â</strong>, + <strong>û</strong>, and <strong>î</strong>, as shown above in <a href="#Sec2o2o3">Table + 5</a>.</p> +<blockquote> + <p> 1. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">târ</font></strong> + ‘title; to (be) title(d)’<br> + 2. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tûr</font></strong> + ‘formal designation, label; to label’<br> + 3. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tîr</font></strong> + ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’ </p> + <p>1. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xân</font></strong> + ‘visual observation; to visually observe’<br> + 2. <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xûn</font></strong> + ‘optical device; to use an optical device’<br> + 3. <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xîn</strong></font> + ‘a rendered image; to render an image’</p> +</blockquote> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 2.3.2 Complementary Stems</h3> +<p align="justify">Any Ithkuil stem is capable of being further broken down into + two <strong>complementary</strong> stems which represent mutually exclusive + component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common + English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather + than being holistic word-stems. </p> +<p align="justify">By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation + of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, + but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered + to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, + for example, words such as <em>male</em>, <em>night</em>, <em>speech</em>, <em>sit</em>, + and <em>happen</em> are not considered basic concepts, but rather are parts + of greater holistic concepts, existing in complementary relationship to another + part, the two together making up the whole. </p> +<p align="justify">Thus, Ithkuil lexical structure recognizes that the word <em>male</em> + has no meaning in and of itself without an implicit recognition of its complementary + partner, <em>female</em>, the two words mutually deriving from a more basic, + holistic concept, translatable into English as <em>living being</em>. Similarly, + the word <em>night(time)</em> derives along with its complement <em>day(time)</em> + from the underlying concept translatable as <em>day</em> (i.e., a 24-hour period), + while the concept of <em>speak(ing)</em> divides into complementary concepts + of <em>talking</em> (focusing on the physical production of oral sound) versus + <em>saying/telling</em> (focusing on the communicative content of oral sound). +</p> +<p align="justify">Actions, too, are not exempt from this principle of complementarity, + an example being the relationship between <em>sit</em> and <em>seat</em>; one + has no meaning without an implicit and joint partnership with the other, i.e., + one cannot sit unless one sits upon something, and whatever one sits upon in + turn functions as a seat. Another example involves the word <em>happen</em> + or <em>occur</em>, which Ithkuil recognizes as having no real meaning without + the attendant implication of <em>consequence</em> or <em>result</em>, the two + being complementary components of a holistic concept roughly translatable as + <em>event</em> or <em>situation</em>.</p> +<p align="justify"> <strong>2.3.2.1 Using Patterns 2 and 3 to Derive Complementary + Stems</strong>. The first complementary stem is derived from the holistic stem + by mutation of the holistic stem vowel from Pattern 1 into Pattern 2, e.g., + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong>tal <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + tel</strong></font>, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation + from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tal + <strong><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></strong> + täl</font></strong>. Several examples of complementary stem derivation + are given below:</p> +<p align="justify"> Form I examples:</p> +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="42%"><table width="94%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="39%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="61%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>qum</strong></font>: + human being, person</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>qom</strong></font>: + male person </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qöm</font></strong>: + female person</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="56%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klad</font></strong>: + flow of water </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kled</font></strong>: + the water component of a flow of water </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>kläd</strong></font>: + the channel or course of a flow of water</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br> +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="50%"><table width="95%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="31%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="69%"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>til</strong></font>: + an act of written composition; to compose something in writing</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tël</strong></font>: + the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tül</strong></font></strong>: + the written content or message of a composition; to create written + content</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + <td width="3%"> </td> + <td width="47%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xan</font></strong>: + sight; to undergo an act of seeing (both sensory experience and thing + seen)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">xen</font></strong>: + an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see + with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>xän</strong></font>: + a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br> + Form II examples:</p> +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="42%"><table width="94%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="38%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="62%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qûm</font></strong>: + an official </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qôm</font></strong>: + male official </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">qøm</font></strong>: + female official </td> + </tr> + </table></td> + <td width="2%"> </td> + <td width="56%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klâd</font></strong>: + a river </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">klêd</font></strong>: + the water in a river </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>klaed</strong></font>: + a riverbed</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + </tr> +</table> +<br> +<table width="97%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="47%"><table width="98%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="31%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="69%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tîl</font></strong>: + an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">tÿl</font></strong>: + physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write + a work</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem </font></td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>tiul</strong></font></strong>: + the content(s) of a formal written work; to create the content of + a writing</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + <td width="4%"> </td> + <td width="49%"><table width="100%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="28%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></td> + <td width="72%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kâl</font></strong>: + an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production + + the communicative element)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>kêl</strong></font>: + an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e., + vocally emit words)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Comp. Stem</font></td> + <td> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>kael</strong></font>: + spoken message; to say/tell (i.e., communicate via spoken words)</td> + </tr> + </table></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><br> + <strong>2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation</strong>. As illustrated + above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often + neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ + breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative + aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down + into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case + that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is + counterintuitive to Western semantic notions. </p> +<p align="justify">For example, let us analyze the root <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>n</strong></font> + ‘<font size="2">NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER</font>’. While most languages + would consider the concept <em>parent</em> as fundamentally opposite from the + concept <em>child</em> and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes + that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, + just as any child must have (or have had) parents. This, then, constitutes an + archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is + referred to by the holistic stem <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</font></strong>. + One way to interpret the meaning, then, of <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</font></strong> + is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ + which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. + But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ + but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, + i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn + subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. + Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem + 2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual + meanings of the stems for <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h</font></strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">+<strong>n</strong></font> + in Form I.</p> +<table width="75%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> </td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Stem</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1st + Complementary Stem</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2nd + Complementary Stem</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="7%" height="23" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 1</td> + <td width="25%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">han</font></strong>: + nuclear family member </td> + <td width="34%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hen</font></strong>: + parent</td> + <td width="34%"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">h<strong>ä</strong>n</font></strong>: + child</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="25" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 2</td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hun</font></strong>: + male nuclear family member </td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hon</font></strong>: + father </td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hön</font></strong>: + son</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="21" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">Stem 3</td> + <td><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>hin</strong></font>: + female nuclear family member </td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hën</font></strong>: + mother </td> + <td><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">hün</font></strong>: + daughter</td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> Additional conceptual complementary pairs which would be contained within + single Ithkuil lexical roots are illustrated by the following examples:</p> +<table width="72%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="33%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Holistic + Concept</font></div></td> + <td colspan="2"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Complementary + Concepts </font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>eating</strong></td> + <td width="32%">food</td> + <td width="35%">ingestion</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>think, act of thinking</strong></td> + <td>a thought (thing considered)</td> + <td>process of consideration</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>liquid</strong></td> + <td>fluid (= ontological nature)</td> + <td>wet[ness] (=defining attribute) </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>measuring </strong></td> + <td>a measurement</td> + <td>process of measuring</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>transference of possession</strong></td> + <td>giving</td> + <td>taking</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>traversal between points</strong></td> + <td>coming, arrival </td> + <td> going, departure</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><strong>commercial transaction </strong></td> + <td>buying</td> + <td>selling</td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3><br> + <br> + 2.3.3 The Total Number of Stems</h3> +<p align="justify">As each of the 3600 roots has six holistic stems (three in + each Form) and twelve complementary stems (six in each Form), there are a total + of 64,800 possible stems. We have begun to see how the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology + and morpho-semantics allow this limited number to permutate into a myriad of + imaginative and dynamic forms for application to any semantic context.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="98%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <p><font size="4"><strong>2.4 CONSONANTAL MUTATION</strong></font><a name="Sec2o4"></a></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Both of the consonantal radicals from <a href="#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3.1</a> above, <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> and <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>, + are capable of undergoing mutation, that is, shifting to a different consonantal + form. The specific rules governing such mutation, however, are quite distinct + for <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radicals as compared to <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> + radicals.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 2.4.1 C1 Mutation </h3> +<p align="justify">As stated earlier, there are 60 forms for radical <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>. + Each can mutate into eight other forms, giving a total of nine possible manifestations + of each <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radical. These are labelled + Grade 1, Grade 2, etc., up to Grade 9. The nine grades of all 60 <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> + radicals are shown in Table No. 6 below. As examples, we can examine the nine + grades of the <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radicals <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + <strong>k</strong></font> and <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">pl</font></strong>:</p> +<blockquote> + <p> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">k <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + g <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> k’ + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/k-aspirated.gif" width="19" height="18" align="absmiddle"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + kf <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> km + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> kn <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + çk/<img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> çk’/<img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/t-cedilla.gif" width="7" height="16" align="absbottom">k’</font></strong></p> + <p><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> pl <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + bl <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> pr + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> br <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + p<img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle"> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> b<img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/l-slash.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absmiddle"> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> p<img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> b<img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/Rv.gif" width="7" height="16"> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> bw/by</font></strong></p> +</blockquote> +<p><br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table No. 6: C<font size="1">1</font> + Mutation Patterns by Grade </strong></font></p> +<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="49%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-4-2a.gif" width="340" height="552"></td> + <td width="51%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-4-2b.gif" width="369" height="551"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-4-2c.gif" width="340" height="221"></td> + <td><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-4-2d.gif" width="367" height="223"></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<h3> 2.4.2 <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> Mutation </h3> +<p align="justify">As with <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong>, there are + 60 forms of the second radical, <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>. These + in turn can mutate into eight other forms, for a total of nine possible forms + for each <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> radical. These are shown + in Table No. 7 below. As an example, note the mutations of the <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> + radical <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>t</strong></font>: +</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"> <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + tt <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> rt + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> st <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + lt <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/s-cedilla.gif" width="8" height="14" align="absbottom">t + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> št + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> nt <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> + sst</font></strong></p> +</blockquote> +<p align="justify">By combining the above mutational patterns for <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> + and <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>, along with the various vocalic + mutational patterns we will explore in the next section, we can see that any + given stem can easily mutate into myriad forms which, on the surface, bear scant + visual (or phonetic) resemblance to the original stem. <br> +</p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Table No. 7: C<font size="1">2</font> + Mutation Patterns by Grade </strong></font></p> +<table width="95%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="49%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-4-2e.gif" width="339" height="550"></td> + <td width="51%"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-4-2f.gif" width="370" height="548"></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-4-2g.gif" width="339" height="221"></td> + <td><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-4-2h.gif" width="371" height="221"></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> </font> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <p><font size="4"><a name="Sec2o5"></a><strong>2.5 VOCALIC MUTATION</strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p align="justify">In <a href="#Sec2o2o3">Section 2.2.3</a> above we saw how the + morpho-phonological distinctions of Mode, Form and Pattern are accomplished + by stem-specific vocalic infixes as illustrated in <a href="#Sec2o2o3">Table + 5</a>. Like the consonantal <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> and <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> + radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight + variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series + C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I, + in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman + numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes + depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel + mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating + a different combination of Mode and Pattern.</p> +<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>Tables 8(a)-(f): Vocalic + Mutation by Stem, Mode, Pattern, Form and Series</strong></font><br> + <br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(a): Primary Mode, Pattern + 1 </font></p> +<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="36" colspan="2"> </td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br> + A</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + I</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a<br> + u<br> + i</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai<br> + ui<br> + ei</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’(ï)<br> + u’(ï)<br> + i’(ï)</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wï<br> + u’wï<br> + i’wï</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wa<br> + u’wa<br> + i’wa </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’we<br> + u’we<br> + i’we</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wi<br> + u’wi<br> + i’wi </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wë<br> + u’wë<br> + i’wë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’wo<br> + u’wo<br> + i’wo</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + II</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â<br> + û<br> + î</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">au<br> + ou<br> + eu </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’(ï)<br> + û’(ï)<br> + î ’(ï) </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’yï<br> + u’yï<br> + i’yï</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’ya<br> + u’ya<br> + i’ya</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’ye<br> + u’ye<br> + i’ye </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’yu<br> + u’yu<br> + i’yu </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’yë<br> + u’yë<br> + i’yë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’yo<br> + u’yo<br> + i’yo</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p><br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(b): Primary Mode, Pattern + 2</font></p> +<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="36" colspan="2"> </td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br> + A</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + I</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e<br> + o<br> + ë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ia<br> + io<br> + ie</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’(ï)<br> + o’(ï)<br> + ë’(ï)</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wï<br> + o’wï<br> + ë’wï</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wa<br> + o’wa<br> + ë’wa</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’we<br> + o’we<br> + ë’we </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wi<br> + o’wi<br> + ë’wi </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wë<br> + o’wë<br> + ë’wë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’wo<br> + o’wo<br> + ë’wo</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + II</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ê<br> + ô<br> + ÿ </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ua<br> + uo<br> + ue</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ê’(ï)<br> + ô’(ï)<br> + ÿ’(ï)</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’yï<br> + o’yï<br> + ë’yï</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’ya<br> + o’ya<br> + ë’ya</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’ye<br> + o’ye<br> + ë’ye</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’yu<br> + o’yu<br> + ë’yu</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’yë<br> + o’yë<br> + ë’yë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’yo<br> + o’yo<br> + ë’yo</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> <br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(c): Primary Mode, Pattern + 3</font></p> +<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="36" colspan="2"> </td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br> + A</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + I</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä<br> + ö<br> + ü</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ea<br> + ië<br> + ëi </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’(ï)<br> + ö’(ï)<br> + ü’(ï)</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wï<br> + ö’wï<br> + ü’wï</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wa<br> + ö’wa<br> + ü’wa</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’we<br> + ö’we<br> + ü’we </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wi<br> + ö’wi<br> + ü’wi </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wë<br> + ö’wë<br> + ü’wë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’wo<br> + ö’wo<br> + ü’wo</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + II</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ae <br> + ø<br> + iu</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">oa<br> + ëu<br> + uë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ae’(ï)<br> + ø’(ï)<br> + iu’(ï)</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’yï<br> + ö’yï<br> + ü’yï </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’ya<br> + ö’ya<br> + ü’ya</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’ye<br> + ö’ye<br> + ü’ye </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’yu<br> + ö’yu<br> + ü’yu </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’yë<br> + ö’yë<br> + ü’yë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ä’yo<br> + ö’yo<br> + ü’yo</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> <br> + <br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(d): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 1</font></p> +<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="36" colspan="2"> </td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br> + A</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + I</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">aî <br> + uî<br> + eî</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’i <br> + u’i<br> + e’i </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">âì<br> + ûì<br> + êì </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wï<br> + ui’wï<br> + ei’wï</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wa<br> + ui’wa<br> + ei’wa</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’we<br> + ui’we<br> + ei’we</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wi<br> + ui’wi<br> + ei’wi</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wë<br> + ui’wë<br> + ei’wë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ai’wo<br> + ui’wo<br> + ei’wo</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + II</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">aû<br> + oû<br> + eû</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">a’u<br> + o’u<br> + e’u</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">âù<br> + oî<br> + êù</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’yï<br> + ou’yï<br> + eu’yï</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’ya<br> + ou’ya<br> + eu’ya</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’ye<br> + ou’ye<br> + eu’ye</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’yu<br> + ou’yu<br> + eu’yu</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’yë<br> + ou’yë<br> + eu’yë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">au’yo<br> + ou’yo<br> + eu’yo</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> <br> + <br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(e): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 2</font></p> +<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="36" colspan="2"> </td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br> + A</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + I</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">eì<br> + oi<br> + oì</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">i’a<br> + i’e<br> + i’o</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">îa<br> + îo<br> + îe</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wï<br> + ê’wï<br> + ô’wï</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wa<br> + ê’wa<br> + ô’wa</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’we<br> + ê’we<br> + ô’we</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wi<br> + ê’wi<br> + ô’wi</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wë<br> + ê’wë<br> + ô’wë </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’wo<br> + ê’wo<br> + ô’wo</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + II</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">aè<br> + où<br> + eù </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">u’a<br> + u’e<br> + u’o</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">ûa<br> + ûo<br> + ûe</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’yï<br> + ê’yï<br> + ô’yï </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’ya<br> + ê’ya<br> + ô’ya </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’ye<br> + ê’ye<br> + ô’ye</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’yu<br> + ê’yu<br> + ô’yu </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’yë<br> + ê’yë<br> + ô’yë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">â’yo<br> + ê’yo<br> + ô’yo</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> <br> + <br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 8(f): Secondary Mode, Pattern + 3</font></p> +<table width="82%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="36" colspan="2"> </td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Series<br> + A</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="7%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + B</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="8%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + C</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + D</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + E</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + F</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="10%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + G</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + H</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="11%" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + J</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="8%" height="72" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + I</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="9%"><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">aì<br> + uì<br> + ëì</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">e’a<br> + i’ë<br> + ë’i </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">iê<br> + îù<br> + üa </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wï<br> + ø’wï<br> + î’wï </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wa<br> + ø’wa<br> + î’wa </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’we<br> + ø’we<br> + î’we </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wi<br> + ø’wi<br> + î’wi </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wë<br> + ø’wë<br> + î’wë </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’wo<br> + ø’wo<br> + î’wo</font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="70" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Form<br> + II</font></strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>stem 1<br> + stem 2<br> + stem 3</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">aù<br> + ëù<br> + iù</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">o’a<br> + ë’u<br> + u’ë</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">aê<br> + üe<br> + iû </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’yï<br> + ø’yï<br> + î’yï </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’ya<br> + ø’ya<br> + î’ya </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’ye<br> + ø’ye<br> + î’ye</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’yu<br> + ø’yu<br> + î’yu</font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’yë<br> + ø’yë<br> + î’yë </font></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><font size="4">û’yo<br> + ø’yo<br> + î’yo</font></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><font size="4"><strong>2.6 + PARTS OF SPEECH<a name="Sec2o6"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil has only two parts of speech: <em>formatives</em> and + <em>adjuncts</em>. While Ithkuil does employ words which function as nouns and + verbs, such nouns and verbs derive morphologically from the same grammatical + stem (its nominal or verbal function or meaning being dependent on the particular + morpho-semantic context), hence the term <em>formative</em>. This process of + noun/verb derivation from formatives is discussed in detail in Section 2.6.1 + below. Note that there are no adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, + conjunctions, particles or interjections in Ithkuil, at least not at any autonomous + lexical level that can be termed a part of speech. The equivalents to, or substitutes + for, these latter Western grammatical notions all exist within the formative-adjunct + morphological paradigm.</p> +<p align="justify">Another dissimilarity with Western languages is that there + are no irregular or defective forms; all formatives and adjuncts follow the + same inflectional and derivational rules without exception and all formatives + are theoretically capable of semantic denotation for every inflectional or derivational + category, i.e., all inflectionally or derivationally possible words theoretically + exist and have meaning (although, in actuality, some forms will, of course, + be semantically anomalous, redundant, contrived, or distinguish shades of meaning + that are contextually unnecessary).</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + <a name="Sec2o6o1"></a> 2.6.1 Formatives </h3> +<p align="justify">The stem formed as per the discussion in <a href="#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3</a> above constitutes the grammatical part of speech termed the <em>formative</em>. + All formatives, without exception, can function as both nouns or verbs, and + the distinction as to whether a formative is to be interpreted as a noun or + a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical + relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives + that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative + <strong>klâd</strong> illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the + other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise + only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such + nominal versus verbal lexical constraints are inherent. Often, the interpretation + or translation of an Ithkuil formative exclusively into a noun or verb form + is arbitrary. For example, the following Ithkuil phrases can be translated using + either verbal predicates or purely nominal phrases:<br> +</p> +<p align="justify"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-6-1a.gif" width="190" height="25"><font color="#FFFFFF"> + ______</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-2-2.mp3">Listen!</a> + <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-2-2.mp3"><img src="Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br> + <em>‘by the time of his death’</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> + <em>‘by the time he dies’</em></p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-6-1b.gif" width="194" height="24"><br> + <em>‘the awful-smelling woman’</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> + <em>‘the woman smells awful’</em></p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-6-1d.gif" width="208" height="23"><font color="#FFFFFF"> + ______</font><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3">Listen!</a> + <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Sound_Files/Ch-4-2.mp3"><img src="Audio_icon.gif" width="19" height="16" border="0" align="absbottom"></a></font><br> + <em>‘what the eagle sees’</em> <strong><font size="2">OR</font></strong> + <em>‘the eagle’s seeing something’</em></p> +<p align="justify"><br> + The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of + a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns + and verbs as being cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary + manifestations of an idea existing in a common underlying semantic continuum + whose components are space and time. As in physics, the holistic continuum containing + these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum + of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving + rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to + either <em>spatially “reify”</em> this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to<em> temporally “activize”</em> it + into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can + be diagrammed as follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p align="justify"> <br> + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%202/2-6-1.gif" width="493" height="116"> </p> +</blockquote> +<p> </p> +<h3>2.6.2 Adjuncts <a name="Sec2o6o2"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with + adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). +</p> +<p align="justify">Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic + affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, + most of which are described in detail in <a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 8: Adjuncts</a>. These include:</p> +<ul> + <li> + <div align="justify"><strong>Personal Reference Adjuncts</strong>: The nearest + equivalent to Western personal pronouns, identifying in abbreviated form + the participant entities to a verb or the entities associated with a particular + noun in some case relationship. <br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><strong>Valence Adjuncts and Conflation Adjuncts</strong>: + These are used in conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information + on the morphological categories of Valence, Version, Derivation, Format, + Level, and Modality. Each of these categories is discussed in <a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 5: Verb Morphology</a>.<br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><strong>Aspectual Adjuncts</strong>: These are used in + conjunction with verbal formatives to provide information on the morphological + categories of Aspect, Mood, Validation, Phase, Sanction, and Bias. Each + of these categories is discussed in <a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 6: Additional Verb Morphology</a>.<br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><strong>Affixual Adjuncts</strong>: These function as + whole-word substitutes for the consonantal affixes usually added to formatives. + Their use is governed primarily by phonaesthetic principles (see<font color="#FF0000"> + </font><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">Section 1.4.5</a>). <br> + </div> + </li> + <li> + <div align="justify"><strong>Combination Adjuncts</strong>: A blanket category + covering several types of complex adjuncts which combine several distinct + morphological categories into a single adjunct. Used primarily for euphonic + and phonaesthetic purposes. </div> + </li> +</ul> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> + <p><font size="4"><strong>2.7 AFFIXES</strong></font><a name="Sec2o7"></a></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<div align="justify"><br> + Ithkuil, like English, employs affixes (including both prefixes, suffixes, and + infixes) in its morphology. The rules governing the formation of these affixes + are rather complex. The fundamentals are discussed below, while the actual affixes + themselves are explored later in <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 7: Using Affixes</a>. </div> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 2.7.1 Consonant-based Affixes<a name="Sec2o7o1"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">Ithkuil makes a fundamental distinction between purely vocalic + affixes (i.e., containing no consonants) and affixes which are based on a consonant + (which may or may not contain vowels). In this section we will explore consonant-based + affixes.</p> +<p align="justify">Every consonant-based affix used with a formative is composed + of an invariable (i.e., non-mutating) consonant, but has a variable vocalic + form associated with it. The suffix form of a consonant-based affix is of the + form <strong>V+C</strong> (i.e., vowel + consonant), with an optional alternate + form of <strong>C+V</strong> when in word-final position and in certain other + circumstances. This word-final alternate form is explained in more detail in + <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter 7</a>. As for + the optional prefix form of consonantal affixes, this will also be discussed + in Chapter 7; the discussion below applies only to the suffix form of affixes.</p> +<p align="justify">While the consonantal portion of the affix is always invariable, + the vocalic portion mutates depending on two morphological factors known as + <strong>degree</strong> and <strong>affix-type</strong>. The nine different + degrees will be discussed in detail in the next section below. As for affix-type, + every consonantal-based V+C (or C+V) affix falls into one of three types, which + determine what vowel or vowels will come before (or after) the invariable consonant + C. The three affix-types are labelled <strong>V<font size="1">1</font></strong>, + <strong>V<font size="1">2</font></strong>, and <strong>V<font size="1">3</font></strong>, + in reference to the vowel portion of the affix.</p> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 2.7.2 Degree And Degree-Shifting<a name="Sec2o7o2"></a></h3> +<p align="justify">In addition to the three affix-types, the vowel(s) associated + with suffixes are also determined by degree. There are nine degrees, each of + which has three associated vowel infixes corresponding to the three affix-types. + Table 9 below shows the vowel(s) associated with each affix-type. </p> +<p align="justify">Under certain circumstances where the final stem consonant + and the consonant portion of the consonantal suffix can be conjoined without + causing confusion (i.e., where the conjoined consonants will not be mistaken + for a mutation of the final consonantal radical <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong>), + Ithkuil permits the option to reverse the order of the vowel and consonant of + the suffix. This alternate form is shown in the second column of the table for + each degree. In this alternate form, the vocalic portion follows, rather than + precedes the consonant portion of the suffix.</p> +<p align="justify"></p> +<p align="justify"><strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Table 9: + Vocalic Infixes for Consonantal Suffixes by Affix Type </font></strong></p> +<table width="80%" border="1" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td width="12%" rowspan="2"> </td> + <td colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 1: -V<font size="1">1</font>C</font></strong></div></td> + <td colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 2: -V<font size="1">2</font>C</font></strong></div></td> + <td colspan="2" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 3: -V<font size="1">3</font>C</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="18%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard + form </font></strong></div></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional + reversed form</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="21%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard + form </font></strong></div></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional + reversed form</font></strong></div></td> + <td width="13%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">standard + form </font></strong></div></td> + <td width="12%" bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="1" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">optional + reversed form</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 1</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-iC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cai</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-îC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cëi</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-ieC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Caï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 2</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-eC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cei</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-êC / -eiC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ceu </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-iëC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ceï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 3</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-äC / -aeC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cia</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-âC /-aiC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Câ</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-iuC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ciï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 4</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-öC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cua</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-øC / -euC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ciu</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-ioC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Coï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 5</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-(a)C</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Ca</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-uiC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cui</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-iäC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cuï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 6</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-üC / -ëuC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cü</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-ÿC / -auC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cau</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-uäC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cäi</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 7</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-ïC / -ëiC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cï</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-ëC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cëu</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-uoC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cöi</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 8</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-oC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Coi</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-ôC / -oiC / -ouC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cou</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-uëC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cäu</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 9</font></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-uC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cu</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-ûC</strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cû</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="center"><strong>-ueC </strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFF99"> <div align="center"><strong>-Cöu</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see + in Table 10 below how these suffixes (and their alternate word-final forms) + would actually appear in conjunction with the stem <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>rit</strong></font>:</p> +<p align="justify"><br> + <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> <strong>TABLE 10: EXAMPLE OF ALTERNATION + OF VOWEL POSITION IN SUFFIXES</strong></font></p> +<table width="80%" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="3"> + <tr> + <td width="11%"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix: + -V<font size="1">1</font>k</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 2: -V<font size="1">2</font>k</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Affix + Type 3: -V<font size="1">3</font>k</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 1</font></td> + <td width="27%"><div align="left"><strong> ritik / ritkai</strong></div></td> + <td width="34%"><div align="left"><strong>ritîk / ritkëi</strong></div></td> + <td width="28%"><div align="left"><strong>ritiek / ritkaï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 2</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritek / ritkei </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritêk / riteik / ritkeu</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritiëk / ritkeï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 3</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritäk / ritaek / ritkia</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ</strong></div></td> + <td> <div align="left"><strong>ritiuk /ritkiï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 4</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritök / ritkua</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritøk / riteuk / ritkiu</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritiok / ritkoï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 5</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritk / ritak / ritka</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>rituik / ritkui</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritiäk / ritkuï</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 6</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritük / ritëuk / ritkü</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritÿk / ritauk / ritkau</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>rituäk / ritkäi</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 7</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritïk / ritëik / ritkï </strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritëk / ritkëu</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>rituok / ritköi</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 8</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritok /ritkoi</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>rituëk / ritkäu</strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#CCCCCC"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree + 9</font></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>rituk / ritku</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>ritûk / ritkû</strong></div></td> + <td><div align="left"><strong>rituek / ritköu</strong></div></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"> Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix + reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such + reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (<a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">see + Sec. 1.4.5</a>).</p> +<p align="justify">As for the morpho-syntactic function of Degree, it is used + in Ithkuil to create a gradient system for all consonantal affixes, which generally + indicates the degree to which the semantic concept underlying the particular + affix applies to the particular stem. This gradient usually extends from zero-degree + (i.e., the particular concept or quality is absent or minimal) to a maximal + degree (i.e., the particular concept or quality is present in totality). We + will see in <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 7: Using Affixes</a> how this gradient system is used systematically in many + dynamic semantic contexts. As a preview we can illustrate the meanings associated + with the nine degrees for the affix -<strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">V<font size="1">1</font>d</font></strong>.</p> +<table width="86%" border="0" cellpadding="0" bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> + <tr> + <td width="5%"> </td> + <td width="12%"><div align="center"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Degree</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> <div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Suffix</font></strong></div></td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> <div align="left"><strong><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Meaning</font></strong></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 1</font></div></td> + <td width="21%"><strong>-id / -dai</strong></td> + <td width="62%">wholly lacking in / a complete absence of / not at all</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">2</font></div></td> + <td><strong>-ed / -dei</strong></td> + <td>way too little / totally insufficient(ly) / not anywhere enough</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 3</font></div></td> + <td><strong>-äd / -aed / -dia</strong></td> + <td>not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 4</font></div></td> + <td><strong>-öd / -dua</strong></td> + <td>not quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 5</font></div></td> + <td><strong>-d / -ad / -da</strong></td> + <td>enough (of) / sufficient(ly)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 6</font></div></td> + <td><strong>-üd / -ëud / -dü</strong></td> + <td>a little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 7</font></div></td> + <td><strong>-ïd / -ëid / -dï</strong></td> + <td>too / too much / over-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 8</font></div></td> + <td><strong>-od /-doi</strong></td> + <td>way too much / totally over-[+verb]</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"> </td> + <td bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><div align="center"><font size="2" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> + 9</font></div></td> + <td><strong>-ud / -du</strong></td> + <td>nothing but / to the exclusion of all else</td> + </tr> +</table> +<h3 align="justify"><br> + 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes</h3> +<p align="justify">Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in <a href="#Sec2o3">Section + 2.3</a> et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather + than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes + to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic + affixes -<strong>ï</strong>-, and -<strong>a</strong>. Each of these contexts + is discussed below:</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes</strong>. Vocalic prefixes + are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels + or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., <strong>a</strong>-, <strong>ui</strong>-, + <strong>ae</strong>-, <strong>ia</strong>-, <strong>ö</strong>-, <strong>eu</strong>-, + etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial <strong>w</strong>- + or <strong>y</strong>- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic + morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical + categories), they do not mutate. A word can take only one such prefix. The usage + and function of these vocalic prefixes will be discussed as they are encountered + in the chapters on morphology which follow.</p> +<p align="justify"><strong>2.7.3.2 Vocalic Suffixes</strong>. Purely vocalic suffixes + (other than the anaptyctic vowels discussed below) occur only in adjuncts, not + formatives. Like vocalic prefixes described immediately above, they can be highly + synthetic morphologically but do not mutate. Unlike vocalic prefixes, there + can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e., + added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.</p> +<p align="justify"><strong><a name="Sec2o7o3o3"></a>2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels + -ï- and -a</strong>. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require + a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix, + suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in <a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 7: Using Affixes</a>, an anaptyctic infix, -<strong>ï</strong>-, is used + in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> + stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to + prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the + <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> radical. For example, while the prefix + <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">s</font></strong>- is phonotactically + permissible before the stem <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kaf</font></strong>, + the resulting word must be <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>sïkaf</strong></font>, + not <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">skaf</font></strong>, + as the latter is a completely different stem employing a <strong>C<font size="1">1</font></strong> + radical <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>sk</strong></font>-.</p> +<p align="justify">An anaptyctic vowel is also sometimes required in Ithkuil when + grammatical rules call for antepenultimate stress on a word (i.e., the third-from-last + syllable is stressed), but the word in question has only one or two syllables. + In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes + this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have, + but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the + anaptyctic vowel <strong>ï</strong>- can be prefixed to a word beginning + with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -<strong>a</strong> + can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">kfuil + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> ïkfùila</font></strong>. + This anaptyctic suffix -<strong>a</strong> is also required for phonotactical + euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical <strong>C<font size="1">2</font></strong> + to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., <strong><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">t + <img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"> tt</font></strong> + as in <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>reit <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607204552id_/http:/www.ithkuil.net/Images/Ch%201/Symbols/arrow.gif" width="17" height="9"></font> + reitta</strong></font>.</p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"> + <tr> + <td height="20" valign="top" bgcolor="#CCCCCC"> <p><font size="4"><strong>2.8 + NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY<a name="Sec2o8"></a></strong></font></p></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify">While this chapter has mentioned a few specific morphological + categories in passing, beginning with <a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm" target="mainFrame">Chapter + 3: Basic Morphology</a>, morphological (i.e., grammatical) categories will be + discussed in detail. It should be noted that, given the extensive array of overt + morphological categories in Ithkuil, the terminology used in naming these categories + is often arbitrary. Where a category functions similarly to a familiar linguistic + category, the name of that category has been appropriated. Elsewhere, linguistic + terminology from Indo-European, Uralic, Amerindian or Ibero-Caucasian grammar + has been appropriated out of convenience, often with only a small similarity + of function. In still other instances, I have contrived my own grammatical nomenclature.</p> +<p align="right"><strong><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm" onClick="javascript:changenavhome();"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Proceed + to Chapter 3: Basic Morphology >></font></a></strong></p> +<p align="justify"> </p> +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="1"> + <tr> + <td width="9%" height="25" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="1"><a name="menu"></a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="index.htm" target="_top">Home</a></font></div></td> + <td width="37%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5a-verbs.htm">5a + Verb Morphology </a></font></div></td> + <td width="27%" valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch9-syntax.htm">9 + Syntax</a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></font></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-intro.htm">Introduction</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch5b-verbs-contd.htm">5b + Verb Morphology (continued)</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch10-lexicosemantics.htm">10 + Lexico-Semantics</a></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font size="2"></font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch1-phonology.htm">1 + Phonology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch6-moreverbs.htm">6 + More Verb Morphology</a></font></div></td> + <td valign="top"><div align="left"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch11-script.htm">11 + The Script </a></font></font></div></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch2-morphophonology.htm">2 + Morpho-Phonology</a></font><font size="2"> </font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7a-affixes.htm">7a + Using Affixes </a></font></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch12-numbers.htm">12 + The Number System</a></font></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font size="2"> </font><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch3-morphology.htm">3 + Basic Morphology</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch7b-affixes-contd.htm">7b + Using Affixes (continued) </a></font></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-lexicon.htm">The + Lexicon</a></font></font></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td height="26" valign="top"> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch4-case.htm">4 + Case Morphology </a></font> </td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.htm">8 + Adjuncts</a></font></td> + <td valign="top"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><a href="Ilaksh_Intro.html" target="_blank">Revised Ithkuil: <font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">I</font>laksh</a></font></td> + </tr> +</table> +<p align="justify"><font size="-1">©2004-2009 by John Quijada. 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