From d2da853b9eb430679e7238b93996f8e4651a39c1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: uakci Date: Sat, 19 Dec 2020 04:55:30 +0100 Subject: fixed encoding --- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch-12-numbers.html | 244 ++-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html | 164 +-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html | 334 ++--- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html | 322 ++--- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html | 168 +-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html | 970 ++++++------- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html | 296 ++-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html | 472 +++---- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html | 200 +-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html | 154 +- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html | 566 ++++---- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html | 178 +-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html | 310 ++-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html | 230 +-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html | 168 +-- 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html | 1796 ++++++++++++------------ 16 files changed, 3286 insertions(+), 3286 deletions(-) mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch-12-numbers.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html mode change 100755 => 100644 2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch-12-numbers.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch-12-numbers.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index a53bc60..441719a --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch-12-numbers.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch-12-numbers.html @@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ Stems - 12.3 Expressing “Zero” + 12.3 Expressing “Zero” 12.4 Writing Numerals @@ -110,21 +110,21 @@ are referred to by the number of hundreds plus the number of units, just as a decimal system, beginning with the number 11, refers to the number of tens plus the number of units. However, where a decimal system then shifts to a unit - referring to 100 once “10 tens” is reached, a centesimal system + referring to 100 once “10 tens” is reached, a centesimal system proceeds to the number 10,000 before establishing a new unit reference (i.e., - “100 hundreds”). Thus the number 3254, which in a decimal system - is 3 thousands — 2 hundreds — 5 tens — 4 ones, in a centesimal - system becomes 32 hundreds—54 ones, and would be only two digits when + “100 hundreds”). Thus the number 3254, which in a decimal system + is 3 thousands — 2 hundreds — 5 tens — 4 ones, in a centesimal + system becomes 32 hundreds—54 ones, and would be only two digits when written (the single character representing 32, and the single character representing 54). The details of writing Ithkuil numerals are given below in Section 12.5.

After 100, separate unit numbers and symbols are assigned to - the square of 100 (i.e. ten thousand, that being “100 hundreds”), + the square of 100 (i.e. ten thousand, that being “100 hundreds”), then the square of that number, (100 million, i.e., 10,000 ten-thousands). The final unit is , that is, 10 quadrillion or 100 million hundred-millions, the last number for which Ithkuil assigns a separate root and symbol. After ten quadrillion, numbers - are referred to as multiples of lower sets, similar to saying in English “one - trillion quadrillion” instead of the equivalent “one octillion.”

+ are referred to as multiples of lower sets, similar to saying in English “one + trillion quadrillion” instead of the equivalent “one octillion.”

While the above may seem unwieldy or even arbitrary, it actually parallels Western base-ten numerals in terms of its systematization. For example, in a Western number like 456,321,777,123, each set of three numbers between @@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ and 456 of_, or in more common terms 123 ones, 777 thousands, 321 millions, 456 billions).

The same exact system holds for Ithkuil, except that the sets - of numbers “between the commas” so to speak, is the number of ten-thousands, + of numbers “between the commas” so to speak, is the number of ten-thousands, not thousands. Thus, if we were to rewrite the Western number 456,321,777,123 in such a system, it would be 4563,2177,7123 (i.e., 7123 of_, 2177 of_, @@ -151,7 +151,7 @@

The semantic roots for numbers in Ithkuil from 1 to 99 are - based on roots for 1 through 10, to which the nine degrees of the affix -V1t’ + based on roots for 1 through 10, to which the nine degrees of the affix -V1t’ are added. Each of the nine degrees of this suffix, when applied to one of the ten number-roots, corresponds to an additional multiple of ten. This is illustrated in Table 67 below.
@@ -163,91 +163,91 @@

The addition of a particular degree of this affix to one of the ten indicates that the root number is added to that multiple of ten. For example, the stem kas - ‘two,’ plus the seventh degree affix -V1t’/7, - gives kast’ď - ‘seventy-two.’ Because there is no root corresponding to ‘zero’ + ‘two,’ plus the seventh degree affix -V1t’/7, + gives kast’ď + ‘seventy-two.’ Because there is no root corresponding to ‘zero’ (see Sec. 12.3 below), each multiple of ten is constructed using stem mas - ‘ten’ plus one of the above suffixes. Thus, the numbers 20, 30 and - 40 are respectively mast’, - mast’u - and mast’ai, - but the numbers 22, 32 and 42 are kast’u, - kast’ai - and kast’ei. + ‘ten’ plus one of the above suffixes. Thus, the numbers 20, 30 and + 40 are respectively mast’, + mast’u + and mast’ai, + but the numbers 22, 32 and 42 are kast’u, + kast’ai + and kast’ei. This pattern only operates up to the nineties, as there is a separate autonomous root for 100, r-s.

Since numbers are formatives in Ithkuil, not adjectives as in most Western languages, holistic stem No. 1, shown by the vocalic infix -a-, is a formative signifying a set containing a number of members corresponding to that particular root. Thus, the formative kas - above, translatable as ‘two,’ actually means ‘a set of two; - a duo / to be a duo.’ In turn, the two complementary derivatives of each + above, translatable as ‘two,’ actually means ‘a set of two; + a duo / to be a duo.’ In turn, the two complementary derivatives of each stem denote its multiple and its fraction respectively. This is illustrated below for both Form I and II using the roots k-s, TWO, and n-s, meaning SEVEN:

For k-s, TWO:

-

1. kas/kâs - ‘a set of two, a duo; to be two in number’

+

1. kas/kâs + ‘a set of two, a duo; to be two in number’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- kes/kęs: - ‘twice the number of something; to double, to multiply by two’
- käs/kaes: - ‘a half; to halve, to be or make half, to divide by or in two’

+ kes/kęs: + ‘twice the number of something; to double, to multiply by two’
+ käs/kaes: + ‘a half; to halve, to be or make half, to divide by or in two’

-

2. kus/kűs - ‘to be or make dual; having two uses or aspects; bi-; twofold’ +

2. kus/kűs + ‘to be or make dual; having two uses or aspects; bi-; twofold’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- kos/kôs: - ‘two times (i.e., iterations), twice; to be/do/make twice’
- kös/křs: - ‘to be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)’

+ kos/kôs: + ‘two times (i.e., iterations), twice; to be/do/make twice’
+ kös/křs: + ‘to be of or make into two parts; bifurcate(d)’

-

3. kis/kîs - ‘the second one in a sequence; to be or make second (in a sequence)’

+

3. kis/kîs + ‘the second one in a sequence; to be or make second (in a sequence)’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- kës/k˙s: - ‘to the second power, squared; to square, raise to the 2nd power’
- küs/kius: - ‘to the negative second power, the inverse square; to divide by - the square of’

+ kës/k˙s: + ‘to the second power, squared; to square, raise to the 2nd power’
+ küs/kius: + ‘to the negative second power, the inverse square; to divide by + the square of’

For n-s, SEVEN:

-

1. nas/nâs - ‘a set/group of seven, a septet; to be seven in number’

+

1. nas/nâs + ‘a set/group of seven, a septet; to be seven in number’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- nes/nęs: - ‘7 times the number of something; to multiply by 7; septuple’
- näs/naes: - ‘a seventh; to be or make a 7th part of something, to divide by - 7 or into 7 parts’

+ nes/nęs: + ‘7 times the number of something; to multiply by 7; septuple’
+ näs/naes: + ‘a seventh; to be or make a 7th part of something, to divide by + 7 or into 7 parts’

-

2. nus/nűs - ‘to be or make seven-faceted; having 7 uses or aspects; septi-; sevenfold’ +

2. nus/nűs + ‘to be or make seven-faceted; having 7 uses or aspects; septi-; sevenfold’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- nos/nôs: - ‘7 times (i.e., iterations); to be/do/make 7 times’
- nös/nřs: - ‘to be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts’

+ nos/nôs: + ‘7 times (i.e., iterations); to be/do/make 7 times’
+ nös/nřs: + ‘to be of or make into 7 parts; separate(d) into 7 parts’

-

3. nis/nîs - ‘the seventh one in a sequence; to be or make 7th (in a sequence)’ +

3. nis/nîs + ‘the seventh one in a sequence; to be or make 7th (in a sequence)’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- nës/n˙s: - ‘to the 7th power; to raise to the 7th power’
- nüs/nius: - ‘to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of’ + nĂŤs/n˙s: + ‘to the 7th power; to raise to the 7th power’
+ nüs/nius: + ‘to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of’

In addition to the above-described roots, there is the root @@ -257,37 +257,37 @@ distinction in this root (i.e., Form I versus Form II of each stem) distinguishes between a focus on non-duplication/singularity for the INFORMAL, and indivisibility/unity for the FORMAL:

-

1. las/lâs - ‘a single entity; to be one in number’

+

1. las/lâs + ‘a single entity; to be one in number’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- les/lęs: - ‘to be indivisible, whole, a single unit; unitary; to unify’
- läs/laes: - ‘to be (an) individual, a distinct entity in itself; to individualize’

+ les/lęs: + ‘to be indivisible, whole, a single unit; unitary; to unify’
+ läs/laes: + ‘to be (an) individual, a distinct entity in itself; to individualize’

-

2. lus/lűs - ‘a lone entity, something alone; an entity in solitude, something/someone - isolated; be alone; to isolate; be in solitude’

+

2. lus/lűs + ‘a lone entity, something alone; an entity in solitude, something/someone + isolated; be alone; to isolate; be in solitude’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- los/lôs: - ‘something/someone lonely; be or make lonely’
- lös/lřs: - ‘something/someone independent, self-sufficient, singular (i.e., + los/lĂ´s: + ‘something/someone lonely; be or make lonely’
+ lĂśs/lřs: + ‘something/someone independent, self-sufficient, singular (i.e., without need of, connection to, or dependency on others); be or make independent, - self-sufficient, singular’

+ self-sufficient, singular’

-

3. lis/lîs - ‘something/someone unique, the only one; to be or make unique’

+

3. lis/lîs + ‘something/someone unique, the only one; to be or make unique’

COMPLEMENTARY DERIVATIVES:
- lës/l˙s: - ‘a sole entity, the only one available or able (in terms of sufficiency - or applicability to the context)’
- lüs/lius: - ‘something/someone one-of-a-kind, unparalleled, without equal or - peer (in terms of uniqueness of characteristics)’

+ lës/l˙s: + ‘a sole entity, the only one available or able (in terms of sufficiency + or applicability to the context)’
+ lüs/lius: + ‘something/someone one-of-a-kind, unparalleled, without equal or + peer (in terms of uniqueness of characteristics)’


The Ithkuil numerical roots as described in the section above are as follows:

@@ -295,7 +295,7 @@
l-s
k-s
-
š-s
+
ĹĄ-s
p-s
-s
t-s
@@ -323,7 +323,7 @@
r-s
q-s
-
ç-s
+
ç-s
c-s
@@ -337,13 +337,13 @@

 

- +

12.3 EXPRESSING “ZERO”

12.3 EXPRESSING “ZERO”

-

Ithkuil has no word for “zero” nor is it conceptualized +

Ithkuil has no word for “zero” nor is it conceptualized as a numerical category. Instead any appropriate formative may take the affixes - -V1ss/1 or -V2ss/1 ‘no amount of’ or -V3b/1 ‘no…at - all’ in terms of degree or extent to create negative expressions + -V1ss/1 or -V2ss/1 ‘no amount of’ or -V3b/1 ‘no…at + all’ in terms of degree or extent to create negative expressions that convey the idea of an absence of a numerical entity or quantity. In many cases, simply the negative of whatever formative is under discussion may be used.

@@ -357,7 +357,7 @@

Writing Ithkuil numerals is somewhat similar to writing numbers - in Western languages (i.e., “Arabic” numerals), in that the interpretation + in Western languages (i.e., “Arabic” numerals), in that the interpretation of a number as a different power of 100 (analogous to interpreting single Arabic numerals as either ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.) is based on its sequence within the entire number. However, there are two aspects of writing Ithkuil @@ -368,16 +368,16 @@ employs separate autonomous symbols for each power of 100 (100, 10,000, 100 million, etc.) each of which operates as the appropriate placeholder instead of zero. To illustrate what this means by analogy, pretend that - “@” is an autonomous symbol for 27 (since Ithkuil numbers from - 1 to 99 each have a separate symbol), “&” is a symbol for - 100, “#” is a symbol for 10,000 and there is no symbol 0 (zero). + “@” is an autonomous symbol for 27 (since Ithkuil numbers from + 1 to 99 each have a separate symbol), “&” is a symbol for + 100, “#” is a symbol for 10,000 and there is no symbol 0 (zero). The numbers 2700, 2705, 327, 22700 and 4,270,027 would then be written @&, @5, 3@, 2@&, and 4@#@ respectively. (NOTE: In actual practice, numbers - which contain the “hundred” symbol, here represented as “&,” + which contain the “hundred” symbol, here represented as “&,” normally place a dot above or below the adjacent numeral and dispense with the &, indicating that the number so marked is to be multiplied by 100. Thus, 2@& would actually be written as , - while ‘one million’ can be written as + while ‘one million’ can be written as instead of writing &#.
@@ -393,8 +393,8 @@ orientation, numbers follow the boustrophedon mode the same as the Ithkuil script (see Sec. 11.3.2). Similarly to Western languages, small non-compound numbers can be written using - either their numerical symbols or written out in script (as in English “12” - versus “twelve”).

+ either their numerical symbols or written out in script (as in English “12” + versus “twelve”).

The following table gives the Ithkuil numerical symbols along with their morphological stems:

@@ -422,46 +422,46 @@ Single units (from 1 to 99) are connected by the coordinative affix when they are part of the number of hundreds or higher base-units.

It should be noted that when pronouncing numbers greater than - 199, it is normal in Ithkuil to omit the word ra’wirs + 199, it is normal in Ithkuil to omit the word ra’wirs (= the PARTITIVE of ras - ‘one hundred’) referring to the number of hundreds. This is equivalent - to the custom in colloquial English of saying ‘three twelve’ for - ‘three hundred (and) twelve.’ The difference is that in Ithkuil, - this omission of the word for ‘hundred’ is the preferred option, - the word ra’wirs being used only in larger numbers for clarity’s + ‘one hundred’) referring to the number of hundreds. This is equivalent + to the custom in colloquial English of saying ‘three twelve’ for + ‘three hundred (and) twelve.’ The difference is that in Ithkuil, + this omission of the word for ‘hundred’ is the preferred option, + the word ra’wirs being used only in larger numbers for clarity’s sake.

These principles are illustrated by the following examples:


- literally: “42 (of hundreds) 29”
+ literally: “42 (of hundreds) 29”
4229


- literally: “26 of ten-thousands with 97 (of hundreds) 66” = 26,9766
+ literally: “26 of ten-thousands with 97 (of hundreds) 66” = 26,9766
269,766
Listen!


- literally: “21 of hundred of ten-thousands”
+ literally: “21 of hundred of ten-thousands”
21,000,000
- [NOTE: ra’wirs is required in this example]

+ [NOTE: ra’wirs is required in this example]



literally:
- “72 of hundreds and 79 of hundred-millions with 3 of hundreds and 53 of - ten-thousands with 34 of hundreds 60”
+ “72 of hundreds and 79 of hundred-millions with 3 of hundreds and 53 of + ten-thousands with 34 of hundreds 60”
727,903,533,460


We have already seen that when numbers are used to indicate how many of a certain noun there are, the noun must appear in the PARTITIVE - case, since the number itself is functioning as the “head” of the - numerical expression (e.g., English “12 boxes” being constructed - in Ithkuil as a “12-set of a box” or perhaps more appropriately - a “box-dozen”). Another syntactical consequences of numbers being + case, since the number itself is functioning as the “head” of the + numerical expression (e.g., English “12 boxes” being constructed + in Ithkuil as a “12-set of a box” or perhaps more appropriately + a “box-dozen”). Another syntactical consequences of numbers being full formatives is when a number functions as a label or overt identifier, as - in the English sentence You’ll find him in Room 216. Such usage + in the English sentence You’ll find him in Room 216. Such usage of numbers is not primarily sequential (which would involve the equivalent of - “ordinal” numbers such as ‘fourth,’ ‘twenty-sixth’, + “ordinal” numbers such as ‘fourth,’ ‘twenty-sixth’, etc. equivalent to stem No. 3 of each number root) but rather organizational (e.g., as in the three-dimensional array of room numbers in a hotel). Ithkuil handles such organizational labeling using either the CONTRASTIVE @@ -472,17 +472,17 @@ the noun by a numerical name. Examples:



- ‘the room marked “12”’ OR - ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room - No. 12’ [i.e., as distinguished from the other numbered rooms]

+ ‘the room marked “12”’ OR + ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room + No. 12’ [i.e., as distinguished from the other numbered rooms]



- ‘the room marked “12”’ OR - ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room - No. 12’ [identifying reference only]

+ ‘the room marked “12”’ OR + ‘Room 12’ OR ‘Room + No. 12’ [identifying reference only]


Lastly, when numbers comprising multiple number-stems are declined for case, - configuration, extension, etc., rather than writing out the entire number “long-hand,” + configuration, extension, etc., rather than writing out the entire number “long-hand,” the number symbol is used, preceded by the carrier stem kir (see Sec. 9.4) which carries the appropriate declensions. This use of the carrier stem applies even to single-stemmed numbers @@ -548,7 +548,7 @@ Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh -

Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +

Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

 

diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 5a844ed..746bdff --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch0-introduction.html @@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panelintro.html"; determined by cultural and context-driven rules; the realm of style, rhetoric, formal versus informal language, slang, etc., outside the realm of grammar. Because this is a formal grammar for a hypothetical language (i.e., it has - no “real world” linguistic context), pragmatics and discourse + no “real world” linguistic context), pragmatics and discourse rules will not be covered. @@ -185,8 +185,8 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panelintro.html";
  • Lexico-Morphology: The interrelationship between morphology and the lexicon, i.e., the structure of word-roots and how they interact - with other morphological categories, as illustrated by the concept of “irregular” - verbs, e.g., ‘go’ + PAST = ‘went.’
    + with other morphological categories, as illustrated by the concept of “irregular” + verbs, e.g., ‘go’ + PAST = ‘went.’
  • Lexico-Semantics: The interrelationship between the lexicon and semantics, i.e. between words and their meaning; what mental concepts @@ -210,18 +210,18 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panelintro.html"; essentially, that Ithkuil is designed to convey large amounts of linguistic information using fewer words, with those words being based on monosyllabic roots and word-parts. In turn, the grammar supporting these words reflect the - speaker’s cognitive intent explicitly, while displaying little of the + speaker’s cognitive intent explicitly, while displaying little of the euphemism, vagueness, circumlocution, redundancy, polysemy (i.e., multiple meanings), and ambiguity manifested in natural languages.

    NOTE: The preceding paragraph may remind some readers of the - “Speedtalk” - language in Robert Heinlein’s novella Gulf, in which every morpheme + “Speedtalk” + language in Robert Heinlein’s novella Gulf, in which every morpheme (meaningful word-part) is apparently represented by a single phoneme (sound). - To some extent, Ithkuil approaches this ideal. However, Heinlein’s Speedtalk + To some extent, Ithkuil approaches this ideal. However, Heinlein’s Speedtalk appears to focus only on the morpho-phonological component of language (i.e., the correspondence between sound and individual grammatical components) without - any corresponding focus on the logical redesign of a language’s morphology, - lexico-morphology, or lexico-semantics to provide an equally “compressed” + any corresponding focus on the logical redesign of a language’s morphology, + lexico-morphology, or lexico-semantics to provide an equally “compressed” morpho-syntactical and lexical component. Ithkuil has been designed with an equal focus on these latter linguistic components. Additionally, the apparent purpose of Heinlein's language is simple rapidity/brevity of speech and thought, @@ -240,8 +240,8 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panelintro.html"; TRANSLATION: - ‘On the contrary, I think it may turn - out that this rugged mountain range trails off at some point.’ + ‘On the contrary, I think it may turn + out that this rugged mountain range trails off at some point.’ NOTE: See Phonology, Section @@ -249,18 +249,18 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panelintro.html"; Ithkuil characters.

    The reader may well wonder why it takes a 19-word sentence in English to translate a two-word Ithkuil sentence. One might assume the sentence - “cheats” in that the two Ithkuil words simply have innately intricate - and specialized meanings. While it is true that the first word, oumpeá, - translates as ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling it may turn out at - some point (that),’ and the second word, äx’ääuktëx, - means ‘the unevenly high range of mountains in question trails off,’ + “cheats” in that the two Ithkuil words simply have innately intricate + and specialized meanings. While it is true that the first word, oumpeĂĄ, + translates as ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling it may turn out at + some point (that),’ and the second word, äx’ääuktĂŤx, + means ‘the unevenly high range of mountains in question trails off,’ it would be quite erroneous to conclude that these are simply autonomous words one might theoretically find in an Ithkuil dictionary. Indeed, the only part - of the sentence that represents any sort of “root” word is -xä-, - a stem more or less meaning ‘hill’ or ‘upland.’ The + of the sentence that represents any sort of “root” word is -xä-, + a stem more or less meaning ‘hill’ or ‘upland.’ The remainder of the sentence is made up entirely of morphological, not lexical components, i.e., prefixes, suffixes, infixes, vowel permutations, shifts in - stress, etc. For example, the first word, oumpeá, + stress, etc. For example, the first word, oumpeĂĄ, has four parts to it as shown below:

    @@ -268,8 +268,8 @@ Ithkuil characters.
    - + @@ -277,76 +277,76 @@ Ithkuil characters.
    + and a conclusion based on the speaker’s intuition, translatable as + ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling’ - + + as ‘may’
    1. ou- =an aspectual prefix translatable as ‘it - turns out that’ or ‘it is revealed that’an aspectual prefix translatable as ‘it + turns out that’ or ‘it is revealed that’
      -mp- = an infix indicating both a rebuttal to an allegation - and a conclusion based on the speaker’s intuition, translatable as - ‘on the contrary, I have a feeling’
      3. -ea =an aspectual suffix translatable as ‘at - some point’ or ‘somewhere along the way’an aspectual suffix translatable as ‘at + some point’ or ‘somewhere along the way’
      4. stress on final syllable + falling tone = subjunctive mood, translatable - as ‘may’


    - The second word, äx’ääuktëx, + The second word, äx’ääuktĂŤx, breaks down morphologically as follows:

    - + + the entity displays depletion (i.e., ‘trailing off’ or ‘petering + out’) - + - + whole (i.e., ‘hill’ becomes ‘uneven range of hills’) - + - + + creates a new gestalt entity, i.e., not simply a ‘very large hill + or upland’ but rather a ‘mountain’ + spelling by doubling of the stem vowel -ä-) @@ -359,7 +359,7 @@ Ithkuil characters.
    @@ -425,9 +425,9 @@ a container, one at a time like clockwork.
      1.ä-ä- = a prefix indicating, among other things, that - the entity displays depletion (i.e., ‘trailing off’ or ‘petering - out’)
      2.x’äx’ä =a stem derived from xä - ‘hill, upland’ (in turn derived from the root x- + a stem derived from xä + ‘hill, upland’ (in turn derived from the root x- indicating the level of a landscape), the mutation of the initial consonant x- into - x’- + x’- indicating that the stem is to be re-interpreted as comprising a composite entity of non-identical members consolidated together into a single segmented - whole (i.e., ‘hill’ becomes ‘uneven range of hills’)
      3. -ukt- =a demonstrative suffix translatable as ‘this’ - (= ‘the one in question’ or ‘the one at hand’)a demonstrative suffix translatable as ‘this’ + (= ‘the one in question’ or ‘the one at hand’)
      4.-ëx-ĂŤx = a suffix indicating that the stem is to be interpreted as being very large in size, and furthermore, that the increase in size - creates a new gestalt entity, i.e., not simply a ‘very large hill - or upland’ but rather a ‘mountain’
      5. stress on antepenultimate (i.e., third-from-last) syllable (indicated in the Romanized - spelling by doubling of the stem vowel -ä-) = generic statement neutral as to time or present impact = statement reflects objective fact as opposed to subjective interpretation, i.e., that it describes a real situation irrespective of - the speaker’s beliefs, opinions, convention, usage, etc. (i.e., the + the speaker’s beliefs, opinions, convention, usage, etc. (i.e., the fact that the mountain range does have an ending whether one knows where it is or not)
    -Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man, in inadvertently letting +Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man, in inadvertently letting it out of the house, unexpectedly and accidentally killed it without even realizing -he’d done so.
    +he’d done so.


    Such detail plus conciseness is possible due to the design of the grammar, essentially a matrix of grammatical concepts and structures designed for compactness, cross-functionality @@ -496,15 +496,15 @@ he words, but in most cases, far exceed the dynamism and range of such English word series. This is illustrated by the list of Ithkuil words in the table below, all of which are simply grammatical derivations, using affixes and systematic - phonemic mutations (i.e., sound shifts), of a single word-root r–q - whose meaning is translatable as ‘EXISTENT THING; TO EXIST - (AS SOMETHING).’ Alongside each word is its translation. (Note: + phonemic mutations (i.e., sound shifts), of a single word-root r–q + whose meaning is translatable as ‘EXISTENT THING; TO EXIST + (AS SOMETHING).’ Alongside each word is its translation. (Note: the translations below represent convenient approximations at best, as purely literal translations would have to capture the systematic and derivative structure of the Ithkuil words. For example, the word - amriqoçi - translated below as ‘destroy’ literally means ‘unmake - a constructed componential set by extreme violence.’ Note also that the +     amriqoçi + translated below as ‘destroy’ literally means ‘unmake + a constructed componential set by extreme violence.’ Note also that the list below represents only a small number of the thousands of derivations theoretically possible for this single word-root.)

    @@ -519,7 +519,7 @@ he world as being based on complementary principles, where, instead of discrete independence between related entities, such concepts are seen as complementary aspects of a single holistic entity. Such complementarity is in turn reflected - in the derivation of word-roots. By “complementarity” is meant that + in the derivation of word-roots. By “complementarity” is meant that the manifestation of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered to be a discrete whole without the existence of the other. @@ -562,7 +562,7 @@ he of the hole, or on the structural nature of the hole. Either of these two perspectives represents a legitimate, but complementary way to consider a hole or puncture. Thus, the Ithkuil word would have two derivative roots each indicating one of - these two perspectives. One such root would be used when saying There’s + these two perspectives. One such root would be used when saying There’s a hole in your shirt, while the other would be used when saying She saw me through a hole in the fence.

    Ithkuil recognizes that such complementarity exists for virtually @@ -630,7 +630,7 @@ he

    (a) The boy rolled down the hill.
    (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking.
    - (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday.
    + (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday.
    (d) There is a dog on my porch.

    @@ -641,19 +641,19 @@ he relations and cognitive intent. For example, in sentence (a) we have no idea whether the boy chose to roll himself down the hill or whether he was pushed against his will. (In formal linguistic terms we would say it is unknown whether - the semantic role of the subject ‘boy’ is as agent or patient.) - And yet knowing which scenario is correct is crucial to understanding the speaker’s + the semantic role of the subject ‘boy’ is as agent or patient.) + And yet knowing which scenario is correct is crucial to understanding the speaker’s intent in describing the action.

    Imagine sentence (b) Maybe she just stopped smoking - being spoken as an answer to the question ‘Why does she seem so irritable?’ + being spoken as an answer to the question ‘Why does she seem so irritable?’ In interpreting sentence (b), we have no idea whether the subject is indeed a smoker or not; i.e., is the speaker offering this speculation because he/she knows the subject to be a smoker, or as mere conjecture without knowledge one way or the other whether the subject smokes or not?

    -

    Sentence (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday - illustrates four-way ambiguity. Joe’s failure to win the lottery could - be either because: the speaker knows Joe didn’t play; because the speaker - knows Joe did play but lost; because the speaker doesn’t know whether +

    Sentence (c) Joe didn’t win the lottery yesterday + illustrates four-way ambiguity. Joe’s failure to win the lottery could + be either because: the speaker knows Joe didn’t play; because the speaker + knows Joe did play but lost; because the speaker doesn’t know whether Joe played or not and is simply voicing a conjecture; or because the statement is an inference based on some indirect clue (e.g., since Joe showed up for work today, he must not have won the lottery).

    @@ -669,19 +669,19 @@ he sentences. This shows that, despite the fact that all four sentences are grammatically well-formed English sentences whose words in and of themselves are unambiguous, their grammar alone is insufficient to convey the cognitive information necessary - to fully comprehend the intent of the speaker’s utterance. This failure + to fully comprehend the intent of the speaker’s utterance. This failure of grammar to inherently convey the requisite information necessary to understand - a speaker’s cognitive intent is a functional pitfall of human language + a speaker’s cognitive intent is a functional pitfall of human language in general which Ithkuil grammar has been designed to avoid. The Ithkuil equivalents - to the above four sentences would mandatorily convey all of the “missing” + to the above four sentences would mandatorily convey all of the “missing” information noted above without requiring any extra words not corresponding to the English originals. The grammatical elements of the words themselves (word-selection, declensions, conjugations, prefixes, suffixes, etc.) would convey all the elements mentioned.

    Similar examples can be given to show the extent to which natural languages such as English must often resort to idiomatic expressions, metaphor, - paraphrase, circumlocution and “supra-segmental” phenomena (e.g., - changing the pitch of one’s voice) in their attempts to convey a speaker’s + paraphrase, circumlocution and “supra-segmental” phenomena (e.g., + changing the pitch of one’s voice) in their attempts to convey a speaker’s intended meaning. Ithkuil grammar has been designed to overtly and unambiguously reflect the intention of a speaker with a minimum of such phenomena.

     

    @@ -694,7 +694,7 @@ he

    Those readers familiar with the history of artificial language construction might think this endeavor belated or unnecessary, in that logical - languages such as James Cooke Brown’s renowned Loglan (or its popular + languages such as James Cooke Brown’s renowned Loglan (or its popular derivative, Lojban) already exist. This serves to illustrate exactly what distinguishes Ithkuil from such previous attempts. Loglan was published in the 1950s as a spoken/written language based on symbolic logic (formally known as the first-order @@ -709,13 +709,13 @@ he in terms of meaning, nor are they capable of analyzing or formalizing the structure of the cognitive or semantic realm of the human mind in terms of how meaning itself is assigned to arguments. (Indeed, Lojban derives its roots via statistical - “sampling” of the most frequent roots in the six most spoken natural + “sampling” of the most frequent roots in the six most spoken natural languages, a method virtually guaranteed to carry over into the Lojban lexicon all of the lexico-semantic inefficiencies previously described.) By not addressing these components of language, Loglan and similar efforts fail to address the inconsistencies and inefficiency inherent in language at the lexico-semantic level. Ithkuil has been designed to systematically address this issue.

    -

    Other readers might think of international languages (or “interlanguages”) +

    Other readers might think of international languages (or “interlanguages”) such as Esperanto, Interlingua, or Ido, as being logical and efficient representations of language. However, these languages are merely simplified, regularized amalgamations of existing languages (usually Indo-European), designed for ease of learning. While @@ -723,8 +723,8 @@ he found at the morpho-phonological and morpho-syntactic levels, they do little to address the problems found within the other components of language, especially the lexico-semantic. For example, while Esperanto admirably employs systematic - rules for word derivation as knabo ‘boy’ versus knabino - ‘girl,’ it preserves the basic lexico-semantic categorization scheme + rules for word derivation as knabo ‘boy’ versus knabino + ‘girl,’ it preserves the basic lexico-semantic categorization scheme of Indo-European languages in general, rather than seeking opportunities to expand such word derivation schemes into multidimensional arrays as will be shortly illustrated for Ithkuil.

    @@ -738,11 +738,11 @@ he systematically represented in the phonological structure of an individual word. For example an initial g- might stand for a plant, while go- indicated a tree, gob- a particular class of tree, and gobo - a particular tree species. While unworkable in terms of specifics, Wilkins’ + a particular tree species. While unworkable in terms of specifics, Wilkins’ underlying principles are similar in a simplistic way to some of the abstract derivational principles employed in Ithkuil lexico-morphology and lexico-semantics. Another comparable predecessor in a simplistic sense is the musical language, - Solresol, created by Jean François Sudre and published in + Solresol, created by Jean François Sudre and published in 1866.

     

    @@ -755,7 +755,7 @@ he in the niche it occupies in the array of both natural and invented languages. The design of Ithkuil has slowly and painstakingly evolved from my early attempts as a teenager (following my introduction to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and Charles - Fillmore’s seminal 1968 article on case grammar) to explore beyond the + Fillmore’s seminal 1968 article on case grammar) to explore beyond the boundaries of Western Indo-European languages to a complex, intricate array of interwoven grammatical concepts, many of which are wholly of my own creation, others of which have been inspired by such obscure linguistic sources as the @@ -764,25 +764,25 @@ he case systems of Basque and the Dagestanian languages, the enclitic system of Wakashan languages, the positional orientation systems of Tzeltal and Guugu Yimidhirr, the Semitic triliteral root morphology, and the hearsay and possessive - categories of Suzette Elgin’s Láadan language, not to mention ideas + categories of Suzette Elgin’s LĂĄadan language, not to mention ideas inspired by countless hours studying texts in theoretical linguistics, cognitive grammar, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, linguistic relativity, semantics, semiotics, philosophy, fuzzy set theory, and even quantum physics.

    The Ithkuil writing system likewise derives from both original - and inspired sources: it employs a unique “morpho-phonemic” principle + and inspired sources: it employs a unique “morpho-phonemic” principle of my own invention, its logical design borrows from the mutational principles underlying the Ethiopic and Brahmi scripts, and its aesthetic visual design bears a superficial resemblance to Hebrew square script and the various Klingon fonts.

    As for the name of the language, Ithkuil, it is an anglicized rendering of the word , - whose approximate translation is ‘hypothetical language.’

    + whose approximate translation is ‘hypothetical language.’

    This website provides a systematic presentation of the grammar of the language. In addition to a description of the various components of the grammar, the reader will find example phrases or sentences illustrating those components. Each example comprises an Ithkuil word, phrase, or sentence written in native Ithkuil script, accompanied by a Romanized transliteration, an English - translation (sometimes divided into a “natural” versus literal translation), + translation (sometimes divided into a “natural” versus literal translation), and a morphological analysis. The morphological analysis is presented serially, morpheme-by-morpheme, using three-letter abbreviations or labels for Ithkuil morphological categories. These labels are presented within the body of the @@ -794,10 +794,10 @@ he 4):


    - tęr hionn
    + tęr hionn
    title-OBL father-PRP
    - ‘a father’s title’

    + ‘a father’s title’

    This work is not meant as a primer or means of self-instruction in speaking the language, a task beyond even its creator, given that Ithkuil @@ -807,10 +807,10 @@ he extreme morpho-semantic economy and efficiency. I believe I have achieved a result which is close to the ideal I sought. I leave it to the reader to explore that result.

    -

    I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil. I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian. My appreciation also to fellow linguist and conlanger David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

    +

    I wish to thank all of those who have taken an interest in Ithkuil. I especially wish to thank Stanislav Kozlovskiy, whose 2004 article “The Speed of Thought” brought Ithkuil to the attention of so many people. Спасибо, Стас! Thanks also to Lexa Samons for his hard work in translating the original Ithkuil site into Russian. My appreciation also to fellow linguist and conlanger David J. Peterson for bestowing upon Ithkuil the 2008 Smiley Award.

    Smiley Award

    I dedicate this work to my brother, Paul, in fond memory of - Kccöj, Mbozo, and our other made-up languages, and all + KccĂśj, Mbozo, and our other made-up languages, and all the fun times we had as kids learning about and playing with linguistics.

    Proceed to Chapter One: Phonology >>

    @@ -868,7 +868,7 @@ he
    Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
    -

    Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +

    Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

     

    diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index a9baa2f..45864f5 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch1-phonology.html @@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";

    In furtherance of morpho-phonological efficiency (one of the - language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have + language’s goals as explained in the introduction), Ithkuil must have a large phonemic inventory, specifically 65 consonants and 17 vowels, illustrated by place and manner of articulation in Table No. 1 below using a special romanized orthography. Because this is far more than most Western languages, Ithkuil has @@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";

    p
    b
    -
    p’
    +
    p’
    _
    _
    _
    @@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    t
    d
    -
    t’
    +
    t’
    _
    _
    _
    @@ -267,7 +267,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    c
    -
    c’
    +
    c’
    s
    z
    _
    @@ -284,7 +284,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    -
    ’
    +
    ’
    _
    @@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    j
    -
    ’
    +
    ’
    _
    @@ -314,12 +314,12 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    -
    ’
    +
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    -
    ç’
    -
    ç
    +
    ç’
    +
    ç
    _
    _
    @@ -331,11 +331,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    k
    g
    -
    k’
    +
    k’
    _
    _
    _
    -
    x’
    +
    x’
    x
    @@ -348,11 +348,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    q
    -
    q’
    +
    q’
    _
    _
    _
    -
    ’
    +
    ’
    _
    _
    @@ -379,7 +379,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; GLOTTAL -
    ’
    +
    ’
    _
    _
    _
    @@ -449,14 +449,14 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    High
    -
    î
    -
    ˙
    +
    ĂŽ
    +
    ˙
    _
    -
    ü
    -
    ď +
    Ăź
    +
    ď
    -
    ű +
    Ĺą
    @@ -475,20 +475,20 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    Mid
    - ę
    -
    ř
    +     ę
    +
    ř
    _
    _
    -
    ë +
    ĂŤ
    -
    ô
    +
    Ă´
    Mid-Low
    e
    -
    ö
    +
    Ăś
    _
    _ @@ -499,13 +499,13 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    Low
    -
    ä
    +
    ä
    _
    a
    _
    -
    â
    +
    â
    _
    @@ -582,11 +582,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    -
    ç
    +
    ç
    Like the initial sound in English human, huge, hue, or the sound in German ich. A voiceless dorso-palatal - non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. + non-grooved (slit) fricative; IPA [ç]. X-SAMPA [C]. Example sound files:
    @@ -611,7 +611,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    As in English this, bathe, weather. A - voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [đ]. + voiced apico-interdental fricative; IPA [đ]. X-SAMPA [D].

    @@ -639,9 +639,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    No English equivalent. The voiced dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Inuit and several Paleo-Siberian languages such as Chukchi and Nivkh. Similar to the hard g-sound above - but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching - bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. - The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + The resulting sound has a characteristic “gulped” quality. The voiced counterpart to Ithkuil q below; IPA []. X-SAMPA [G\]. Example sound files:
    @@ -655,7 +655,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart of x below. Can be approximated by putting the tongue in the position to pronounce English g as in gag - then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. + then, without moving the tongue, trying to say ‘uh’ instead. A voiced dorso-velar fricative; IPA []. X-SAMPA [G]. Example sound files:
    @@ -706,15 +706,15 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart of Ithkuil below. Found in Hungarian and Czech where it is spelled gy and - d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound + d´ respectively. Sort of like a g+y sound as in English big year pronounced rapidly, with the g-sound pronounced with the tongue against the hard palate as opposed to the soft palate. A voiced dorso-palatal unaspirated plosive. IPA []. X-SAMPA [J\]. Example sound files:
    -     ‘day - (24-hour period)’
    +     ‘day + (24-hour period)’


    @@ -747,9 +747,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    l
    -
    The “light” l-sound +
    The “light” l-sound of the Romance languages, or as in British English leader; - not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English + not the “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English lull. A voiced apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA and X-SAMPA [l]. Example sound files:
    @@ -761,9 +761,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    -
    The “dark” (velarized) l-sound +
    The “dark” (velarized) l-sound of American English lull, not - the “light” l-sound of the Romance languages or British + the “light” l-sound of the Romance languages or British English leader. A voiced velarized apico-dental dorso-bilateral liquid continuant; IPA []. X-SAMPA [5]. @@ -829,8 +829,8 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    No English equivalent. The voiceless dorso-uvular unaspirated plosive found in Arabic, Inuit and many American Indian and Caucasian languages. Similar to an unaspirated k-sound - but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching - bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. + but made by pressing the tongue against the uvula (the little “punching + bag” hanging at the back of the palate) as opposed to the soft palate. IPA and X-SAMPA [q]. Example sound file:

    @@ -886,7 +886,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    No English equivalent. Like the throaty - or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and + or “gargled” r-sound found in colloquial French and German. A voiced dorso-uvular approximant (non-trilled); IPA []. X-SAMPA [R]. Example sound files:
    @@ -921,7 +921,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    -
    š
    +
    ĹĄ
    As in English shoeshine but without the lip-rounding of the English sound. A voiceless non-labialized lamino-postalveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. @@ -1004,7 +1004,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    No English equivalent. The voiced counterpart - to ç above. This is the “intensive” + to ç above. This is the “intensive” y-sound heard in Castilian and some Latin American varieties of Spanish. Like the sound in English yet, yam but with the blade of the tongue held more closely to the hard palate, @@ -1037,7 +1037,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    - The voiced counterpart of š + The voiced counterpart of ĹĄ above. Similar to the sound in English pleasure or leisure, but without lip-rounding. A voiced lamino-alveolar dorso-palatal grooved sibilant fricative; IPA []. @@ -1066,10 +1066,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    -
    ’
    +
    ’
    This sound is the glottal stop heard between the two vowels in English oh-oh or as the sound heard - in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word fattening. + in most American English speakers’ pronunciation of the word fattening. This sound is very common in other languages such as Hawaiian, Arabic, Hebrew, etc. A voiceless bi-glottal stop; IPA []. Example sound files:
    @@ -1102,7 +1102,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; Amharic, Georgian, most of the Caucasian languages, and many American Indian languages. Ejectives (also called glottalized consonants) are consonants accompanied by simultaneous closure and sudden release of the glottis (vocal chords), which - gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives + gives the sound a distinct “popped” or explosive quality. Ejectives are indicated by an apostrophe following the consonant, thus: . Note: the lateral affricate has an allophone (alternate pronunciation) as an ejective as well. Example sound @@ -1117,46 +1117,46 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";

    In addition to the above ejectives, there are three additional - ejective consonants, all of them affricates, ç’, - x’, - and ’, + ejective consonants, all of them affricates, ç’, + x’, + and ’, whose rather difficult and exotic pronunciations are described below.

    - + - + - + +
    w’
    +
    y’
    + and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aů + and eě. @@ -1612,21 +1612,21 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; @@ -1640,18 +1640,18 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; @@ -1683,7 +1683,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";

    Equally important are the optional rules each language employs to achieve euphony and greater ease of pronunciation, known as phonaesthetics or phonaesthetic rules. Together, phonotaxis and phonaesthetics are greatly - responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” + responsible for the phonetic “character” or subjective “sound” of a given language. The phonotactic and phonaesthetic rules for Ithkuil are described in the sections below.


    @@ -1710,13 +1710,13 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; fricative continuant

    + ll, mm, pçç - + @@ -1725,10 +1725,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; , m, n, + ltuirbis, mpeilt’um @@ -1738,7 +1738,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; m, n, + ďkspűzqai, @@ -1747,8 +1747,8 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; , m, n, @@ -1777,9 +1777,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";

    1.4.2 Diphthongs

    An Ithkuil syllable may contain one diphthong (a combination of two vowels pronounced together as one syllable). All Ithkuil diphthongs are - “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives + “falling” diphthongs, i.e., the first vowel of the diphthong receives the primary articulation while the second becomes semi-vocalic (sometimes referred - to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs + to as semi-consonantal or an “off-glide”). There are 24 diphthongs in Ithkuil, described as follows:

    ç’ç’
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil - + Ithkuil ç + + Ithkuil ç (the voiceless palatal slit fricative described above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, - it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [’]. + it should sound like a sudden high-pitched explosive hissing. IPA [’]. X-SAMPA [c_C_>]. Example sound file:

    x’x’
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil k + Ithkuil x (the voiceless velar fricative described above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, it should be a harsh, sudden, emphatic k-sound, accompanied by a high-pitched sound of static, as if someone is verbally - imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [kx’]. + imitating the sound of a glass breaking. IPA [kx’]. X-SAMPA [k_x_>]. Example sound file:
    Չ۪
    This sound is a combination of Ithkuil q + Ithkuil (the voiceless uvular fricative described above), the combination then ejectivized. There is no English approximation. When pronounced properly, - it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [q’]. + it sounds like a very harsh, explosive, strangled choking sound. IPA [q’]. X-SAMPA [q_X_>]. This sound is found in a few obscure Northeast Caucasian languages (e.g., Dido, Archi). Example sound file:
    @@ -1169,15 +1169,15 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; , can be pronounced as full syllables in absence of a vowel. The phenomenon of syllabic consonants is fairly common and occurs in colloquial English expressions - such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ + such as ‘hmm’ (as when pondering a thought), ‘mm-hmm’ (an expression of approval or agreement), as well as with the consonants n and l as in the second syllable of words like button and little. - Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’, - and ndíghílii ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these + Syllabic nasals are also found in Navajo, as in the words nda ‘no’, + and ndĂ­ghĂ­lii ‘sunflower.’ In Ithkuil, these six syllabic consonants can appear as word-initial syllables preceding a consonant as in However, they also occur in special geminate (i.e., doubled) clusters where - the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate + the second “half” of the geminated cluster is pronounced as a separate syllable. Examples: .

    1.2.2 Pronunciation of Vowels

    @@ -1197,41 +1197,41 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; u is halfway between English cook and kook. Sound files: a e i o u

    -

    The vowel â is pronounced as in Western +

    The vowel â is pronounced as in Western U.S. all, IPA []; - ę and ô are mid-height, IPA [e] + ę and Ă´ are mid-height, IPA [e] and [o] as in Spanish estos or in French - poésie; î and ű + poĂŠsie; ĂŽ and Ĺą are high (i.e., fully closed) as in Spanish or Italian i and u, IPA [i] and [u]. - Example sound files: â - ę î ô ű

    -

    The vowel ä is slightly higher than the + Example sound files: â + ę ĂŽ Ă´ Ĺą

    +

    The vowel ä is slightly higher than the vowel in American English sat but not as high as in - set, IPA [ć^]. The vowel ö + set, IPA [ć^]. The vowel Ăś is the rounded equivalent of e, that is, the vowel in French - boeuf or German könnte, - IPA [œ]. - The vowel ë is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American + boeuf or German kĂśnnte, + IPA [ś]. + The vowel ĂŤ is pronounced somewhat like the vowel in American English cut or nut, although, - more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel ô but without rounding + more exactly, it is the Ithkuil vowel Ă´ but without rounding of the lips, a vowel which occurs in Estonian, IPA []. - The vowel ď is pronounced as an unrounded ű, + The vowel ď is pronounced as an unrounded Ĺą, an obscure vowel found in Turkish and Japanese, IPA . - The vowel ü is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, + The vowel Ăź is pronounced as a high central rounded vowel, as found in Norwegian hus or the Highland Scottish pronunciation of English book or good, IPA []. - The vowel ř is the rounded equivalent of ę, - as in French feu or German schön, - IPA [ř]; - the vowel ˙ represents the front rounded vowel of French - du and German über, + The vowel ř is the rounded equivalent of ę, + as in French feu or German schĂśn, + IPA [ř]; + the vowel ˙ represents the front rounded vowel of French + du and German Ăźber, IPA [y]. - Example sound files: ä - ë ď ö ř ü ˙ + Example sound files: ä + ĂŤ ď Ăś ř Ăź ˙


    1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions

    @@ -1253,9 +1253,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; a given language, they are not random; rather, their patterns are completely regular and predictable for any given language (as is true for consonant aspiration in English). Failure to follow the rules for allophonic distinctions when learning - a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign - accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, - and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without + a foreign language will result in the speaker having a noticeable “foreign + accent” to native speakers of the language (as do most French, Italians, + and Spanish-speakers when trying to pronounce English “top” without aspirating the initial t-sound, due to the lack of consonant aspiration in Romance languages.)

    The particular phonetic variants of a particular phoneme are @@ -1277,7 +1277,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";

    hh
    The geminated version of Ithkuil h is - pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is + pronounced as a “bi-dental” fricative, in that the jaw is completely closed and the upper and lower teeth are in near-contact along their entire length. The resulting sound is somewhat similar in timbre to both a voiceless interdental fricative (as in English thin) @@ -1321,7 +1321,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    Normally pronounced as a voiced labio-velar approximant (i.e., labialized dorso-velar approximant) as in English wet (IPA [w]), - when followed by the Ithkuil vowel ű, this sound, + when followed by the Ithkuil vowel Ĺą, this sound, takes on even greater lip-rounding to become a voiced labio-velar fricative (i.e., labialized dorso-velar fricative) (IPA []).
    @@ -1330,18 +1330,18 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    -
    w’
    In this word-initial combination of voiced labio-velar approximant followed by a glottal stop is found, the w is pronounced followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, - Ithkuil ď, followed by the glottal stop (IPA []). + Ithkuil ď, followed by the glottal stop (IPA []).

    -
    y’
    Similarly to the combination above, this word-initial combination has its voiced dorso-palatal approximant followed by a brief high central unrounded vowel, followed by the glottal @@ -1407,11 +1407,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; tone (pitch intonation) to achieve these ends.

    1.3.1 Gemination

    -

    Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in +

    Gemination refers to the audible “doubling” in length of a particular sound, usually in reference to consonants. While gemination does not occur in English on true phonological grounds, it does occur on morpho-phonological - grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ - versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based + grounds, as seen in the difference in pronunciation of the phrase ‘a natural’ + versus ‘unnatural.’ There are many languages, however, where phonologically-based gemination is an intrinsic component of the phonology (e.g., Italian, Japanese, Finnish).

    In Ithkuil, most consonants can be geminated. Also noteworthy @@ -1463,10 +1463,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";

    The aspirated plosives are likewise held momentarily before release, the aspiration occurring upon release, much like the two t-sounds in the English phrase hot - tar when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives k’, - ’, - p’, q’, and - t’ are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic + tar when spoken rapidly. Similarly, the ejective plosives k’, + ’, + p’, q’, and + t’ are also held momentarily before release, the glottalic ejectivization occurring upon release. Example sound files:

    @@ -1478,12 +1478,12 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; stop (plosive) component of the affricate before releasing it into the fricative or sibilant portion. Aspiration or ejectivization, if present, occurs during release of the plosive into the sibilant or fricative component, e.g., - is pronounced as IPA [ttš]. + is pronounced as IPA [ttĹĄ]. For those affricates which can appear as word-final geminates (), geminated pronunciation in word-final position is achieved by simply lengthening the sibilant continuant portion of the affricate (i.e., the second sound of each affricate). Thus, - in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [tšš], + in word-final position is pronounced as IPA [tĹĄĹĄ], as IPA []. Example sound files:

    @@ -1498,14 +1498,14 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";

    1.3.1.4 Romanized Orthography of Geminates. Single character consonants are simply written double when geminated, e.g., - bb, dd, nn, šš. + bb, dd, nn, ĹĄĹĄ. Aspirated digraph-consonants have the first letter of the digraph written doubled followed by a single superscript h, e.g., Geminated ejective consonants are likewise written with the initial character doubled followed by a single apostrophe, e.g., - Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates ç’, - x’, - and ’. + Exceptions to this rule exist for the ejective affricates ç’, + x’, + and ’. Because the non-apostrophed forms of these three characters do not correspond to non-ejectivized versions of the apostrophed form, these geminates are written as

    @@ -1515,7 +1515,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; Southeast Asian languages as well as most of the sub-Saharan African languages and some American Indian languages. This means that pitch or tone of voice is used to convey grammatical information, unlike Western languages which use tone - and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic + and pitch changes “supra-segmentally” to mark various morpho-semantic features. For example, in English rising intonation of the voice signals a question, while other specific pitch contours signify emphasis, disgust, irony, and other attitudes. Ithkuil marks such features morphologically, i.e., within the words @@ -1589,17 +1589,17 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    		The grave accent ( ` ) designates an unstressed syllable when stress would otherwise be misinterpreted, e.g., in distinguishing monosyllabic diphthongs such as au - and ei from dissyllabic vowel conjuncts aů - and eě.
    3) Penultimate stress. Polysyllabic words having penultimate stress are unmarked for stress, except for those containing the dissyllabic - phonemes ě or ů as the penultimate - syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word iskoůt + phonemes ě or ĹŻ as the penultimate + syllable, which, if stressed, take an acute accent, e.g., the word iskoĹŻt (stress on the o), if adding the syllable -ma, - becomes iskoútma + becomes iskoĂştma (stress on the u).
    • the unmarked vowels a, e, i, o, u, and the marked disyllabic vowels - ě and ů take an acute - accent, e.g., á, é, - í, ó, ú.
      • + ě and ĹŻ take an acute + accent, e.g., ĂĄ, ĂŠ, + Ă­, Ăł, Ăş.
    • if the vowel to be stressed already carries a diacritic mark (other than the grave accent) and the vowel, diphthong, or syllabic liquid or nasal in the penultimate syllable does not, then this penultimate - syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., rňihnäl.
      • + syllable takes a grave accent, e.g., rňihnäl.
    • If the word has at least three syllables and the vowels or diphthongs in the last two syllables carry diacritics, then a grave accent over the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable implies ultimate stress (as the grave accent would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate - stress), e.g. ňspätlök.
      • + stress), e.g. ňspätlĂśk.
    • if the vowels (or diphthongs) in both the ultimate and penultimate syllables already have diacritic marks (other than the grave accent) - then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksűtpäär. + then the stressed vowel is written double, e.g., ksĹątpäär.
    • if the stressed vowel (or diphthong or syllabic liquid or nasal consonant) does not carry a diacritic (other than the grave accent), it takes the - acute accent, e.g., áksiyor
      • + acute accent, e.g., ĂĄksiyor
    • if the stressed vowel already has a diacritic (other than the grave accent), then use the grave accent plus the lack of acute accent on the ultimate syllable or other non-diacriticized vowels to indicate - stress, e.g., ëitlŕrrun, - ôrümzěl. + stress, e.g., ĂŤitlŕrrun, + Ă´rĂźmzěl. (Note that the use of the grave accent over the i in - ôrümzěl + Ă´rĂźmzěl would be unnecessary if the word carried penultimate stress, therefore its presence implies antepenultimate stress).
    • if existing diacritics prevent clear indication using the above rules, - then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., öömoläk.
      • + then the stressed vowel is written doubled, e.g., ÜÜmoläk.
    s, h,, - ll, mm, pçç
    Monosyllabic
    (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
    		a, ui, öt, - isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxoršta, ui, Ăśt, + isk, du, tuil, kleb, tliqs, pskarn, xxorĹĄt
    Word-initial uran, - tahin, ui’wá, + tahin, ui’wĂĄ, prinu, klatma, xmoiskra, kstollap, - ltuirbis, mpeilt’um
    Word-medial kialun, ruentik, isteixlam, - ďkspűzqai,
    Word-final lua, - antoi, tial, eifqés, - poxšurn, ultrönn, + antoi, tial, eifqĂŠs, + poxĹĄurn, ultrĂśnn,
    @@ -1793,11 +1793,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; @@ -1809,7 +1809,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; @@ -1839,10 +1839,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; @@ -1856,11 +1856,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; @@ -1869,13 +1869,13 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; @@ -1904,17 +1904,17 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; - @@ -1922,9 +1922,9 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; - + + above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels ä, + ö, and ü with the back central + vowel ď. IPA
    -
    äi +
    äi
    No English Equivalent. A combination - of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English y-sound. + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English y-sound.
    -
    ëi +
    ĂŤi
    No standard English equivalent; a combination @@ -1826,11 +1826,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    -
    öi +
    Ăśi
    No English Equivalent. A combination - of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English y-sound. + of the Ithkuil vowel Ăś plus an English y-sound. Somewhat like the French word oeil.
    As in Spanish or Italian; no English - equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” u + equivalent. A combination of Spanish or Italian “pure” u (i.e., without the glide into -w as in English rude) + an English y-sound. The speaker should avoid allowing this - diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound + diphthong to become a “rising” diphthong where the u-sound is reduced to a w- (the result sounding like English wee).
    -
    äu +
    äu
    No English Equivalent. A combination - of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English w-sound. + of the Ithkuil vowel ä plus an English w-sound.
    As in Spanish or Italian; no English - equivalent. A combination of “pure” e (i.e., without - the glide into –y as in English they) + an English w-sound. + equivalent. A combination of “pure” e (i.e., without + the glide into –y as in English they) + an English w-sound.
    -
    ëu +
    ĂŤu
    No standard English equivalent; a combination @@ -1890,7 +1890,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
    No English equivalent; a combination of the Ithkuil vowel i (which is more open than the Spanish - or Italian “pure” i (i.e., closer to English i + or Italian “pure” i (i.e., closer to English i in bit) + an English w-sound.
    -
    öu +
    Ăśu
    No English Equivalent. A combination - of the Ithkuil vowel ö plus an English w-sound. + of the Ithkuil vowel Ăś plus an English w-sound. Somewhat like an exaggerated upper class British pronunciation of the word oh!.
    _aď, - eď, ëď, iď, oď, uď +
    _aď, + eď, ëď, iď, oď, uď
    Each of these is a combination of a - vowel with the back central vowel ď. No English + vowel with the back central vowel ď. No English equivalents, although the sound can be approximated by pronouncing the - first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” l-sound + first vowel followed by the velarized “dark” l-sound of American English lull but without touching the tip of the tongue to the gum ridge behind the upper teeth; the tongue tip should remain low instead. The resulting diphthongs should sound somewhat like @@ -1935,30 +1935,30 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; may be represented as
    _äď, - öď, üď
    _äď, + öď, üď
    As with the series of diphthongs immediately - above, these are combinations of the Ithkuil vowels ä, - ö, and ü with the back central - vowel ď. IPA
    ae
    No English equivalent. A combination - of Ithkuil a + ę. Sounds like - a more “open” version of Ithkuil ai. Tolkien’s + of Ithkuil a + ę. Sounds like + a more “open” version of Ithkuil ai. Tolkien’s Sindarin language also has this diphthong.

    All other combinations of vowels are dissyllabic, i.e., are pronounced as two separate syllables. Care should be taken to avoid collapsing the many two-vowel combinations beginning with u- and i- - into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. + into “rising” diphthongs beginning with a w-sound or y-sound. This is especially important when the second vowel of these combinations receives the syllabic stress.


    @@ -1970,10 +1970,10 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html";
  • In a word of two syllables or more, the only vowels, diphthongs, or vowel conjuncts that may occur in word-final position are: - -a, -â, -ď, - -u, -ü, ű, + -a, -â, -ď, + -u, -Ăź, Ĺą, -ia, -ua and diphthongs ending in i, - u, or ď. Note that this constraint + u, or ď. Note that this constraint does not apply to monosyllabic words.
    • @@ -1991,11 +1991,11 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; and cannot appear in syllable-final position and must always be followed by a vowel, or in the case of w and y, by a glottal - stop plus a vowel (e.g., w’+vowel).
    + stop plus a vowel (e.g., w’+vowel).

  • -
    The glottal stop (’) does not +
    The glottal stop (’) does not occur word-initially except as a juncture feature (i.e., where two separate words come together). Specifically, when a word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel, Ithkuil phonetically separates the words @@ -2054,8 +2054,8 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; Ithkuil.

    • -
      While “open” syllables (syllables ending - in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, “closed” syllables +
      While “open” syllables (syllables ending + in a single vowel) are tolerated in Ithkuil, “closed” syllables (i.e., ending in a consonant) are preferred, especially for the stressed syllable of a word. Ithkuil morphology often allows for more than one way to structure the various morphemes of a particular word, especially words @@ -2139,7 +2139,7 @@ top.frames[1].location = "nav_panel1.html"; Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

       

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 7ed5322..c3fe701 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch10-lexico-semantics.html @@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ words, as explained in Chapter 2. This means that the concepts chosen to be conveyed by these roots must be carefully selected to insure the widest range of conceptualization possible within such a limited framework.

      -

      2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like +

      2) We have seen throughout this work how Ithkuil’s matrix-like grammatical structure allows for an incredible amount of synergy in terms of morphological word-derivation, generating wholly new, emergent concepts from word-roots, not simply mere conjugations, declensions, and transparent derivations. @@ -118,15 +118,15 @@ go in to the assigning of concepts to those 3600 roots, in order to optimally accomplish what has been demonstrated throughout this work: using the dynamics of Ithkuil morphology to eliminate the need for the hundred thousand or more - autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting - the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

      + autonomous word roots of natural languages, or to put it colloquially, “getting + the most lexico-semantic bang for the morpho-phonological buck.”

      We will start first with a review of key components in the systemic design of Ithkuil morphology. This will be followed by sections on those areas of Ithkuil lexico-semantics which are most profoundly distinct from Western languages.

      The last section deals with comparison to Western categorizations, examining how Ithkuil lexico-semantics reinterprets certain concepts considered - “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

      + “fundamental” in English and other Western languages.

       

      @@ -151,12 +151,12 @@ system of vowel patterns and mutation, we saw how a single root generates no less than eighteen formative stems, each functioning as a noun or verb. This is illustrated below using the example root h-f - ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

      + ‘TRANSLATIVE MOTION’.

      As described in Chapter 2, this hierarchical pattern of stem derivation and division into complementary stems from a more basic or underlying - “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number + “holistic” stem allows for significant collapsing in the number of word-roots necessary compared to Western languages, as words that are semantically interrelated in a hierarchical or complementary fashion can be derived morphologically from a basic root, as opposed to being assigned separate word-roots as in other @@ -166,14 +166,14 @@ MOTION. All such complementary stems based on participant perspective are similarly patterned, e.g., lead/follow, buy/sell, give/take, etc.

      Additionally, this hierarchical structure of stem derivation - from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” + from a single root using vocalic infixes allows for the creation of “built-in” classification schemes and taxonomies for concepts which require them. Biological taxonomies, for example, can be easily accommodated under this scheme, as illustrated below:

      Using the nine degrees of the Stem Specific Derivative - affix -V1t’ + affix -V1t’ from Sec. 7.7.13 on such a root, we can extend this scheme to denote specific parts, products or derived resources such as a the milk, oil, meat, skin or hide, tail, tusk or horn, hair or fur (e.g., wool), etc. The Degree @@ -194,17 +194,17 @@


      10.1.2 The Use of Affixes

      In Chapter 7, we saw how many of the 150-odd affix categories - can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., xäl - ‘hill’ + V1x/7 - ‘very large’ - xälďx ‘very large hill’) as - well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., xäl - ‘hill’ + V2x/7 - ‘very large’ - xälëx ‘mountain’). As an example, + can be used to generate both derivative concepts (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V1x/7 + ‘very large’ + xälďx ‘very large hill’) as + well as amalgamated gestalts carrying a new holistic meaning (e.g., xäl + ‘hill’ + V2x/7 + ‘very large’ + xälĂŤx ‘mountain’). As an example, here are only ten of the various new concepts which can be derived through affixes - from the stem köl ‘say something [i.e., - communicate a verbal message]’:

      + from the stem köl ‘say something [i.e., + communicate a verbal message]’:

       
      @@ -237,8 +237,8 @@



      - Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally - killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting + Aided by the bird’s own stupidity, the man unexpectedly and accidentally + killed it without even realizing he’d done so, by inadvertently letting it out of the house._________      _ Listen:

      @@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ The affix from Sec. 7.7.9, in first degree, roughly corresponds to the reversive prefixes of English such - as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate + as ‘un-,’ ‘de-,’ and ‘dis-’ to indicate the undoing or opposite of a word. However, in Ithkuil this affix is productive for all semantically applicable stems and operates in conjunction with Modality categories (Sec. 5.5) and Modality @@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ personality
      craftsmanship artistry
      career livelihood
      - (one’s) past (one’s) + (one’s) past (one’s) life
      to look after/tend nurture

      @@ -398,7 +398,7 @@ movement, motion, or intensity. As an example, specific application of the various phases combined with the aforementioned affixes and other affix categories to a single stem - ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following + ‘[make] sound’ can give rise to translations for all of the following English words:

      @@ -528,7 +528,7 @@ + ĹĄ @@ -566,7 +566,7 @@ + ç or @@ -579,14 +579,14 @@ - + - + @@ -599,7 +599,7 @@ @@ -613,7 +613,7 @@ + Ĺž @@ -634,7 +634,7 @@ @@ -659,9 +659,9 @@ near to me and B is far from me, but rather the distance from me to A (or proximity of A to me) is less than the distance from me to B (or proximity of B to me). Note that the choice of translation for - the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ - becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount - of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western + the latter stem as either ‘distance’ or ‘proximity’ + becomes arbitrary, as the real meaning of the Ithkuil formative is ‘amount + of linear space separating one party from another.’ Virtually all Western descriptive and dimensional oppositions are similarly handled in Ithkuil as mere variance in the quantity of a single quality, the degree of an attribute, or the extent along a spatio-temporal range or continuum.

      @@ -679,39 +679,39 @@

      1) Ithkuil does not employ prepositions; all notions of spatial relationships, position, and orientation are designated by nominal/verbal formatives.

      2) While Western languages allow spatial/positional reference - to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic + to function autonomously irrespective of the speaker’s cognitive or semantic intent, Ithkuil subordinates spatial/positional reference at the lexico-semantic level in deference to the cognitive or semantic purpose of an utterance. What this means is that sentences describing spatial relationships or positional - reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance + reference are only used when the underlying intent of the speaker’s utterance is purely to specify spatial or positional reference information. If, in fact, the underlying intent of the utterance is to show some functional or purposeful relationship (where a spatial relationship is merely coincidental or consequential), the Ithkuil sentence will describe this function or purpose, not the spatial - relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? - an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right - next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in + relationship. For example, in answer to the question Where’s Billy? + an English speaker might give answers such as (a) He’s standing right + next to Sam, or (b) He’s in bed, or (c) He’s in the bathtub. While each of these sentences gives spatial information, only the first is truly intended to convey spatial information as its purpose, while sentences (b) and (c) imply information that is, in fact, more relevant than - the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s - sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s - bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) - in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s - Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position + the spatial information given, e.g., sentence (b) could be restated as ‘He’s + sleeping (or sick),’ while sentence (c) could be restated as ‘He’s + bathing.’ An Ithkuil speaker would not utter sentences like (b) or (c) + in answer to the query about Billy, since he/she would assume the question Where’s + Billy? is intended to inquire only about Billy’s physical position in absolute space. If the questioner had, in fact, been seeking non-spatial - information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of What’s - Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a + information, he/she would have asked the Ithkuil equivalent of What’s + Billy doing? or What’s happening with Billy? to which a Ithkuil speaker would answer with sentences corresponding to the rephrased versions of (b) or (c), not their original versions.

      3) Ithkuil utilizes an absolute coordinate system of comparative spacial reference, not a relative one as found in most languages. Note the positional - ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left + ambiguity inherent in sentences such as He’s standing to the left of the desk. To be meaningful, the listener must first determine from whose - perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, - the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of - the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, - or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) + perspective the speaker is referring (i.e., do we mean the speaker’s left, + the addressee’s left, the desk’s left relative to the position of + the speaker, the desk’s left relative to the position of the addressee, + or the desk’s left relative to the direction the desk is oriented/facing?) Such ambiguity occurs because Western languages employ a relative coordinate system which can shift from one participant or referent object to another. Ithkuil spatial reference employs an absolute coordinate system independent of the perspective @@ -719,17 +719,17 @@ the thing(s) whose position is being described), as opposed to the relative coordinate system found in Western languages. The Ithkuil system allows listeners to understand exactly the spatial relationship and orientation of any object(s) - in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal + in absolute space, irrespective of anyone’s (or anything’s) personal perspective.


      10.4.1 Formatives vs. Prepositions

      -

      Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- +

      Besides lexically “partitioning” the world of two- and three-dimensional space in different ways than in Western languages, Ithkuil has no prepositions. Rather, Ithkuil utilizes formatives which describe a spatial relationship between two objects or between an object and an associated background, - the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a - verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western - preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.” + the nearest translations being a noun meaning “the area X” or a + verb meaning “to be positioned X”, where X corresponds to a Western + preposition or positional adverb such as “in” or “inside.” The dynamics of such formatives become very apparent when combined with the numerous verbal Conflation/Derivation + Format combinations which Ithkuil offers the speaker (see Sec. 5.4).

      @@ -747,16 +747,16 @@ the physical coordinate position of the vase in 3-D space relative to the table, or to tell the listener that the vase is being physically supported (i.e., against gravity) by the table? If the intention is the former, the corresponding Ithkuil - sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest + sentence would indeed utilize a spatial formative translatable as ‘manifest self on the top side of a surface that is horizontal relative to the direction - of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support + of gravity.’ However, if the intention is to actually indicate support against gravity, the Ithkuil sentence would not utilize a spatial reference at all, but rather translate the sentence more or less as The table is supporting the vase. As a result, spatial, locative, or orientational formatives in Ithkuil are used far less often than corresponding prepositions and spatial constructions in English or other Western languages. Note the following examples - illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ - (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil + illustrating how various English sentences utilizing the concept ‘in’ + (meaning ‘inside’ or ‘into’) are translated into Ithkuil using various non-spatial roots based on reason or purpose.

      1
      		 s, s or - š numerical concepts, quantification, comparison, mathematics
      7
      		 f, , - ç or spatio-dimensional concepts, form and motion
      9
      		p’, t’, - k’ or q’p’, t’, + k’ or q’ taxonomies of physical substances
      10
      		c’, ’ - or ’c’, ’ + or ’ relational concepts, identity, associations
      12
      		 , - ç’, x’ or ’ + ç’, x’ or ’ socially or externally-induced affectations
      14
      		 z, or - ž concepts of intersocial volition and personal relations
      17
      		 , , - ’ + ’ or   temporal concepts
      @@ -780,10 +780,10 @@ - + - + @@ -835,15 +835,15 @@ - + - + - + @@ -868,26 +868,26 @@ 10.4.3 Absolute vs. Relative Spatial/Positional Coordinates

      While Western languages are capable of describing the physical position and orientation of object in absolute terms (e.g., My hometown - is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal + is located at 93°41'36"W by 43°12'55"N), it is not normal to do so in general parlance. Rather, Western spatial position and orientation is normally relative, i.e., described from the dynamic perspective of the two objects themselves or from the perspective of a third party observer (usually, but not exclusively, the speaker). Therefore, if I describe the position of objects in my backyard to you on the telephone, and you have never seen my backyard, - phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue - is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ - and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information + phrases such as ‘the swingset is against the wall,’ ‘the barbecue + is sitting to my right,’ ‘the elm tree is behind the shed’ + and ‘the rose bush is beyond the bird fountain’ convey little information without first having to establish a common frame of reference based on where the speaker is positioned relative to the edges of the yard (in order to interpret - what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing - relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), + what he means by ‘beyond the fountain’), which way he is facing + relative to the yard (in order to interpret what he means by ‘to my right’), perhaps even the orientation of the shape of the yard relative to some external absolute system of orientation (e.g., the four cardinal directions N, S, E, W).

      -

      In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ +

      In such a relative scheme concepts such as ‘to my right’ change completely if I turn my body 180 degrees. Confusion also occurs when - I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of - the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left + I say ‘to the left of the chair.’ Do I mean to the left side of + the chair from my (the speaker’s) perspective? Or do I mean to the left side of the chair from the perspective of someone sitting in the chair?

      Ithkuil avoids such confusions by being based on an absolute coordinate system of spatial reference as opposed to a relative system (similar @@ -899,9 +899,9 @@ coordinate schemes, each functioning within a different speech context. These coordinate systems establish a three-dimensional right-angled coordinate grid superimposed upon space, with the X-axis reckoned from a line perpendicular - to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), + to the direction of gravity (which, for practical purposes, we may term “horizontal”), the Z-axis reckoned by a line corresponding to the direction of gravity (which - may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which + may be termed the “vertical”) and the all-important Y-axis (which differentiates a relative system from an absolute) derived from one of three points of reckoning depending on which coordinate scheme is being utilized. The three schemes are as follows:

      @@ -912,11 +912,11 @@ to the X-axis is variable; i.e., the line connecting the rising and setting points of the sun merely designate the direction of the Y-axis, not it actual position. This is necessary so that descriptions of spatial relationships - can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, + can be made using a “quadrant locator” system based on this grid, where any two objects can be made to lie within different quadrants relative to each other (this will be illustrated below).

      Use of this solar-based reckoning system continues at nighttime - and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge + and on overcast or rainy days, based on society’s collective knowledge and/or recollection of landmarks indicating the rising and setting points of the sun. Use of this system even continues indoors if there exists a collective understanding of the orientation of the building/structure/room relative to @@ -936,12 +936,12 @@

      3) Arbitrarily delineated axis based on local landmarks, objects, or persons. This is similar to a Western relative system in which the speaker announces the orientation perspective being utilized. An Ithkuil - speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method + speaker would consider this a highly unusual and “affected” method of reckoning. Nevertheless, it is possible to designate a personally defined reckoning system using words to designate the origin point and direction of - the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on - a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between - the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE + the Y-axis vector, examples translatable by such phrases as ‘based on + a vector from me to that large window’ or ‘based on a vector between + the shed and the big oak tree.’ In fact, this is the purpose of the NAVIGATIVE case (see Sec. 4.8.12). The primary use for this system of reckoning is literary or narrative, such as when a speaker tells a story of another time and place, in which he/she wishes @@ -950,31 +950,31 @@


      10.4.3.1 Describing Spatial Relationships between Two or More Objects. Using such a triaxial three-dimensional grid, Ithkuil then lexically divides - up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” + up space into “quadrants”, four quadrants to each given “hemisphere” of absolute space delineated by the three axes, for a total of eight. (I know, I know, technically, I should use the term "octant", but considering the latter term refers to a seafaring navigational instrument, I will stick to the term "quadrant.")

      -

      +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant +

      +X / +Y / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant 1 = Root: pl - f
      - +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root: - + +X / +Y / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 = Root: - f
      - +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root: + +X / -Y / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 = Root: r - f
      - +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root: - + +X / -Y / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 = Root: - f
      - -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: + -X / +Y / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 = Root: - f
      - -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: ps + -X / +Y / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 = Root: ps - f
      - -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: ks + -X / -Y / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 = Root: ks - f
      - -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: p + -X / -Y / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8 = Root: p - f

      There are eighteen additional roots corresponding to the above where either one or two of the X/Y/Z values are zero, indicating concepts equivalent - English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight - down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight - up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are + English phrases such as ‘neither above nor below,’ ‘straight + down,’ ‘straight ahead,’ ‘directly behind,’ ‘straight + up,’ ‘on the same plane as,’ etc. The above quadrants are indicated in the illustrations below.

      Because the lateral alignment (but not direction) of the solar-based X and Y-axes are variable (i.e., each can be slid laterally relative to the @@ -994,7 +994,7 @@


      - It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional + It is the ability to “slide” the axes of this three-dimensional grid that allows Ithkuil to easily describe the relative position of objects in an absolute manner. Because the grid can be arranged so that any two objects each fall into different quadrants, a series of quadrant-to-quadrant relationships @@ -1002,15 +1002,15 @@ stem which, in conjunction with a set of affixes, designates a spatial relationship between an object occupying that quadrant and a second object occupying any of the seven other quadrants. For the purpose of this analysis, we will call - each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional - frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while + each of these quadrant-to-quadrant static relationships a “positional + frame.” (the leftover affixes refer to (1) 1st object in motion while 2nd object at rest, and (2) 2nd object in motion while first object at rest. Used to mark the participant nouns with motion sentences described below.)

      Additionally, such a positional reference system allows a speaker to describe exactly the spatial relationships between 2 objects in motion relative to each other. This is done in Ithkuil by stating that two object are moving from positional frame A toward positional frame B. If one remembers that, by - “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, + “positional frame” we mean a spatial relationship between two objects, not a specific location in space, it can be seen how such a simple formula easily describes the relative trajectories of two objects. An Ithkuil speaker is describing exactly how two objects are moving through space by stating in one short sentence @@ -1021,10 +1021,10 @@

      To insert a third party into a positional frame (such as describing where the speaker or addressee or third party is situated relative to the two objects described in the positional frame) a case-frame clause is added to the - sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) + sentence in the concursive case (“while/during/at the time of”) which states the positional frame between that third party and the FIRST party - (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the - ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame + (unless the 2nd party is overtly specified). Example: “The dog and the + ball M’d while the cat N’d,” where M is the positional frame of the dog and ball and N is the positional frame between the cat and dog.

      Based on the above, we can see just how exact Ithkuil can be in describing relative position between objects in an absolute manner. This @@ -1056,15 +1056,15 @@ addition the above concepts of a positional grid for locating objects in space and in positional relation to each other, Ithkuil also employs a whole set of vocabulary to describe the physical topology, shape and internal self-orientation -of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, +of an object by itself. These are similar to words such as “face, back, front, sides, top, bottom, appendage, tail, arm, etc., although it should be noted that the equivalent Ithkuil terms are wholly autonomous and bear no metaphorical -relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” -of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” -in Ithkuil, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a -word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” -or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase -cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”). +relationship whatsoever to anthropomorphic body parts. Therefore, the “legs” +of a chair correspond more accurately to its “supports” or “struts” +in Ithkuil, while the “face” of a blackboard would correspond to a +word translatable only periphrastically as “main functional surface” +or “primary interface area” (although note that even this paraphrase +cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme “-face”).

       

      That box contains the book.
      You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can.You’ll find pencils in(side) the small blue can. incidental, temporary, or circumstantial constraint/holder to prevent spillage from gravityThe small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.The small blue can holds the pencils you’re seeking.
      I poured soup in(to) the bowl.I (re-)fueled the gas tank.
      We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head.We’ll never know what’s in(side) her head. intangible containmentWe’ll never know her thoughts.We’ll never know her thoughts.
      He has a tumor in(side) his pancreas. enveloped to inaccessible depth by surrounding mediumHis pancreas “harbors” a tumor.His pancreas “harbors” a tumor.
      He hammered a nail in(to) the wall.
      @@ -1090,19 +1090,19 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme
      As an example of lexical generalization in Ithkuil (or over-lexicalization in English!), compare the following words for animal vocal sounds: meow, bark, whinny, chirp, moo, bray, etc. Each of these words mean merely to - make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only + make one’s species-specific inherent vocal sound. Ithkuil utilizes only a single stem for this concept (essentially meaning vocal sound/vocalize - – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), - based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or - moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate + – from the same root which gives the stem for (human) voice), + based on the logical assumption that, since cats can’t bark, whinny or + moo, and dogs can’t meow, whinny or moo, there is no need to differentiate lexically the innate vocal sound being made by an animal if the animal making the sound is identified in the sentence. Of course, one might argue that English allows for metaphorical or similative application of such words, as in The sergeant barked out orders to the platoon, or The baby squealed in delight. Such constructions are perfectly captured in Ithkuil via the ESSIVE and ASSIMILATIVE - cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The - baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or + cases, as in He ‘vocalized’ the orders like a dog, or The + baby ‘vocalized’ like a baby piglet from feeling delight, or via the manipulation of Conflation, Derivation and Format (see Sec. 5.4).

      Similar series of English words which reduce to a single stem @@ -1114,7 +1114,7 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme

      By translative motion is meant the idea of an object moving (or being moved) from one location to another. English is particularly rich in its vocabulary to describe the various paths or trajectories of such an object, - not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, + not only in regard to the “shape” or form of the path or trajectory, but also the means of initiating the movement. Thus we have terms such as to toss, throw, pitch, hurl, fling, roll, run, or pass a ball or other object. In reaching its destination, the object can fly, float, wing, @@ -1122,9 +1122,9 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme slide, glide, slither, or jump its way there.

      As we have seen to be the case in other contexts, Ithkuil lexifies concepts of translative motion with a focus on the contexts of purpose and outcome, - not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. + not on the “innate structure” of the event as an end in itself. Essentially, Ithkuil is less concerned with how the object gets there and is - more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For + more concerned about why it’s going there and whether it arrives. For example, look at the following two columns of English sentences :

      @@ -1181,18 +1181,18 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme of distinguishing the shades of meaning present in the above examples, it should be noted that such distinctions can be easily rendered by additional affixes and words describing these concepts. For example, if it is truly necessary to - indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can + indicate that the object was “flung” into the basket, Ithkuil can augment the sentence I made it end up inside the basket to include affixes which indicate use of the hand in a sudden recoil-like motion plus affixes indicating forceful and rapid arrival into the basket, the result being narrowly translatable as Using my hand in a sudden, subtle, recoil-like motion I caused it to move quickly away and end up forcefully inside the basket.

      While this would more or less accurately capture the nuances - of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, + of English “flung,” Ithkuil first makes us stop and ask ourselves, why is it even necessary to describe the details of the trajectory and the force initiating it? After all, in a normal everyday contextual setting, if an English - speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or - “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in + speaker were to use the verb “tossed” or “threw” or + “placed” or “put” instead of “flung” in the above sentence, would his/her speaker be considered to have been given information any less sufficient or essential for understanding the message and its purpose? All of which again illustrates the dynamism of Ithkuil lexico-semantics: if @@ -1206,16 +1206,16 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme

      10.5.3 No Lexification of Specific Instances of Underlying Processes

      In regard to over-lexification in English from a Ithkuil perspective, - an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ + an example would be limp, as in ‘to walk with a limp.’ Ithkuil recognizes that, in observing a person walking with a limp, it is not the condition per se that is relevant, but rather the manner in which the condition causes the person to move, i.e. asymmetrically, irregularly, discontinuously - in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” + in an unexpected way inconsistent with a “normal” or “standard” expectation of walking. Ithkuil speakers would consider English limp to represent an arbitrarily specific occurrence of an underlying state of translative movement. To a Ithkuil speaker, what is important is the way the person moves. - The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping - or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” + The idea that a person continues to “have a limp” even when sleeping + or sitting is considered absurd. What the person “continues to have” is an underlying physical injury, abnormality, disability, illness, or deformity which causes the person to move asymmetrically when walking. Therefore, instead of He has a limp because of his war wound, a Ithkuil speaker would @@ -1223,18 +1223,18 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme

      To illustrate this by analogy, consider a person who, when dancing to rock music, has a tendency to jerk his/her head to the left at the sound of the downbeat. Most English speakers would consider it ludicrous over-lexicalization - to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s - head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical + to propose a verb “spreggle” meaning ‘to jerk one’s + head to the left on the downbeat when dancing,’ as in the hypothetical sentence She spreggles to rock music. Yet, from the Ithkuil standpoint, - there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” - and the actual word ‘limp.’

      + there is no difference in arbitrariness between the hypothetical “spreggle” + and the actual word ‘limp.’

      Based on a combination of the above reasoning surrounding both - animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ - ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ - or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says He can’t see, - She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t + animal vocal sounds and ‘limp,’ Ithkuil has no words for ‘blind(ness),’ + ‘deaf(ness),’ ‘mute(ness),’ ‘dementia,’ + or ‘paralysis.’ In Ithkuil, one simply says He can’t see, + She can’t hear, She can’t speak, He can’t think, He can’t move, or alternately His faculty of sight (or other sense or innate - faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of + faculty) doesn’t function/no longer functions. [Note: each of these sentences would, of course, employ appropriate morphological markers, case, voice, degrees of affixes, etc. to indicate the extent of functional loss, whether temporary or permanent, whether increasing or decreasing, whether externally @@ -1259,7 +1259,7 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme human cognition and pre-linguistic epistemological categorization as is possible in language without resorting to outright linguistic representations of pure mathematical logic. Since the inner mental life of the speaker is often clouded - in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented + in vagueness or artificial “surface” categories once represented in spoken languages such as English and other Eurocentric languages, a language which is focused on representing that inner mental life will necessarily require many more words to describe that life than are commonly available in existing @@ -1273,27 +1273,27 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme

      Western languages have several words and/or concepts for which there is no exactly corresponding equivalent in Ithkuil. These include the concepts - embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil - has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” - or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership - equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar + embodied in the verb “to be” and “to have.” Ithkuil + has no way of truly expressing copula identification corresponding to “be” + or “being”, nor any direct translation of possession or ownership + equivalent to “have.” Essentially this is because Ithkuil grammar and lexico-semantics do not recognize inherent existential identification or inherent existential possession as true semantic functional categories or fundamental cognitive primitives.


      - 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”

      + 10.7.1 Translating “To Be”

      Ithkuil grammar inherently recognizes that the universe is, at any and all moments, and on all scales large and small, in a state of flux. The idea that any given entity can be permanently or innately identified as - “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar - has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or - “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that + “being” some other entity is considered nonsensical. Ithkuil grammar + has no way of clearly indicating any such notions as “being” or + “to be,” as the universe is a universe of actions or states that are the results of actions. Even states, as such, are in flux and different from moment to moment, if only because the mere passage of time itself renders - the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. - Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” - anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” - or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something + the “static” condition different than it was the moment before. + Therefore, one cannot “be” anything else, or for that matter “be” + anything at all. Rather, one “does” or “functions as” + or “fulfills a role as” or “manifests itself as” something else. Fundamental to Ithkuil grammar are the notions of function and purpose, not mere description; results, not mere means; manifestation, not mere existence. This explains why there is no true distinction between nouns and verbs in Ithkuil, @@ -1309,8 +1309,8 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme manifests a green color, Stan feels ill [or carries a disease], and Murder controverts morality.


      - 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’

      -

      In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil + 10.7.2 Translating ‘To Have’ +

      In regard to “have” or “having,” Ithkuil views the concept of possession as breaking down into more specific functional states and categories, each operating independently and having little relation to each other.

      @@ -1341,20 +1341,20 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme

      How old are you?
      [= State the amount/number of years you have lived.]


      - 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

      + 10.7.4 ‘Yes,’ ‘No’ and Other Interjections

      As there are no interjections in Ithkuil, there are no true - equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, + equivalents to “yes” and “no” in Ithkuil. Nevertheless, there are abbreviated ways of answering the requests for information or commands for validation that substitute for questions in Ithkuil. The closest approximations are a few standardized sentences that answer commands using the validative mode. - These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests - in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that - manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state - evidence for validation].”

      + These sentences translate in various ways, such as “It functions/happens/manifests + in that manner” or “It does not function/happen/manifest in that + manner”; or, “I can(not) validate that information based on... [state + evidence for validation].”

      Observe how this operates in the following examples.

      -

      “Do you want to dance?” “No.”
      - [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to - dance with you.”

      +

      “Do you want to dance?” “No.”
      + [“State whether you will dance with me.” “I do not want to + dance with you.”

      Ithkuil grammar also allows for the use of bias affixes (see Sec. 6.6) to function as autonomous words to convey attitudes and emotional responses similarly to @@ -1377,7 +1377,7 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme -V0qt, and the two part-whole affixes -V0 - and -V0š.

      + and -V0ĹĄ.

      Proceed to Chapter 11: The Script > >

      @@ -1436,7 +1436,7 @@ cannot avoid the anthropomorphic morpheme Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index ab45469..9ba1708 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch11-script.html @@ -71,7 +71,7 @@
      - @@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ extremely complex in its structure and usage, is strictly logical and highly efficient in its ability to convey information. In previous chapters we have seen the high degree of detail and multi-level functionality and dynamism inherent - in the language’s morpho-phonology, morpho-syntax, and lexico-semantics. + in the language’s morpho-phonology, morpho-syntax, and lexico-semantics. The workings of the Ithkuil writing system are no different. For example, just as the consonants and vowels of nominal and verbal stems can mutate into new forms, so, too, do the characters of the Ithkuil script mutate into other forms @@ -102,12 +102,12 @@
      11.1 A “Morpho-Phonemic” + 11.1 A “Morpho-Phonemic” Script
      - +

      11.1 A “MORPHO-PHONEMIC” SCRIPT

      11.1 A “MORPHO-PHONEMIC” SCRIPT
      -

      Such dynamism in a language’s writing system can be achieved - because the Ithkuil script has the unique distinction of being “morpho-phonemic,” +

      Such dynamism in a language’s writing system can be achieved + because the Ithkuil script has the unique distinction of being “morpho-phonemic,” i.e., the individual characters of the script do not merely convey phonemic content like an alphabet or syllabary, but also convey morphological (grammatical) information. Additionally, the phonemic and grammatical information conveyed @@ -193,7 +193,7 @@

      Consonantal character, Grade 1, primary form. Position immediately following a personal reference - adjunct infix implies C2 phonemic Value = /’/. + adjunct infix implies C2 phonemic Value = /’/. Consonantal character being in this position in a single-referent adjunct indicates character represents an affix rather than a case-marker.
       @@ -211,7 +211,7 @@
      5
      - Vocalic character /â/, + Vocalic character /â/, Series A, primary but hook-reversed form. Position immediately following an aspectual adjunct infix character indicates start of new word. Position preceding two consonantal characters indicates word is a formative. Primary @@ -226,7 +226,7 @@ Consonantal character, Grade 1, primary form. Phonemic value: /q/. Position following vocalic character and preceding another consonantal character indicates - it is a C1 radical. Adjacent “wedge” diacritic, + it is a C1 radical. Adjacent “wedge” diacritic, in absence of similar diacritic on either the preceding vocalic character or the following consonantal character indicates STATIVE conflation. @@ -248,7 +248,7 @@
      Consonantal character, Grade 5, primary form. Position following a C2 radical - indicates a consonantal affix. Phonemic value /q’/. + indicates a consonantal affix. Phonemic value /q’/. Grade 5 = affix-degree 5. Absence of diacritic indicates affix-type 1, non-geminated. @@ -264,7 +264,7 @@



      - ‘I feel that nowadays everyone everywhere is happy.’ + ‘I feel that nowadays everyone everywhere is happy.’
      _Listen! @@ -272,11 +272,11 @@

      Notice how the above analysis shows that the only purely phonemic information given by the Ithkuil written characters in this sentence is for - /l/, /’/, - /â/, /q/, //, - /q’/ and + /l/, /’/, + /â/, /q/, //, + /q’/ and /d/. All remaining information represented by the characters - is wholly morphological, by which the reader “constructs” the pronunciation + is wholly morphological, by which the reader “constructs” the pronunciation of the sentence as a whole. Such is a morpho-phonemic script.

      It is important to recognize that while the phonological component of the Ithkuil script gives information as to the phonemes associated with the @@ -294,19 +294,19 @@

      Ta - yâqomüxduď.
      - Ta yâqomüxiäd.
      - Ta yâqomduďxü.
      - Ta yâqomiädüx      .
      - Ta xü’a - yâqomiäd.
      - Ta duď’a - yâqomxü.
      + yâqomüxduď.
      + Ta yâqomßxiäd.
      + Ta yâqomduďxü.
      + Ta yâqomiädßx      .
      + Ta xü’a + yâqomiäd.
      + Ta duď’a + yâqomxü.
      Ta - duüx - yâqom.
      - Ta xü’’iäd - yâqom.
      + duď’’üx + yâqom      .
      + Ta xü’’iäd + yâqom.
      @@ -322,14 +322,14 @@ The first symbol of the phrase above indicates the initial consonant element t- of the personal-reference adjunct tawa (or ta), while the second symbol conveys OBLIQUE - case for the adjunct, interpretable as -a or –awa. - The third symbol represents the vocalic prefix â-, as + case for the adjunct, interpretable as -a or –awa. + The third symbol represents the vocalic prefix â-, as well as the form, tone, mode, and vocalic mutation series of the stem. The fourth and fifth characters represents the C1 and C2 consonants of the root respectively, along with the mutational grade, stem number, vowel pattern, syllabic stress - and conflation information which transforms the initial â- - prefix to yâ-. The last two characters represent the + and conflation information which transforms the initial â- + prefix to yâ-. The last two characters represent the two affixes including their degree and affix-type.

      It should be noted what the written form of this word does not convey. It does not tell us what vowel is to be infixed between the C1 @@ -350,12 +350,12 @@ from the grammar, need not be written, while those parts of a word which are not predictable can be represented by symbols which convey much more than a sound, but rather also convey the grammatical information necessary to construct - the unwritten parts of the word. As a result, the script acts to “compress” + the unwritten parts of the word. As a result, the script acts to “compress” the written form of the language as opposed to the spoken form, much like computerized - “compression” software stores computer files in a space-saving manner + “compression” software stores computer files in a space-saving manner in which all components of a file whose construction is predictable based on other components, can be eliminated in the stored version, and restored when - accessed. Similarly, the “compressed” form of words in the Ithkuil + accessed. Similarly, the “compressed” form of words in the Ithkuil written language are restored to full pronunciation when spoken or read.

       

      @@ -393,9 +393,9 @@

      The physical form of the characters in the script is based - on two different types of written strokes: straight “bar”-like elements, - and pointed sickle-like “hooks.” These bars and hooks are joined - to one another in a variety of angular “offset” connections. While + on two different types of written strokes: straight “bar”-like elements, + and pointed sickle-like “hooks.” These bars and hooks are joined + to one another in a variety of angular “offset” connections. While there can be a number of different bar-like elements comprising a given character, only one arc or hook can occur in a character. These bars and hooks can be easily discerned in the sample of Ithkuil writing shown here.

      @@ -433,14 +433,14 @@
      For passages taking up more - than one line, as in general narrative passages or “paragraphs,” + than one line, as in general narrative passages or “paragraphs,” the script is normally written in a vertical boustrophedon fashion - (Greek for “as the ox plows”); specifically, it is written + (Greek for “as the ox plows”); specifically, it is written in vertical columns starting at the upper left of a page, with the first column being written top-to-bottom and each character oriented sideways and opening downward, then reversing direction in the second column and being written bottom-to-top with each character facing or opening upward. - Each line continues this “zig-zag” approach from the left + Each line continues this “zig-zag” approach from the left side of the page to the right, every other line running one direction as opposed to the preceding and following lines. This is illustrated by analogy with Roman letters to the left and can be seen in the sample of @@ -521,62 +521,62 @@ 1
      a
      e
      -
      ä
      -
      aî
      -
      eě
      -
      aě
      +
      ä
      +
      aĂŽ
      +
      eě
      +
      aě
      stem 2
      u
      o
      -
      ö
      -
      uî
      +
      Ăś
      +
      uĂŽ
      oi
      -
      uě
      +
      uě
      stem 3
      i
      -
      ë
      -
      ü
      -
      eî
      -
      oě
      -
      ëě
      +
      ĂŤ
      +
      Ăź
      +
      eĂŽ
      +
      oě
      +
      ëě
      Form II
      stem 1
      -
      â
      -
      ę
      +
      â
      +
      ę
      ae
      -
      aű
      -
      ač
      -
      aů
      +
      aĹą
      +
      ač
      +
      aĹŻ
      stem 2
      -
      ű
      -
      ô
      -
      ř
      -
      oű
      -
      oů
      -
      ëů
      +
      Ĺą
      +
      Ă´
      +
      ř
      +
      oĹą
      +
      oĹŻ
      +
      ĂŤĹŻ
      stem 3
      -
      î
      -
      ˙
      +
      ĂŽ
      +
      ˙
      iu
      -
      eű
      -
      eů
      -
      iů
      +
      eĹą
      +
      eĹŻ
      +
      iĹŻ

      As shown in the above table and described in detail in Chapter @@ -615,7 +615,7 @@ the alternate pattern is shown by a mere point-like extension at the base of each character while the rest of the pattern remains identical. For all consonantal characters, the nine grades of mutation are differentiated by variations in - the top “half” of the character, while alternate versions of characters + the top “half” of the character, while alternate versions of characters are shown in the bottom half of the character. For example, compare the standard and alternate forms of above with those of the C1 radical k @@ -629,7 +629,7 @@ constitute either the first or second symbol of a word. For those formatives where it is the second symbol, the first symbol will always be a vowel character. Vowel characters are distinguished from consonantal characters because the former - always contain a sickle-like “hook” element while consonant characters + always contain a sickle-like “hook” element while consonant characters do not. Consequently, it is always possible to tell which is the C1 symbol of a formative.

      11.4.1.2 Representing C2 Consonantal @@ -674,7 +674,7 @@ Ithkuil represents these using C1 symbols as well. They simply have completely different phonological values than for their usage as C1 symbols. As an example, the C1 - symbol for šp + symbol for ĹĄp becomes the symbol for r when representing a C2 radical. Again, it is mere position in the word that clues the reader into interpreting the symbol as a C2 @@ -724,7 +724,7 @@ an alternate form called the secondary used to indicate the secondary mode of the stem (i.e., corresponding to REPRESENTATIVE essence as per Secs. 2.2.3 and 3.8.1). - Both primary and secondary forms in turn have “hook-reversed” forms, + Both primary and secondary forms in turn have “hook-reversed” forms, i.e., forms identical to the primary and secondary forms, but with the sickle-like hook portion of the character curved in the opposite direction; these hook-reversed forms are used to indicate Form II of the formative, corresponding to the FORMAL @@ -732,10 +732,10 @@ 2.2.3 and 3.7. The alternate and hook-reversed forms added to the 24 primary vowel characters, renders 96 characters. These 96 in turn have eight modifications to indicate - the nine mutational series of a stem’s vocalic infix (see Sec. + the nine mutational series of a stem’s vocalic infix (see Sec. 2.5), resulting in 864 vowel characters. One of these 864 vowel symbols will always be the first character of an Ithkuil written formative. The following - table illustrates an example of the basic vowel character ä + table illustrates an example of the basic vowel character ä with its mutations, along with its alternate and hook-reversed forms. Note that, like consonantal characters, the top half of the character carries the distinctions between the nine degrees of mutation.

      @@ -786,7 +786,7 @@ associated with these 60 symbols when written as a suffix is independent of their value when written as a C1 or C2 radical. As with C1 and C2 representations, - the reader’s clue to interpreting the symbol as an affix is by position + the reader’s clue to interpreting the symbol as an affix is by position within the word; the suffix will always be the third (or more) consonantal symbol in a word. Note that affixes which contain geminated (i.e., doubled) consonants (e.g., mm, @@ -820,7 +820,7 @@ suffix -V2, used when the infixed form is not phonologically permissible. Generally, the Ithkuil script conveys only the suffixed form. An exception is made however, - for the DIRECTIVE illocution, for which an optional “shortcut” + for the DIRECTIVE illocution, for which an optional “shortcut” notation exists, consisting of placing a special diacritic, a horizontal bar under the C1 character.

      @@ -828,7 +828,7 @@ 11.4.2 Writing Adjuncts

      The rules for writing aspectual adjuncts and personal reference adjuncts in Ithkuil script are distinct from writing formatives, employing a - different type of written symbol, specifically “composite” characters + different type of written symbol, specifically “composite” characters made up of three separate character elements. Note that other adjuncts such as combination adjuncts and affixual adjuncts are not represented autonomously in the Ithkuil writing system, as these adjuncts exist purely for euphonic and @@ -950,8 +950,8 @@ is required, the nine mutations of each being used to show Configuration and; for FORMAL designation, the hook-reversed forms of the four vowel characters are used; for INFORMAL designation - plus POSITIVE focus, the characters for â, - ę, ű and î + plus POSITIVE focus, the characters for â, + ę, Ĺą and ĂŽ are used, their hook-reversed forms indicating FORMAL designation. For REPRESENTATIVE essence, the above patterns are used but with the vowel character in its secondary form.

      @@ -960,7 +960,7 @@ characters (in all nine degrees) interpreted as having their C1 phonological value for each degree (e.g., the value -xt-, - equivalent to x+ç, + equivalent to x+ç, would be written using the 5th degree mutation of the C1 character for kt, whose value is xt).

      @@ -985,8 +985,8 @@ character, as follows: C = a, C = u, C - = â, C - = ű.

      + = â, C + = Ź      .

      Cb is shown via the 60 C1/C2 characters, interpreted as having their C1 phonological value

      @@ -1076,7 +1076,7 @@ within words themselves various attitudes, moods, and other information which are normally indicated supra-segmentally in Western languages (e.g., by tone or inflection of the voice, hyper-enunciation, etc.), symbols such as exclamation - points and question marks are likewise unnecessary. The only “punctuation” + points and question marks are likewise unnecessary. The only “punctuation” symbols used are to show quotations of direct speech and phonetic transliteration (as when spelling non-Ithkuil words and names). These two sets of symbols are shown below. Note that the quotation marks are used only to indicate direct @@ -1103,7 +1103,7 @@

      The following tables detail the characters of the Ithkuil script along with the various phonemic values assigned to the symbol depending on the - character’s function within the word. The specific usages of the various + character’s function within the word. The specific usages of the various sets of vowels, their secondary forms, their hook-reversed forms, and the primary versus secondary forms of consonant characters have been previously explained above in Section 11.4.1 and its various sub-sections.
      @@ -1254,7 +1254,7 @@ Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

       

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index aabc14d..cdc9601 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch2-morpho-phonology.html @@ -117,11 +117,11 @@ languages are Turkish, Japanese, Swahili, and Esperanto.

      Synthetic languages (also called fusional, flexional, or inflecting languages) manipulate word roots via internal phonetic manipulation - and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” + and/or via affixes which function in multiple functional roles (known as “portmanteau” affixes). Examples are Latin, Russian, and Sanskrit.

      Polysynthetic (sometimes called incorporating) languages generally do not have pre-designated words, but rather join together semantic-formative - elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting + elements in sequential fashion, each resulting “string” constituting a single word conveying an entire sentence of information. Examples are Inuit (Eskimo), Shawnee, and many other American Indian languages, as well as several Paleo-Siberian languages.

      @@ -140,13 +140,13 @@

      For example, shown below is an analytical breakdown of the Ithkuil word (Listen: ). - The stem of this word, ciůk, - meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed + The stem of this word, ciĹŻk, + meaning ‘derived product of a ewe,’ has been completely transformed into the nearly unrecognizable form , all due to the systematic mutation of its consonants and vowels. To this stem, are then added the prefix eu-, an infix -w-, - and the affix -[V1]t’, + and the affix -[V1]t’, where [V1] represents a vowel increment to be determined by other morphological factors. As a result the simple root is transformed into a word containing no less than eleven morphemes (i.e., eleven semantically distinct @@ -167,12 +167,12 @@ STEM: - ciůk + ciĹŻk < root: c + k - “sheep”
      - = “derived product of ewe”       + “sheep”
      + = “derived product of ewe”         @@ -231,12 +231,12 @@ Affix: - V1t’- + V1t’- (8th degree) = specific derivation of stem (in this case: "ewe's wool")   -

      APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: “concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”
+
      APPROXIMATE TRANSLATION: “concerning a hypothetical diminishing in everything having to do with ewe-wool clothing”
 
      
 
       
      
 
@@ -269,7 +269,7 @@
 
      p 
         + x 
      
+        + c’
-    
-    
-    
-    
+    
+    
+    
+    
-    
-    
+    
+    
-    
+    
-    
-    
-    
-    
-    
+    
+    
+    
+    
+    
-    
-    
+    
+    
-    
-    
-    
+    
+    
+    
-    
-    
-    
-    
-    
-    
+    
+    
+    
+    
+    
+    
-    
-    
+    
+    
-    
-    
-    
+    
+    
+    
      
     
      tr 
-        + c’
      		
     
      ks 
         + 
      		
     
      xl 
@@ -284,7 +284,7 @@
    radical interfix. For example, a vowel such as a 
   would be infixed into the radical interfix t+r 
   to give the stem tar, 
-  an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are 
+  an Ithkuil word for ‘name.’ The manner in which such vowels are 
   infixed into radical interfixes to form stems is entirely systematic but quite 
   complex. It is described in the next several sections.
      
 

      
@@ -337,62 +337,62 @@
         1
      		
      
      a
      		
      
      e
      		 
      ä
      		 
      aî
      		 
      eě
      		 
      aě
      		 
      ä
      		 
      aĂŽ
      		 
      eě
      		 
      aě
      		
   
      
   
       
      
      stem 
         2
      		
      
      u
      		
      
      o
      		 
      ö
      		 
      uî
      		 
      Ăś
      		 
      uĂŽ
      		
      
      oi
      		 
      uě
      		 
      uě
      		
   
      
   
       
      
      stem 
         3
      		
      
      i
      		 
      ë
      		 
      ü
      		 
      eî
      		 
      oě
      		 
      ëě
      		 
      ĂŤ
      		 
      Ăź
      		 
      eĂŽ
      		 
      oě
      		 
      ëě
      		
   
      
   
       
     
      Form 
         II
      		
      
      stem 
         1
      		 
      â
      		 
      ę
      		 
      â
      		 
      ę
      		
      
      ae
      		 
      aű
      		 
      ač
      		 
      aů
      		 
      aĹą
      		 
      ač
      		 
      aĹŻ
      		
   
      
   
       
      
      stem 
         2 
      		 
      ű
      		 
      ô
      		 
      ř
      		 
      oű
      		 
      oů
      		 
      ëů
      		 
      Ĺą
      		 
      Ă´
      		 
      ř
      		 
      oĹą
      		 
      oĹŻ
      		 
      ĂŤĹŻ
      		
   
      
   
       
      
      stem 
         3 
      		 
      î
      		 
      ˙
      		 
      ĂŽ
      		 
      ˙
      		
      
      iu
      		 
      eű
      		 
      eů
      		 
      iů
      		 
      eĹą
      		 
      eĹŻ
      		 
      iĹŻ
      		
   
      
 
      
 
       The three patterns are labelled Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and 
@@ -414,11 +414,11 @@
 
      Lastly, there are two modes, labelled Primary and Secondary. 
   Mode is used to signify a rather complex morphological category called Essence, 
   detailed in Section 
-  3.8. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within 
+  3.8. It differentiates “alternate” versions of entities within 
   hypothetical, imagined, or representational contexts, which would otherwise 
-  be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ 
+  be contradictory or nonsensical. An example would be the word ‘boy’ 
   in the sentence The brown-eyed boy had blue eyes (e.g., in the newspaper 
-  account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.
      
+  account). A stem’s Essence category does not change its underlying meaning.
      
 
       
      
  
@@ -429,7 +429,7 @@
 
      
   
      
 
      We can now examine how each root instantiates meaning into 
   the above array of stems. First of all, because Mode distinguishes a morphological 
-  category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it 
+  category (Essence) that does not change a stem’s underlying meaning, it 
   will be ignored in the analysis below. We will start with the six stems (three 
   for each Form) associated with Pattern 1; these are the holistic stems. This 
   will be followed in a subsequent section by an analysis of the twelve stems 
@@ -442,12 +442,12 @@
   generates the following stems:
      
 
      
   
       1. tar 
-    ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
      
-    2. tur ‘designation 
-    or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
      
-    3. tir ‘a 
-    (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary 
-    or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’
      
+    ‘name of something or someone; to name something or someone’
      
+    2. tur ‘designation 
+    or reference; to assign a designation, to refer to something’
      
+    3. tir ‘a 
+    (temporary or informal) reference, “nickname”; to give a (temporary 
+    or informal) reference or name to, to (temporarily) nickname’
      
 
      
 
      The semantic relationship between each stem and the underlying 
   root is specific to each root. Nevertheless, certain patterns are common. Stem 
@@ -458,14 +458,14 @@
   Stem 1, or a tangential or related concept. For example, compare the relationship 
   between the individual stems for the root t+r 
   above with that of the Form I root x+n 
-  (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.
      
+  (‘VISION/SIGHT’) below.
      
 
      
   
       1. xan 
-    ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
      
-    2. xun ‘an 
-    eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
      
-    3. xin ‘an 
-    image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’
      
+    ‘a sighting, an act of seeing something; to see something’
      
+    2. xun ‘an 
+    eye; to be an eye/become an eye/use one’s eye, etc.’
      
+    3. xin ‘an 
+    image in one’s mind; to visualize, to picture in one’s mind’
      
 
      
 
      Note that each stem carries both a nominal (noun) and a verbal 
   meaning. This will be important later when we discuss parts of speech and nominal/verbal 
@@ -479,22 +479,22 @@
   morphological shift in Designation earlier described. While Form I implies a 
   temporary, contextual interpretation, Form II implies a permanent, authoritative 
   interpretation beyond the mere context of a specific utterance. Note that the 
-  vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are â, 
-  ű, and î, as shown above in Table 
+  vowel infixes associated with the three stems of Form II are â, 
+  Ĺą, and ĂŽ, as shown above in Table 
   5.
      
 
       
-  
       1. târ 
-    ‘title; to (be) title(d)’
      
-    2. tűr 
-    ‘formal designation, label; to label’
      
-    3. tîr 
-    ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’ 
      
-  
      1. xân 
-    ‘visual observation; to visually observe’
      
-    2. xűn 
-    ‘optical device; to use an optical device’
      
-    3. xîn 
-    ‘a rendered image; to render an image’
      
+  
       1. târ 
+    ‘title; to (be) title(d)’
      
+    2. tĹąr 
+    ‘formal designation, label; to label’
      
+    3. tĂŽr 
+    ‘formal role; to function in a formal role’ 
      
+  
      1. xân 
+    ‘visual observation; to visually observe’
      
+    2. xĹąn 
+    ‘optical device; to use an optical device’
      
+    3. xĂŽn 
+    ‘a rendered image; to render an image’
      
 
      
 

      
   2.3.2 Complementary Stems
      
@@ -503,7 +503,7 @@
   component parts of the main stem. Many Ithkuil stems which translate common 
   English nouns and verbs are, in fact, such complementary derivatives, rather 
   than being holistic word-stems. 
      
-
      By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation 
+
      By “complementary” is meant that the manifestation 
   of a concept appears in any given context as either one sort of entity or another, 
   but never both simultaneously; yet, neither manifestation can be considered 
   to be a discrete contextual whole without the existence of the other. In Ithkuil, 
@@ -537,7 +537,7 @@
   tel, while the second complementary stem is derived by mutation 
   from Pattern 1 into Pattern 3, e.g., tal 
    
-  täl. Several examples of complementary stem derivation 
+  täl. Several examples of complementary stem derivation 
   are given below:
      
 
       Form I examples:
      
 
@@ -558,7 +558,7 @@
         
-          
       
           2nd 
             Comp. Stem qöm: 
+          qĂśm: 
             female person
         
      
       
      
@@ -579,7 +579,7 @@
          
           2nd 
             Comp. Stem
-           kläd: 
+           kläd: 
             the channel or course of a flow of water
         
       
@@ -598,13 +598,13 @@
          
           1st 
             Comp. Stem
-          tël: 
+          tĂŤl: 
             the physical act of composing in writing; to physically write a composition
         
          
           2nd 
             Comp. Stem 
-          tül: 
+          tĂźl: 
             the written content or message of a composition; to create written 
             content
         
@@ -622,13 +622,13 @@
           1st 
             Comp. Stem
            xen: 
-            an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see 
-            with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
+            an act of seeing, a usage of one’s faculty of sight; to see 
+            with one’s eyes, to undergo a sighting
         
          
           2nd 
             Comp. Stem
-           xän: 
+           xän: 
             a view, a sight, something (to be) seen; to cast a sight or image
         
       
@@ -642,19 +642,19 @@
          
           Holistic 
             Stem
-          qűm: 
+          qĹąm: 
             an official 
         
          
           1st 
             Comp. Stem
-          qôm: 
+          qĂ´m: 
             male official 
         
          
           2nd 
             Comp. Stem 
-          qřm: 
+          qřm: 
             female official 
         
       
@@ -663,13 +663,13 @@
          
           Holistic 
             Stem
-          klâd: 
+          klâd: 
             a river 
         
          
           1st 
             Comp. Stem
-           klęd: 
+           klęd: 
             the water in a river 
         
          
@@ -688,13 +688,13 @@
          
           Holistic 
             Stem
-          tîl: 
+          tĂŽl: 
             an act of creating a formal writing; to compose a formal written work
         
          
           1st 
             Comp. Stem
-          t˙l: 
+          t˙l: 
             physical act of composing a formal written work; to physically write 
             a work
         
@@ -711,14 +711,14 @@
          
           Holistic 
             Stem
-          kâl: 
+          kâl: 
             an act of speech; to speak (i.e., the physical vocal production + 
             the communicative element)
         
          
           1st 
             Comp. Stem
-           kęl: 
+           kęl: 
             an act of talking (i.e., vocal production of words); to talk (i.e., 
             vocally emit words)
         
@@ -734,14 +734,14 @@
 

      
   2.3.2.2 Complementary Stems in Translation. As illustrated 
   above, the structure of Ithkuil holistic vs. secondary complementary roots often 
-  neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ 
-  breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative 
-  aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down 
-  into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case 
+  neatly parallels English lexical distinctions, e.g., ‘speak/speech’ 
+  breaking down into the physical aspect of ‘talking’ versus the communicative 
+  aspect of ‘saying/telling’ or ‘person’ breaking down 
+  into ‘male’ and ‘female.’ However, it is often the case 
   that this principle of complementarity creates a semantic situation which is 
   counterintuitive to Western semantic notions. 
      
 
      For example, let us analyze the root h+n 
-  ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages 
+  ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’. While most languages 
   would consider the concept parent as fundamentally opposite from the 
   concept child and assign separate word-roots to each, Ithkuil recognizes 
   that one implies the other. No person can be a parent unless they've had a child, 
@@ -749,13 +749,13 @@
   archetypal complementary relationship, the whole two-sided nature of which is 
   referred to by the holistic stem han. 
   One way to interpret the meaning, then, of han 
-  is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ 
+  is to say that the word means both ‘parent’ and ‘child,’ 
   which of course strikes a Westerner as being problematical, perhaps even non-sensical. 
-  But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ 
+  But in fact, the word does not mean either ‘parent’ or‘ child,’ 
   but rather a person who is one of the members of a parent-child relationship, 
   i.e., a member of a nuclear family. With such a root, Stem 2 and Stem 3 in turn 
   subdivide Stem 1 into the further complementary derivatives of male and female. 
-  Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem 
+  Such “bi-level” derivations of complementary concepts using Stem 
   2 and Stem 3 are common in Ithkuil root/stem derivation. Here then are the actual 
   meanings of the stems for h+n 
   in Form I.
      
@@ -775,7 +775,7 @@
       nuclear family member 
     hen: 
       parent
-    hän: 
+    hän: 
       child
   
    
@@ -784,16 +784,16 @@
       male nuclear family member 
     hon: 
       father 
-    hön: 
+    hĂśn: 
       son
   
    
     Stem 3
     hin: 
       female nuclear family member 
-    hën: 
+    hĂŤn: 
       mother 
-    hün: 
+    hĂźn: 
       daughter
   
 
@@ -874,12 +874,12 @@
   k       and pl:
      
 
       
   
       k  
-    g  k’ 
+    g  k’ 
      
     kf  km 
      
-    çk/k 
-     çk’/k’
      
+    çk/k 
+     çk’/k’
      
   
       pl  
     bl  pr 
      
@@ -916,7 +916,7 @@
     tt  rt 
      
     lt t 
-     št 
+     ĹĄt 
      
     sst
      
 
      
@@ -954,7 +954,7 @@
   radicals, each of these specific stem-infixes can in turn mutate into eight 
   variations for a total of nine mutations, termed Series A, Series B, Series 
   C, etc. (Note that the ninth series is termed Series J rather than Series I, 
-  in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman 
+  in order not to confuse the use of ‘I’ as a letter versus a Roman 
   numeral). Consequently each root has a total of 324 different vocalic infixes 
   depending on the Stem, Mode, Form, Pattern, and Series. These series of vowel 
   mutations are shown in Tables 8(a) through 8(f) below, with each table indicating 
@@ -998,27 +998,27 @@
     
      ai
      
         ui
      
         ei
      
-    
      a’(ď)
      
-        u’(ď)
      
-        i’(ď)
      
-    
      a’wď
      
-        u’wď
      
-        i’wď
      
-    
      a’wa
      
-        u’wa
      
-        i’wa 
      
-    
      a’we
      
-        u’we
      
-        i’we
      
-    
      a’wi
      
-        u’wi
      
-        i’wi 
      
-    
      a’wë
      
-        u’wë
      
-        i’wë
      
-    
      a’wo
      
-        u’wo
      
-        i’wo
      
+    
      a’(ď)
      
+        u’(ď)
      
+        i’(ď)
      
+    
      a’wď
      
+        u’wď
      
+        i’wď
      
+    
      a’wa
      
+        u’wa
      
+        i’wa 
      
+    
      a’we
      
+        u’we
      
+        i’we
      
+    
      a’wi
      
+        u’wi
      
+        i’wi 
      
+    
      a’wë
      
+        u’wë
      
+        i’wë
      
+    
      a’wo
      
+        u’wo
      
+        i’wo
      
   
    
      
      Form
      
@@ -1026,33 +1026,33 @@
     
      stem 1
      
         stem 2
      
         stem 3
      
-    
      â
      
-        ű
      
-        î
      
+    
      â
      
+        Ĺą
      
+        ĂŽ
      
     
      au
      
         ou
      
         eu 
      
-    
      â’(ď)
      
-        ű’(ď)
      
-        î ’(ď) 
      
-    
      a’yď
      
-        u’yď
      
-        i’yď
      
-    
      a’ya
      
-        u’ya
      
-        i’ya
      
-    
      a’ye
      
-        u’ye
      
-        i’ye 
      
-    
      a’yu
      
-        u’yu
      
-        i’yu 
      
-    
      a’yë
      
-        u’yë
      
-        i’yë
      
-    
      a’yo
      
-        u’yo
      
-        i’yo
      
+    
      â’(ď)
      
+        ű’(ď)
      
+        î ’(ď) 
      
+    
      a’yď
      
+        u’yď
      
+        i’yď
      
+    
      a’ya
      
+        u’ya
      
+        i’ya
      
+    
      a’ye
      
+        u’ye
      
+        i’ye 
      
+    
      a’yu
      
+        u’yu
      
+        i’yu 
      
+    
      a’yë
      
+        u’yë
      
+        i’yë
      
+    
      a’yo
      
+        u’yo
      
+        i’yo
      
   
 
 

      
@@ -1088,31 +1088,31 @@
         stem 3
      
     
      e
      
         o
      
-        ë
      
+        ĂŤ
      ia
      io
      ie
      -
      e’(ď)
      - o’(ď)
      - ë’(ď)
      -
      e’wď
      - o’wď
      - ë’wď
      -
      e’wa
      - o’wa
      - ë’wa
      -
      e’we
      - o’we
      - ë’we
      -
      e’wi
      - o’wi
      - ë’wi
      -
      e’wë
      - o’wë
      - ë’wë
      -
      e’wo
      - o’wo
      - ë’wo
      +
      e’(ď)
      + o’(ď)
      + ë’(ď)
      +
      e’wď
      + o’wď
      + ë’wď
      +
      e’wa
      + o’wa
      + ë’wa
      +
      e’we
      + o’we
      + ë’we
      +
      e’wi
      + o’wi
      + ë’wi
      +
      e’wë
      + o’wë
      + ë’wë
      +
      e’wo
      + o’wo
      + ë’wo
      Form
      @@ -1120,33 +1120,33 @@
      stem 1
      stem 2
      stem 3
      -
      ę
      - ô
      - ˙
      +
      ę
      + Ă´
      + ˙
      ua
      uo
      ue
      -
      ę’(ď)
      - ô’(ď)
      - ˙’(ď)
      -
      e’yď
      - o’yď
      - ë’yď
      -
      e’ya
      - o’ya
      - ë’ya
      -
      e’ye
      - o’ye
      - ë’ye
      -
      e’yu
      - o’yu
      - ë’yu
      -
      e’yë
      - o’yë
      - ë’yë
      -
      e’yo
      - o’yo
      - ë’yo
      +
      ę’(ď)
      + ô’(ď)
      + ˙’(ď)
      +
      e’yď
      + o’yď
      + ë’yď
      +
      e’ya
      + o’ya
      + ë’ya
      +
      e’ye
      + o’ye
      + ë’ye
      +
      e’yu
      + o’yu
      + ë’yu
      +
      e’yë
      + o’yë
      + ë’yë
      +
      e’yo
      + o’yo
      + ë’yo


      @@ -1180,33 +1180,33 @@

      stem 1
      stem 2
      stem 3
      -
      ä
      - ö
      - ü
      +
      ä
      + Ăś
      + Ăź
      ea
      - ië
      - ëi
      -
      ä’(ď)
      - ö’(ď)
      - ü’(ď)
      -
      ä’wď
      - ö’wď
      - ü’wď
      -
      ä’wa
      - ö’wa
      - ü’wa
      -
      ä’we
      - ö’we
      - ü’we
      -
      ä’wi
      - ö’wi
      - ü’wi
      -
      ä’wë
      - ö’wë
      - ü’wë
      -
      ä’wo
      - ö’wo
      - ü’wo
      + iĂŤ
      + ĂŤi
      +
      ä’(ď)
      + ö’(ď)
      + ü’(ď)
      +
      ä’wď
      + ö’wď
      + ü’wď
      +
      ä’wa
      + ö’wa
      + ü’wa
      +
      ä’we
      + ö’we
      + ü’we
      +
      ä’wi
      + ö’wi
      + ü’wi
      +
      ä’wë
      + ö’wë
      + ü’wë
      +
      ä’wo
      + ö’wo
      + ü’wo
      Form
      @@ -1215,32 +1215,32 @@ stem 2
      stem 3
      ae
      - ř
      + ř
      iu
      oa
      - ëu
      - uë
      -
      ae’(ď)
      - ř’(ď)
      - iu’(ď)
      -
      ä’yď
      - ö’yď
      - ü’yď
      -
      ä’ya
      - ö’ya
      - ü’ya
      -
      ä’ye
      - ö’ye
      - ü’ye
      -
      ä’yu
      - ö’yu
      - ü’yu
      -
      ä’yë
      - ö’yë
      - ü’yë
      -
      ä’yo
      - ö’yo
      - ü’yo
      + ĂŤu
      + uĂŤ
    +
    ae’(ď)
    + ř’(ď)
    + iu’(ď)
    +
    ä’yď
    + ö’yď
    + ü’yď
    +
    ä’ya
    + ö’ya
    + ü’ya
    +
    ä’ye
    + ö’ye
    + ü’ye
    +
    ä’yu
    + ö’yu
    + ü’yu
    +
    ä’yë
    + ö’yë
    + ü’yë
    +
    ä’yo
    + ö’yo
    + ü’yo


    @@ -1275,33 +1275,33 @@

    stem 1
    stem 2
    stem 3
    -
    aî
    - uî
    - eî
    -
    a’i
    - u’i
    - e’i
    -
    âě
    - űě
    - ęě
    -
    ai’wď
    - ui’wď
    - ei’wď
    -
    ai’wa
    - ui’wa
    - ei’wa
    -
    ai’we
    - ui’we
    - ei’we
    -
    ai’wi
    - ui’wi
    - ei’wi
    -
    ai’wë
    - ui’wë
    - ei’wë
    -
    ai’wo
    - ui’wo
    - ei’wo
    +
    aĂŽ
    + uĂŽ
    + eĂŽ
    +
    a’i
    + u’i
    + e’i
    +
    âě
    + űě
    + ęě
    +
    ai’wď
    + ui’wď
    + ei’wď
    +
    ai’wa
    + ui’wa
    + ei’wa
    +
    ai’we
    + ui’we
    + ei’we
    +
    ai’wi
    + ui’wi
    + ei’wi
    +
    ai’wë
    + ui’wë
    + ei’wë
    +
    ai’wo
    + ui’wo
    + ei’wo
    Form
    @@ -1309,33 +1309,33 @@
    stem 1
    stem 2
    stem 3
    -
    aű
    - oű
    - eű
    -
    a’u
    - o’u
    - e’u
    -
    âů
    - oî
    - ęů
    -
    au’yď
    - ou’yď
    - eu’yď
    -
    au’ya
    - ou’ya
    - eu’ya
    -
    au’ye
    - ou’ye
    - eu’ye
    -
    au’yu
    - ou’yu
    - eu’yu
    -
    au’yë
    - ou’yë
    - eu’yë
    -
    au’yo
    - ou’yo
    - eu’yo
    +
    aĹą
    + oĹą
    + eĹą
    +
    a’u
    + o’u
    + e’u
    +
    âů
    + oĂŽ
    + ęů
    +
    au’yď
    + ou’yď
    + eu’yď
    +
    au’ya
    + ou’ya
    + eu’ya
    +
    au’ye
    + ou’ye
    + eu’ye
    +
    au’yu
    + ou’yu
    + eu’yu
    +
    au’yë
    + ou’yë
    + eu’yë
    +
    au’yo
    + ou’yo
    + eu’yo


    @@ -1370,33 +1370,33 @@

    stem 1
    stem 2
    stem 3
    -
    eě
    +
    eě
    oi
    - oě
    -
    i’a
    - i’e
    - i’o
    -
    îa
    - îo
    - îe
    -
    â’wď
    - ę’wď
    - ô’wď
    -
    â’wa
    - ę’wa
    - ô’wa
    -
    â’we
    - ę’we
    - ô’we
    -
    â’wi
    - ę’wi
    - ô’wi
    -
    â’wë
    - ę’wë
    - ô’wë
    -
    â’wo
    - ę’wo
    - ô’wo
    + oě
    +
    i’a
    + i’e
    + i’o
    +
    ĂŽa
    + ĂŽo
    + ĂŽe
    +
    â’wď
    + ę’wď
    + ô’wď
    +
    â’wa
    + ę’wa
    + ô’wa
    +
    â’we
    + ę’we
    + ô’we
    +
    â’wi
    + ę’wi
    + ô’wi
    +
    â’wë
    + ę’wë
    + ô’wë
    +
    â’wo
    + ę’wo
    + ô’wo
    Form
    @@ -1404,33 +1404,33 @@
    stem 1
    stem 2
    stem 3
    -
    ač
    - oů
    - eů
    -
    u’a
    - u’e
    - u’o
    -
    űa
    - űo
    - űe
    -
    â’yď
    - ę’yď
    - ô’yď
    -
    â’ya
    - ę’ya
    - ô’ya
    -
    â’ye
    - ę’ye
    - ô’ye
    -
    â’yu
    - ę’yu
    - ô’yu
    -
    â’yë
    - ę’yë
    - ô’yë
    -
    â’yo
    - ę’yo
    - ô’yo
    +
    ač
    + oĹŻ
    + eĹŻ
    +
    u’a
    + u’e
    + u’o
    +
    Ĺąa
    + Ĺąo
    + Ĺąe
    +
    â’yď
    + ę’yď
    + ô’yď
    +
    â’ya
    + ę’ya
    + ô’ya
    +
    â’ye
    + ę’ye
    + ô’ye
    +
    â’yu
    + ę’yu
    + ô’yu
    +
    â’yë
    + ę’yë
    + ô’yë
    +
    â’yo
    + ę’yo
    + ô’yo


    @@ -1465,33 +1465,33 @@

    stem 1
    stem 2
    stem 3
    -
    aě
    - uě
    - ëě
    -
    e’a
    - i’ë
    - ë’i
    -
    ię
    - îů
    - üa
    -
    ű’wď
    - ř’wď
    - î’wď
    -
    ű’wa
    - ř’wa
    - î’wa
    -
    ű’we
    - ř’we
    - î’we
    -
    ű’wi
    - ř’wi
    - î’wi
    -
    ű’wë
    - ř’wë
    - î’wë
    -
    ű’wo
    - ř’wo
    - î’wo
    +
    aě
    + uě
    + ëě
    +
    e’a
    + i’ë
    + ë’i
    +
    ię
    + ĂŽĹŻ
    + Ăźa
    +
    ű’wď
    + ř’wď
    + î’wď
    +
    ű’wa
    + ř’wa
    + î’wa
    +
    ű’we
    + ř’we
    + î’we
    +
    ű’wi
    + ř’wi
    + î’wi
    +
    ű’wë
    + ř’wë
    + î’wë
    +
    ű’wo
    + ř’wo
    + î’wo
    Form
    @@ -1499,33 +1499,33 @@
    stem 1
    stem 2
    stem 3
    -
    aů
    - ëů
    - iů
    -
    o’a
    - ë’u
    - u’ë
    -
    aę
    - üe
    - iű
    -
    ű’yď
    - ř’yď
    - î’yď
    -
    ű’ya
    - ř’ya
    - î’ya
    -
    ű’ye
    - ř’ye
    - î’ye
    -
    ű’yu
    - ř’yu
    - î’yu
    -
    ű’yë
    - ř’yë
    - î’yë
    -
    ű’yo
    - ř’yo
    - î’yo
    +
    aĹŻ
    + ĂŤĹŻ
    + iĹŻ
    +
    o’a
    + ë’u
    + u’ë
    +
    aę
    + Ăźe
    + iĹą
    +
    ű’yď
    + ř’yď
    + î’yď
    +
    ű’ya
    + ř’ya
    + î’ya
    +
    ű’ye
    + ř’ye
    + î’ye
    +
    ű’yu
    + ř’yu
    + î’yu
    +
    ű’yë
    + ř’yë
    + î’yë
    +
    ű’yo
    + ř’yo
    + î’yo

     

    @@ -1563,8 +1563,8 @@ a verb can only be made by analyzing its derivational morphology and syntactical relationship to the rest of the sentence. Consequently, there are no stems/formatives that refer only to nouns or only to verbs as in Western languages. The formative - klâd illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both - ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither + klâd illustrated above in Section 2.3.2.1 means both + ‘river’ and ‘to flow/run (as a river)’ with neither meaning being seen as more intrinsic or fundamental, nor one deriving from the other. Such hierarchies of nominal over verbal meaning (or vice-versa) arise only in translating Ithkuil to English or other Western languages, where such @@ -1576,18 +1576,18 @@

    ______Listen!
    - ‘by the time of his death’ OR - ‘by the time he dies’

    + ‘by the time of his death’ OR + ‘by the time he dies’



    - ‘the awful-smelling woman’ OR - ‘the woman smells awful’

    + ‘the awful-smelling woman’ OR + ‘the woman smells awful’


    ______Listen!
    - ‘what the eagle sees’ OR - ‘the eagle’s seeing something’

    + ‘what the eagle sees’ OR + ‘the eagle’s seeing something’


    The reason why nouns and verbs can function as morphological derivatives of a single part of speech is because Ithkuil morpho-semantics does not see nouns @@ -1597,8 +1597,8 @@ these two components can be thought of as spacetime. It is in this continuum of spacetime that Ithkuil instantiates semantic ideas into lexical roots, giving rise to the part of speech termed the formative. The speaker then chooses to - either spatially “reify” this formative into an object - or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it + either spatially “reify” this formative into an object + or entity (i.e., a noun) or to temporally “activize” it into an act, event, or state (i.e., a verb). This complementary process can be diagrammed as follows:

    @@ -1609,8 +1609,8 @@

    2.6.2 Adjuncts

    Adjuncts are so named because they operate in conjunction with adjacent formatives to provide additional grammatical information about the - formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, - would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”). + formative, somewhat like auxiliary verbs in English (e.g., “may, will, + would, do, have”) or like noun determiners (e.g., “the, this, those”).

    Adjuncts are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic affixes, combined agglutinatively. There are several different types of adjuncts, @@ -1737,40 +1737,40 @@ 1

    -iC
    -Cai
    -
    -îC
    -
    -Cëi
    +
    -ĂŽC
    +
    -CĂŤi
    -ieC
    -
    -Caď
    +
    -Caď
    Degree 2
    -eC
    -Cei
    -
    -ęC / -eiC
    +
    -ęC / -eiC
    -Ceu
    -
    -iëC
    -
    -Ceď
    +
    -iĂŤC
    +
    -Ceď
    Degree 3 -
    -äC / -aeC
    +
    -äC / -aeC
    -Cia
    -
    -âC /-aiC
    -
    -Câ
    +
    -âC /-aiC
    +
    -Câ
    -iuC
    -
    -Ciď
    +
    -Ciď
    Degree 4 -
    -öC
    +
    -ĂśC
    -Cua
    -
    -řC / -euC
    +
    -řC / -euC
    -Ciu
    -ioC
    -
    -Coď
    +
    -Coď
    Degree @@ -1779,48 +1779,48 @@
    -Ca
    -uiC
    -Cui
    -
    -iäC
    -
    -Cuď
    +
    -iäC
    +
    -Cuď
    Degree 6 -
    -üC / -ëuC
    -
    -Cü
    -
    -˙C / -auC
    +
    -ĂźC / -ĂŤuC
    +
    -CĂź
    +
    -˙C / -auC
    -Cau
    -
    -uäC
    -
    -Cäi
    +
    -uäC
    +
    -Cäi
    Degree 7 -
    -ďC / -ëiC
    -
    -Cď
    -
    -ëC
    -
    -Cëu
    +
    -ďC / -ëiC
    +
    -Cď
    +
    -ĂŤC
    +
    -CĂŤu
    -uoC
    -
    -Cöi
    +
    -CĂśi
    Degree 8
    -oC
    -Coi
    -
    -ôC / -oiC / -ouC
    +
    -Ă´C / -oiC / -ouC
    -Cou
    -
    -uëC
    -
    -Cäu
    +
    -uĂŤC
    +
    -Cäu
    Degree 9
    -uC
    -Cu
    -
    -űC
    -
    -Cű
    +
    -ĹąC
    +
    -CĹą
    -ueC
    -
    -Cöu
    +
    -CĂśu

    Applying the above rules to three example suffixes we can see @@ -1843,67 +1843,67 @@ Degree 1

    ritik / ritkai
    -
    ritîk / ritkëi
    -
    ritiek / ritkaď
    +
    ritĂŽk / ritkĂŤi
    +
    ritiek / ritkaď
    Degree 2
    ritek / ritkei
    -
    ritęk / riteik / ritkeu
    -
    ritiëk / ritkeď
    +
    ritęk / riteik / ritkeu
    +
    ritiëk / ritkeď
    Degree 3 -
    ritäk / ritaek / ritkia
    -
    ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ
    -
    ritiuk /ritkiď
    +
    ritäk / ritaek / ritkia
    +
    ritâk / ritaik / ritkâ
    +
    ritiuk /ritkiď
    Degree 4 -
    ritök / ritkua
    -
    ritřk / riteuk / ritkiu
    -
    ritiok / ritkoď
    +
    ritĂśk / ritkua
    +
    ritřk / riteuk / ritkiu
    +
    ritiok / ritkoď
    Degree 5
    ritk / ritak / ritka
    rituik / ritkui
    -
    ritiäk / ritkuď
    +
    ritiäk / ritkuď
    Degree 6 -
    ritük / ritëuk / ritkü
    -
    rit˙k / ritauk / ritkau
    -
    rituäk / ritkäi
    +
    ritĂźk / ritĂŤuk / ritkĂź
    +
    rit˙k / ritauk / ritkau
    +
    rituäk / ritkäi
    Degree 7 -
    ritďk / ritëik / ritkď
    -
    ritëk / ritkëu
    -
    rituok / ritköi
    +
    ritďk / ritëik / ritkď
    +
    ritĂŤk / ritkĂŤu
    +
    rituok / ritkĂśi
    Degree 8
    ritok /ritkoi
    -
    ritôk / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou
    -
    rituëk / ritkäu
    +
    ritĂ´k / ritoik / ritouk / ritkou
    +
    rituÍk / ritkäu
    Degree 9
    rituk / ritku
    -
    ritűk / ritkű
    -
    rituek / ritköu
    +
    ritĹąk / ritkĹą
    +
    rituek / ritkĂśu
    -

    Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix +

    Because the “reversed” -CV form of the suffix reinforces a CVC syllabic structure for the stem syllable of the word, such reversed word-final suffixes are common in Ithkuil (see Sec. 1.4.5).

    @@ -1941,14 +1941,14 @@  
    3
    - -äd / -aed / -dia + -äd / -aed / -dia not enough / insufficient(ly) / under-[+verb]  
    4
    - -öd / -dua + -Ăśd / -dua not quite enough / somewhat insufficient(ly) / slightly under-[+verb] @@ -1962,14 +1962,14 @@  
    6
    - -üd / -ëud / -dü + -Ăźd / -ĂŤud / -dĂź a little too (much) / more than needed / slightly over-[+verb]  
    7
    - -ďd / -ëid / -dď + -ďd / -ĂŤid / -dď too / too much / over-[+verb] @@ -1991,14 +1991,14 @@ 2.7.3 Vocalic Affixes

    Other than the stem-infixes previously discussed in Section 2.3 et seq., the use of vocalic affixes (i.e., affixes based on vowels rather - than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes + than consonants) in Ithkuil occurs in several contexts — vocalic prefixes to formatives, vocalic prefixes and suffixes to adjuncts, and the anaptyctic - affixes -ď-, and -a. Each of these contexts + affixes -ď-, and -a. Each of these contexts is discussed below:

    2.7.3.1 Vocalic Prefixes. Vocalic prefixes are used with both formatives and adjuncts, and consist of either single vowels or two-vowel conjuncts or diphthongs (e.g., a-, ui-, - ae-, ia-, ö-, eu-, + ae-, ia-, Ăś-, eu-, etc.). Additionally, these prefixes can take an initial w- or y- increment. While these prefixes are often highly synthetic morphologically (i.e., a single prefix can carry information for multiple grammatical @@ -2012,17 +2012,17 @@ can be multiple vocalic suffixes on an adjunct, joined agglutinatively (i.e., added on one after the other) with intervening consonantal affixes.

    2.7.3.3 Anaptyctic Vowels - -ď- and -a. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require + -ď- and -a. Sometimes the grammatical rules of a language require a meaningless phonemic increment to be affixed to a word, whether as a prefix, suffix, or infix. This is known as anaptyxis. As will be discussed in Chapter - 7: Using Affixes, an anaptyctic infix, -ď-, is used + 7: Using Affixes, an anaptyctic infix, -ď-, is used in Ithkuil to separate consonantal prefixes from the C1 stem consonantal radical wherever necessary for phonotactical euphony or to prevent confusion in misinterpreting the prefix consonant(s) as part of the C1 radical. For example, while the prefix s- is phonotactically permissible before the stem kaf, - the resulting word must be sďkaf, + the resulting word must be sďkaf, not skaf, as the latter is a completely different stem employing a C1 radical sk-.

    @@ -2032,10 +2032,10 @@ In such cases, the number of syllables must be increased to three. Sometimes this can be done by restructuring any consonantal affixes the word may have, but more often than not, anaptyctic vowels must be affixed. In this case the - anaptyctic vowel ď- can be prefixed to a word beginning + anaptyctic vowel ď- can be prefixed to a word beginning with a consonant (usually nominal formatives), and/or an anaptyctic vowel -a can be suffixed to the end of a word, e.g., kfuil - ďkfůila. + ďkfĹŻila    . This anaptyctic suffix -a is also required for phonotactical euphony when grammatical rules require the mutation of the second radical C2 to a form which is not permissible in word-final position, e.g., t @@ -2115,7 +2115,7 @@ Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh -

    Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or +

    Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

     

    diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 3a2e8c7..e355917 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch3-basic-morphology.html @@ -101,8 +101,8 @@ cognitively distinct from one another, but rather as complementary manifestations of ideas existing in a common underlying semantic continuum whose components are space and time. The equivalents to nouns and verbs in other languages are - merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or - verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s + merely “reified” (or nominalized) and “activized” (or + verbalized) derivatives of semantic formatives. Nevertheless, for simplicity’s sake, we will refer to nominal formatives as nouns and verbal formatives as verbs when discussing their morphology.

    All Ithkuil formatives, whether functioning as nouns or verbs, @@ -138,20 +138,20 @@ composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain English sets of words.

    -

    Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a +

    Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as - in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different - kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray - such as a ‘jungle.’

    -

    As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ - While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) - person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons + in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different + kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray + such as a ‘jungle.’

    +

    As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ + While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) + person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as - ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

    + ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

    Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, @@ -162,18 +162,18 @@

    Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often - opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, + opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, ears, hands, wings, etc.

    In Ithkuil, the semantic distinctions implied by the above examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be - accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ + accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ into one of nine configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by - the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ - or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ - via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ - ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation + the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ + or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ + via Configuration, the Ithkuil words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ + ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in detail in Chapter 7: Using Affixes.)

    @@ -217,14 +217,14 @@

    The DUPLEX configuration is marked by Grade 2 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and indicates - a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s + a related binary set. While it often refers to body parts, e.g., one’s eyes, ears, lungs, wings, etc., it can also be used to describe any set of two identical or complementary objects or entities, e.g., a matched pair of vases, a two-volume set, a set of bookends, mutual opponents. Thus, the Ithkuil word for spouse inflected for the DUPLEX configuration would translate as a man and wife or a married couple.

    One context in which the DUPLEX appears - for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” + for both nouns and verbs is with events which contain two complementary “halves” exemplified by English words such as bounce, flash, arc, wag, swing, switch, breathe/respiration, indeed, any concept which involves a dual-state notion of up/down, to/fro, back/forth, @@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ For example the word for hammer blow inflected for the UNIPLEX would signify the singular impact of the hammer, whereas the same word inflected for the DUPLEX signifies a single down-then-up cycle of - the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action + the swing of the hammer, the two complementary “halves” of the action being divided by the impact.


    @@ -262,7 +262,7 @@ or object inflected for the DISCRETE configuration. Note that the distinction between a spatially configured set versus a temporally (i.e., iterative) configured set would be made by use of an additional affix, - -V1šk, + -V1ĹĄk, specifying which spacetime axis is implied. This affix is analyzed in Sec. 7.7.13.

    For verbs, the DISCRETE signifies a single @@ -428,7 +428,7 @@ by Grade 9 mutation of the C1 radical consonant and is the most difficult to explain, as there is no Western linguistic equivalent. The MULTIFORM serves to identify the noun as an individual - member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates + member of a “fuzzy” set. A fuzzy set is a term which originates in non-traditional logic, describing a set whose individual members do not all share the same set-defining attributes to the same degree, i.e., while there may be one or more archetypical members of the set which display the defining @@ -436,12 +436,12 @@ vary from this archetypical norm by a wide range of degrees, whether in physical resemblance, degree of cohesion or both. Indeed, some members of the set may display very little resemblance to the archetype and be closer to the archetype - of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient - overlap” between members of differing sets.

    + of a different fuzzy set, i.e., fuzzy sets allow for the idea of “gradient + overlap” between members of differing sets.

    It is difficult to accurately translate into English without resorting to paraphrase the sorts of concepts that Ithkuil easily expresses using the MULTIFORM. For example, the Ithkuil word for - ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration + ‘tree’ inflected for the MULTIFORM configuration would mean something like a group of what appear to be trees, or better yet, a group of tree-like objects (i.e., some being trees, and others seeming less like trees). Essentially, any set of entities whose similarity @@ -519,7 +519,7 @@ normally applied to nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the UNIPLEX specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept - of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, + of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the CONSOLIDATIVE would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral as to purpose or design.

    @@ -550,12 +550,12 @@ orchard.

    The ASSOCIATIVE affiliation can also be used with nouns in the UNIPLEX configuration to signify - a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. + a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. For example, the word person inflected for the UNIPLEX and ASSOCIATIVE would translate as a single-minded person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed - rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

    + rock, a tree with integrity    , a “balanced” work of art.

    With verbs, the ASSOCIATIVE signifies that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The CONSOLIDATIVE versus ASSOCIATIVE distinction could be used, for example, @@ -586,7 +586,7 @@ a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the UNIPLEX to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, - a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

    + a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

    With verbs, the VARIATIVE indicates an act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably @@ -615,16 +615,16 @@

    The COALESCENT affiliation indicates that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. - This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of + This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For example, the Ithkuil word translating English toolset would be the word for tool in the AGGREGATIVE configuration - (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT + (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the COALESCENT affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example would be the Ithkuil word for finger inflected for the SEGMENTATIVE configuration and the COALESCENT affiliation, translatable - as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE + as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the SEGMENTATIVE to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further example would be using the COALESCENT with the word for (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

    @@ -632,10 +632,10 @@ often in conjunction with the DUPLEX configuration since binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image - distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. + distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., - one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT - affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and + one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the COALESCENT + affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and right eye functioning together).

    With verbs, the COALESCENT signifies that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which @@ -662,7 +662,7 @@ specifically address the quantity to which a formative is instantiated within a given context, nor when it occurs relative to the present, but rather the manner in which it is spatio-temporally instantiated. Specifically, - Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” + Perspective indicates whether a noun or verb is to be identified as 1) a “bounded” contextual entity (i.e., having a spatio-temporally unified or accessible manifestation), 2) an unbounded entity (i.e., manifested as spatio-temporally separated or inaccessible), 3) as a unified collective or generic entity throughout spacetime, or 4) as @@ -676,21 +676,21 @@ Affiliation (see Secs. 3.1 and 3.2 above) already contain an implicit numerical element due to the fact that they usually describe - multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” - and “plural” have been avoided.

    + multi-membered sets. It is for all these reasons that the terms “singular” + and “plural” have been avoided.

    Perspective with Verbs. For verbs, the aspect - of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative - context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” + of “boundedness” inherent in Perspective does not imply a quantitative + context but rather an aspect of spatio-temporal “accessibility,” i.e., whether or not an act, state, or event can be viewed as a unified whole - within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” + within the present temporal context. This is a long way from the “tense” categories of Western languages. In Ithkuil, the notion of linearly progressive time is not inherently expressed in the verb (although it can be specified, if necessary, using various aspectual markers - see Sec. 6.4).

    There are four perspectives in Ithkuil: MONADIC, UNBOUNDED, NOMIC, and ABSTRACT. - They are shown morpho-phonologically by shifts in a formative’s syllabic - stress patterns. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is detailed + They are shown morpho-phonologically by shifts in a formative’s syllabic + stress patterns. Each perspective’s specific meaning and usage is detailed below.


    @@ -703,21 +703,21 @@

    The MONADIC signifies a bounded embodiment - of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant + of a particular configuration. By “bounded embodiment” is meant a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted in structure, or spread out through a time duration, is nevertheless being contextually - viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived + viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole perceived to exist within a literal or figurative psychologically uninterrupted boundary. This is important, since configurations other than the UNIPLEX technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking place. For nouns, this boundary is physically contiguous, like a container, - corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or + corresponding to the “surface” of an object (whether literal or psychological). For verbs, this boundary is psychologically temporal, specifically - the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the - “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). - This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for + the “present” (which in Ithkuil might be better thought of as the + “context at hand” or the “immediately accessible context”). + This distinction as to how “bounded embodiment” is interpreted for nouns and verbs is appropriate, given that Ithkuil considers nouns as spatially - reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” + reified concepts while considering verbs to be their temporally “activized” counterparts (see Section 2.6.1).

    Thus, using the word tree for example, while there might be many trees present in terms of number, the MONADIC @@ -726,16 +726,16 @@ an example, the MONADIC would mean there is only one AGGREGATIVE set of trees, i.e., one forest.

    At this point, it should be noted in regard to Perspective - that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” - (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between + that Ithkuil makes no distinction between “count” and “non-count” + (or “mass”) nouns. In languages such as English, nouns differ between those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in Ithkuil in that all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, English translations - of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than + of certain Ithkuil nouns must often be “contextual” rather than literal, employing various conventions to put the noun in a numerical and pluralizable - context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a - puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

    + context, e.g., ‘some dirt,’ ‘the air here’ or ‘a + puff of air’ rather than “a dirt” or “an air.”

    With verbs, the MONADIC superficially corresponds in a very approximate fashion with Western present tense categories except in a habitual sense. As noted above, the bounded embodiment conveyed @@ -775,12 +775,12 @@

    • -

    By “accessible past” or “accessible future” +

    By “accessible past” or “accessible future” is meant a past or future where the speaker was (or will be) spatially present - at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically + at the time and the time elapsed between then and “now” is psychologically contiguous, i.e., the speaker views the passage of time from then till now as one continuous temporal flow of moments, not as disconnected memories, disconnected - predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would + predictions, or historical reports. Conversely, “inaccessible” would mean a past or future where the speaker was not or will not be present or which he/she knows only from memory, reports, or predictions.

    The MONADIC is marked by penultimate @@ -795,19 +795,19 @@ The Unbounded -

    The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded - embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun +

    The UNBOUNDED signifies “unbounded + embodiment” of a particular configurative entity, meaning that the noun or verb manifests itself as not being contained within an uninterrupted boundary, - i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, - the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member + i.e., in contextually “disconnected” manifestations. For nouns, + the term “plural” has been avoided so as not to imply that the member nouns are not being referred to quantitatively per se, but rather as a non-monadic (i.e., non-unified) manifestation of a configurative set. While the most convenient translation into English would be to use the plural, e.g., trees, groves, lumps of dirt, a semantically (if not morphologically) more accurate rendering would - be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and - another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’ + be ‘a tree here, a tree there,’ ‘this grove and another and + another…,’ ‘dirt-lump after dirt-lump after dirt-lump….’

    -

    For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the +

    For verbs, “unbounded embodiment” means that the psychological temporal boundary of an act, state, or event is not accessible from the present context. This would apply to an act, state, or event which:

      @@ -895,7 +895,7 @@ suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., grove - the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book + the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book everything about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

      With verbs, the ABSTRACT is used in verbal @@ -916,12 +916,12 @@

      The ABSTRACT is marked in either of two ways: (1) by preantepenultimate stress, i.e., on the fourth-to-last syllable, or (2) by a combination of ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic - vowel -ď- or -a- in any morpho-phonologically + vowel -ď- or -a- in any morpho-phonologically permissible position of the word (as previously described in Sec. 2.7.3.3). This extra vowel can be placed at any position within the word except within the stem, as long as the vowel does not lead to confusion or ambiguity in interpreting the phonological boundaries of any other suffixes to the stem. - (Note that in word-final position, only anatyctic -a, not -ď, + (Note that in word-final position, only anatyctic -a, not -ď, is permitted.)

       

      @@ -981,39 +981,39 @@
      CSL
      CONSOLIDATIVE
      (a-)*
      -
      â-
      +
      â-
      ai-
      au-
      -
      ä-
      -
      ö-
      +
      ä-
      +
      Ăś-
      ASO
      ASSOCIATIVE
      u-
      -
      ű-
      +
      Ĺą-
      ui-
      iu-
      -
      ü-
      -
      ë-
      +
      Ăź-
      +
      ĂŤ-
      VAR
      VARIATIVE
      e-
      -
      ę-
      +
      ę-
      ei-
      eu-
      -
      ëi-
      -
      ëu-
      +
      ĂŤi-
      +
      ĂŤu-
      COA
      COALESCENT
      i-
      -
      î-
      +
      ĂŽ-
      o-
      -
      ô-
      +
      Ă´-
      ae-
      ea-
      @@ -1053,7 +1053,7 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in the DELIMITIVE to the context at-hand (i.e., the - spatio-temporal “present”). + spatio-temporal “present”). @@ -1080,15 +1080,15 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the - act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet - every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not + act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet + every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not the total time spent dieting from start to finish).

      + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the PROXIMAL - to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      @@ -1107,16 +1107,16 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the - first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait - for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). - In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ - or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s + first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait + for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). + In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ + or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s starting to molt, or She goes on a diet every winter.

      + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the INCEPTIVE - to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      @@ -1133,15 +1133,15 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival - in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like + in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, - it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s + it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s come off her diet.

      + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the TERMINATIVE - to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      @@ -1155,21 +1155,21 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.

      The DEPLETIVE extension focuses on the - terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus - is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the - at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). + terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus + is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the + at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. It would be used in translating the words water, strength, and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear - gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less + gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less these days.

      + to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the DEPLETIVE - to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      @@ -1183,18 +1183,18 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.

      The GRADUATIVE extension is the inverse - of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” + of the DEPLETIVE, focusing on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to - start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s + start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s been eating more and more lately.

      + context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      The graphic to the right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun in the GRADUATIVE to the - context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).
      @@ -1210,11 +1210,11 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      - ‘piece of clothing’ - ‘set/suit of clothes’ + ‘piece of clothing’ + ‘set/suit of clothes’   - ‘hand’ - ‘pair of hands’ + ‘hand’ + ‘pair of hands’
      @@ -1229,11 +1229,11 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      - ‘oak tree’ - ‘trailing edge of an oak forest’ + ‘oak tree’ + ‘trailing edge of an oak forest’   - ‘upland’ - ‘foothills’ + ‘upland’ + ‘foothills’
      @@ -1245,8 +1245,8 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      - ‘something yellow’ - ‘a mess of varying yellow things as far as the eye can see’ + ‘something yellow’ + ‘a mess of varying yellow things as far as the eye can see’
      @@ -1260,12 +1260,12 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      - ‘clown’ - ‘running
      - stride’       - ‘Something makes the group of running clowns begin stumbling’ + ‘clown’ + ‘running
      + stride’       + ‘Something makes the group of running clowns begin stumbling’ or
      - ‘The group of clowns are made to begin stumbling as they run.’       + ‘The group of clowns are made to begin stumbling as they run.’       _______________________________Listen! @@ -1295,13 +1295,13 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      new material within an actual or implied discourse. For example, the sentence My dog jumps through hoops could function as an answer to several different questions such as 1) What tricks can your dog do?, or 2) Does your - dog do anything with hoops? or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet - that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? - In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ + dog do anything with hoops?       or 3) Do you know of anyone’s pet + that jumps through hoops? or even 4) What’s up with you? + In answering the first of these questions, ‘jump through hoops’ would have semantic focus while the dog is background material. In answering - the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have + the second question, the verbal phrase ‘jump through’ would have focus while both the dog and the hoops would be background material. In answering - the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus + the third question, it would be ‘my dog’ that carries the focus while jumping through hoops would be backgrounded. Lastly, in answering the fourth sentence, no element in the sentence has focus over any other, as all elements present previously unknown material within the context of the discourse. @@ -1312,12 +1312,12 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      case the background discourse is implied. For example, a person might spontaneously begin a conversation with the same sentence: My dog jumps through hoops. In English, the speaker might use vocal inflection to emphasize what elements convey - semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” + semantic focus versus what elements are to be taken by the listener as “given.” Or, the speaker might say the sentence in a neutral tone of voice, essentially - inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in + inviting the listener to “choose” which elements to focus upon in responding, e.g., Oh, you have a dog? or Oh, does he do any other tricks? or Oh, do you use metal or plastic hoops? or an equally - neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

      + neutral response such as Oh, you don’t say?

      Ithkuil uses the Focus category to accomplish the same options that such vocal inflections accomplish in English. Any formative or formatives within an Ithkuil sentence can be marked as FOCUSED to @@ -1344,9 +1344,9 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      Mother entered the room and she turned on the lights.

      In the first sentence, the absence of the reduplicative pronoun - ‘she’ before ‘turned’ implies that the entire sentence + ‘she’ before ‘turned’ implies that the entire sentence is to considered as one reported event with no particular element having the - focus. In the second sentence, however, the reduplicative ‘she’ + focus. In the second sentence, however, the reduplicative ‘she’ implies the sentence is to viewed as two separate events, the first reported as background, the second having the focus. (For example, one might utter the second sentence as a complaint about the lights being turned on.) The Ithkuil @@ -1354,9 +1354,9 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      the nuances of the second sentence would be conveyed by marking the equivalent of the verb form as FOCUSED.

      Finally, Focus functions to disambiguate sentences such as - Chicago defeated Oakland, too, which means either (1) ‘Chicago - was one of the teams that defeated Oakland,’ or (2) ‘Oakland was - one of the teams that Chicago defeated.’ Ithkuil would mark one team name + Chicago defeated Oakland, too, which means either (1) ‘Chicago + was one of the teams that defeated Oakland,’ or (2) ‘Oakland was + one of the teams that Chicago defeated.’ Ithkuil would mark one team name or the other as FOCUSED to show which of these two meanings is implied.

      The UNFOCUSED attribute is morpho-phonologically @@ -1367,7 +1367,7 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.

    • by insertion of a -w- infix within a formative immediately following the C1 radical consonant(s), or
      • -
    • by addition of the suffix -V1’ +
    • by addition of the suffix -V1’ in several of its degrees (see Sec. 7.7.13)
    • Sec. 5.2 and Sec. @@ -1405,7 +1405,7 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      formative. It focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the EXISTENTIAL - is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL + is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The EXISTENTIAL serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun or verb. @@ -1436,13 +1436,13 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.

      For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into - the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply + the FUNCTIONAL, the ‘cat’ no longer simply identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with - mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ + mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. - Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL + Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the FUNCTIONAL now implies the furtive nature of the cat.

       

      @@ -1460,16 +1460,16 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words - for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL + for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the REPRESENTATIONAL context. The REPRESENTATIONAL is one of several ways that Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from a grammatical standpoint).

      * Metonymy is the use of a word or phrase of one type to refer to an associated word or - phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The - orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell - the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person - as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’
      + phrase of a different type (usually a person), such as place-for-person in ‘The + orders came from the White House,’ object-for-person in ‘Tell + the cook the ham-and-cheese wants fries with his order’ or phrase-for-person + as in ‘You-know-who just showed up.’

      @@ -1491,7 +1491,7 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with - the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, + the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels. Thus the AMALGAMATE version of our sentence The cat ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with @@ -1544,10 +1544,10 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      2.2.3). The FORMAL imparts a sense of permanency and/or authority, raising the noun or verb to a more definitive, formal or institutional manifestation of itself, or stressing this authoritative/definitive nature if - the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ - ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL - would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and - ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

      + the meaning already includes it. For example, stems translatable as ‘symbol,’ + ‘eat,’ ‘thought,’ and ‘a model’ in the INFORMAL + would become ‘icon,’ ‘dine,’ ‘idea,’ and + ‘archetype’ in the FORMAL.

      The FORMAL achieves several subtle purposes from a lexico-semantic standpoint. While some Ithkuil words would translate the same in English no matter which designation (e.g., to hurt, to float, @@ -1603,7 +1603,7 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.

      - @@ -1661,9 +1661,9 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.
      sentences:

      1a) The boy ran off to sea.
      - 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

      + 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

      2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow.
      - 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

      + 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

      Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences @@ -1675,14 +1675,14 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.

      Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being - used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative - mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where + used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative + mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called - “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. + “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. as seen in the following:

      3) You must come home at once.
      @@ -1788,7 +1788,7 @@ of knowing the formative's nominal or verbal status.

       natural environment “man-made” + natural environment “man-made” environment awareness consciousnessRevised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
      -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

       

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 686f61e..4ab6179 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch4-case-morphology.html @@ -109,18 +109,18 @@

      Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its - phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays + phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence - It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed - to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ + It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed + to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der - Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the - man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ - distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) - from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ + Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the + man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ + distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) + from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ (accusative case).

      -

      The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the +

      The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. @@ -138,7 +138,7 @@

      Note that in regard to gender categories from other languages, Ithkuil has no distinctions of gender (e.g., masculine, feminine, neuter, etc.), although word-roots do fall into one of 17 morpho-semantic classes (see Sec. - 10.2). However, there is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological + 10.2). However, there is no “agreement” or morpho-phonological concord of any kind between a noun and other words or morphological elements in a sentence, i.e., there is none of the required matching of masculine or feminine or singular/plural agreement between nouns, articles, and adjectives @@ -156,7 +156,7 @@

      In most languages, case operates at the surface structure level of language to signify arbitrary grammatical relations such as subject, direct - object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is + object, indirect object. The deeper level of “semantic role” is ignored in terms of morphological designations. The notion of semantic role can be illustrated by the following set of sentences:

      @@ -165,26 +165,26 @@ (1c) The wind opened the door.
      (1d) The door opened.

      -

      In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, +

      In each of these sentences case is assigned based on “slot”, i.e., the position of the nouns relative to the verb, irrespective of their - semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, + semantic roles. Thus the “subjects” of the sentences are, respectively, John, the key, the wind, and the door. Yet it can be seen that, semantically speaking, these four sentences are interrelated in a causal way. Specifically, Sentence (1b) results directly from sentence (1a), and sentence (1d) results directly from either (1b) or (1c). We see that - the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while + the case of the noun ‘key’ in sentence (1a) is prepositional, while in sentence (1b) it is the subject. Yet, the key plays the same semantic role in both sentences: the physical instrument by which the act of opening is accomplished. - As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first + As for the noun ‘door,’ it is marked as a direct object in the first three sentences and as a subject in the fourth, even though its semantic role in all four sentences never changes, i.e., it is the noun which undergoes a - change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ - in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ - in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), - yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role - of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in + change in its state as a result of the act of opening. The noun ‘John’ + in sentence (1a) is marked as a subject, the same case as ‘key’ + in (1b), the ‘wind’ in (1c) and the ‘door’ in (1d), + yet the semantic role of ‘John’ is entirely different than the role + of ‘key’ in (1b) and different again from ‘door’ in (1c), i.e., John is acting as the conscious, deliberate initiator of the act - of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a + of opening. Finally, the noun ‘wind’ in (1c), while marked as a subject, operates in yet another semantic role distinct from the subjects of the other sentences, i.e., an inanimate, blind force of nature which, while being the underlying cause of the act of opening, can make no conscious or willed @@ -200,23 +200,23 @@ or primary level of language irrespective of the surface case marking of nouns in other languages. Thus Ithkuil noun declension more accurately reflects the underlying semantic function of nouns in sentences. Consequently, the Western - grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little + grammatical notions of “subject” and “object” have little meaning or applicability in Ithkuil grammar.

      The following semantic roles are marked by noun cases in Ithkuil. - They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” + They correspond roughly to the “subjects” and “objects” of Western languages:

      AGENT: The animate, (and usually conscious and deliberate) initiator of an act which results in another noun undergoing - a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence + a consequent change in state or behavior, e.g., ‘John’ in Sentence (1a) above.

      FORCE: An inanimate, unwilled cause of an - act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

      + act such as a force of nature like ‘wind’ in Sentence (1c) above.

      INSTRUMENT: The noun which functions as the - physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ + physical means or tool by which an act is initiated or performed, e.g., ‘key’ in Sentences (1a) and (1b) above.

      PATIENT: The noun which undergoes a change in state or behavior as a result of an act initiated or caused by itself or - by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.

      + by another noun, e.g., ‘door’ in all four sentences above.


      4.1.2 Additional Semantic Roles

      Additional semantic roles corresponding to subjects and objects @@ -243,9 +243,9 @@ an agent who initiates a change in the children (i.e., the fact that they become entertained). But, in fact, the act of entertainment is not one whose result (enjoyment by the audience) can be guaranteed by the party doing the entertaining. - In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, - but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a - sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like + In fact, the result of the act of entertainment is not Mary’s to determine, + but rather the children’s, based on whether they “feel” a + sense of enjoyment at experiencing Mary’s act. And so, Mary is more like a patient here, not an agent, as she is undergoing a change in her state or behavior (she is performing an attempt to entertain) which she herself has chosen to initiate and undergo, yet the act has the potential to cause a resulting @@ -254,7 +254,7 @@ ENABLER. And how do the children make the decision as to whether they are entertained or not (i.e., what is their semantic role?). Can the children deliberately or consciously choose to feel a sense of enjoyment, or are they not themselves - unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, + unwilling “patients” to their own emotional reactions? In case grammar, a party such as the children who undergo an unwilled experience are termed EXPERIENCERS. Besides emotional reactions, such unwilled experiences include autonomic sensory perceptions (e.g., parties that see or hear because their eyes were open and @@ -262,44 +262,44 @@ autonomic bodily reactions or responses as well as proprioceptive sensations (e.g., coughing, sneezing, perspiring, feeling hot or cold, feeling pain, etc.).

      This notion of EXPERIENCER is likewise illustrated by Sentence - (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes + (2c) Mary sees the children, in which the verb ‘see’ denotes an automatic sensory experience, not a deliberately initiated action. In other words, it is the nature of the sense of sight to function automatically whenever - a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ - does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” - (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the - “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action + a person is conscious and his/her eyes are open. The verb ‘see’ + does not necessarily imply a conscious or deliberately willed action of “seeing” + (as would be implied by the verb ‘to look [at]’). Therefore, the + “action” is automatic and uninitiated; it is, in fact, not an action at all, but rather an experiential state which the person doing the seeing undergoes. - In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” + In other words, the person seeing is actually a kind of “patient,” as it is he/she who undergoes the experience of (and physical or emotional reaction to) the particular sight. Such undergoers of sensory verbs and other unwilled states (e.g., emotional states or reactions, autonomic bodily reactions such as sneezing, physical states of sensation such as being hot or cold, etc.) are - categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role + categorized in the role of EXPERIENCERS. And what of the children’s role in sentence (2c)? Unlike the first three sentences, the children do not undergo - any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not + any action. Certainly the process of “being seen” by Mary does not in itself cause a physical change or reaction of any kind in the entity being - seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of + seen. Nor can the children be analyzed as “initiating” the act of sight, as they may be completely unaware that Mary is seeing them. As a result, - the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting + the children’s semantic role is merely that of STIMULUS, a neutral, unwitting originating reason for the experiential state being undergone by the other noun participant.

      In Sentence (2d) Mary tells the children a story, Mary is a patient who initiates the action which she herself undergoes, the telling of a story. The children do not undergo an unwilled emotional, sensory, or bodily reaction here, but rather are the passive and more or less willing - RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western + RECIPIENT of information, the role of an “indirect object” in Western languages. The story, on the other hand, is merely a non-participatory abstract referent, whose role is termed CONTENT.

      The role of CONTENT also applies to the children in Sentence - (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” - of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children - undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s + (2e) Mary wants children, where they function as the “object” + of Mary’s desire. Since no tangible action is occurring, nor are the children + undergoing any result of change of state, nor need they be even aware of Mary’s desire, they are, like the story in sentence (2d), merely non-participatory - referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, + referents. As for Mary’s role in (2e), the emotional state of desire, being unwilled, self-activating, and subjectively internal, creates a situation similar to an automatic sensory perception or autonomic body response; thus, - Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.

      + Mary’s role is again that of EXPERIENCER.

       

      @@ -321,8 +321,8 @@ will be shown later in Section 8.1.

      We are now in a position to examine the different noun cases - in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” - and “objects” in Western languages.

      + in detail. We will start with the group of cases which correspond to “subjects” + and “objects” in Western languages.

       

      @@ -333,7 +333,7 @@

      The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms - would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and + would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, @@ -361,7 +361,7 @@ in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb - ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description + ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun @@ -406,7 +406,7 @@ an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil - uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference + uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The @@ -460,9 +460,9 @@ case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate - the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to - pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating - the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

      + the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to + pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating + the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

      Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the affix -V1.k to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this affix, sentences @@ -512,7 +512,7 @@ experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising - one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state + one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, anxiety, etc.

      Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE @@ -542,18 +542,18 @@ radical consonant. As described previously in Section 4.1.1, the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing - about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples + about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man tripped over my foot, The password got him inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations - of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the + of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with my finger with My finger pressed the button, - both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s + both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s missing agent, I.

      Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate - ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied - by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied + by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. 4.6.9) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE @@ -576,16 +576,16 @@ J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 1 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, - creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially + creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both - sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains + sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. - Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” + Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

      Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS @@ -593,7 +593,7 @@ as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, - such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” + such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, @@ -629,11 +629,11 @@ resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using - phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result - of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in + phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result + of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason - for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s + for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s heartache, wind song.

      The second function of the DERIVATIVE case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS @@ -710,27 +710,27 @@ relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences:

      -

      the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
      - the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
      - the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
      - the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
      - the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
      - the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ +

      the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
      + the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
      + the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
      + the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
      + the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
      + the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ purpose]
      - the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
      - the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
      - the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective + the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
      + the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
      + the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective association]
      - the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive + the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive mutual association]
      - the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
      - the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
      - the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

      + the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
      + the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
      + the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

      In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, - e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the - one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do - the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ + e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the + one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do + the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed by the seven Associative cases. The other sorts of relationships shown above @@ -768,7 +768,7 @@ separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the - boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s + boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant).

       

      @@ -793,8 +793,8 @@ convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether - he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., - the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the + he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., + the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the one assigned to him).

       

      @@ -813,8 +813,8 @@ noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) - bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s - doors, the child’s father, the essence of that + bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s + doors, the child’s father, the essence of that woman.

       

      @@ -834,9 +834,9 @@ (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: - his pain, Mother’s guilt, the - child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s - happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my + his pain, Mother’s guilt, the + child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s + happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my needs.

       

      @@ -852,7 +852,7 @@

      The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by Series E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as - being the literal or figurative source of another, e.g., the man’s + being the literal or figurative source of another, e.g., the man’s story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit of the tree.

      @@ -870,8 +870,8 @@

      The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by Series F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 2 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, - author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s - poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue + author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s + poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue (i.e., the one I sculpted).

       

      @@ -889,7 +889,7 @@ radical consonant. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, - as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, + as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, our world, life as seen by children.


      @@ -913,7 +913,7 @@ noun. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word - ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams + ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams of youth, sounds of laughter. The eleven Appositive cases are the APPLICATIVE, PURPOSIVE, INHERENT, CONDUCTIVE, MEDIATIVE, CONTRASTIVE, PARTITIVE, COMPOSITIVE, CORRELATIVE, INTERDEPENDENT, and PREDICATIVE. Following @@ -934,14 +934,14 @@ A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. - As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for - the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be + As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for + the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE - can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” - cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” - book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

      + can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” + cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” + book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

       

      @@ -960,10 +960,10 @@ is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another - noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual + noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended - use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or - ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately + use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or + ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter box, a trashcan.

      @@ -998,16 +998,16 @@ inflected for a concrete perspective, i.e., either the MONADIC or the UNBOUNDED, then it takes on the rather different function of stating the actual existential identity (literally or figuratively) - of the other noun and would be equivalent to the English construction ‘that/which/who - is (a/the)…’ as in the man who is president, the woman who is + of the other noun and would be equivalent to the English construction ‘that/which/who + is (a/the)…’ as in the man who is president, the woman who is my wife, the house that is a model, a machine that is a vehicle, the teacher who is her father, those trees that are larches. Through use of the INHERENT case and the MONADIC/UNBOUNDED perspectives, these phrases would be rendered into Ithkuil phrases that would correspond literally - to the sometimes awkward, even semantically anomalous English phrases ‘the - president man,’ ‘the my-wife woman,’ ‘the model house,’ - ‘the vehicle machine,’ ‘the her-father teacher,’ ‘the - larch trees.’

      + to the sometimes awkward, even semantically anomalous English phrases ‘the + president man,’ ‘the my-wife woman,’ ‘the model house,’ + ‘the vehicle machine,’ ‘the her-father teacher,’ ‘the + larch trees.’

       

      @@ -1023,12 +1023,12 @@ D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship - signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains - to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English + signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains + to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the - Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my - life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s + Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my + life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s discuss the morality of war.

       

      @@ -1053,9 +1053,9 @@ which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, translating the phrase on the phone into the INSTRUMENTAL - case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call - him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case - would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

      + case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call + him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case + would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

       

      @@ -1076,7 +1076,7 @@ to the blue one); the science text (e.g., versus the religious text); my statue (i.e., a statue of me); I want your recipe for stew, not soup; - Don’t worry, it’s a pet snake.

      + Don’t worry, it’s a pet snake      .

       

      @@ -1104,8 +1104,8 @@ 12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not - say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps - more eloquently, “a box trio.”

      + say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps + more eloquently, “a box trio.”

      The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed in Chapter @@ -1151,9 +1151,9 @@ J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 3 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another - noun or verb. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ - ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association - with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career + noun or verb. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ + ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association + with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, Our next topic is sex and (or in) art @@ -1178,12 +1178,12 @@ which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within - it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, + it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, an army general, the blood in my veins, the - driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his - team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case + driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his + team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE - case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, + case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, or the leaves of a tree.

       

      @@ -1201,16 +1201,16 @@ radical consonant. The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by - the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying - on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, + the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying + on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, Can success supported by murder be sustained?

      The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to - translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ - or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in + translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ + or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or results from greed, but is not relying on it.


      @@ -1247,7 +1247,7 @@

      The ESSIVE case is marked by Series A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name - by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ + by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider @@ -1267,7 +1267,7 @@ B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a - verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in + verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of usage are She sings like a bird, As children they seemed to me.

      @@ -1288,7 +1288,7 @@ or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately - by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would + by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

      @@ -1306,8 +1306,8 @@

      The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by Series D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome - or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ - or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone + or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ + or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank @@ -1326,11 +1326,11 @@

      The REFERENTIAL case is marked by Series E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning - as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ - ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ - ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ + as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ + ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ + ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ Examples of use would be a song of love; As for - those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; + those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; His attitude toward women.

       

      @@ -1347,10 +1347,10 @@ F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs - or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according - to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion - of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s - a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; + or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according + to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion + of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s + a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our teacher, humans are descended from apes.

       

      @@ -1378,7 +1378,7 @@ periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; - Day in, day out, he’s always working; + Day in, day out, he’s always working; The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

      Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not @@ -1401,8 +1401,8 @@

      The DEFERENTIAL case is marked by Series H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The DEFERENTIAL translates the English - phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or - ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is + phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or + ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes @@ -1421,9 +1421,9 @@

      The COMITATIVE case is marked by Series A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish - or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ - in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The - child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ + or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ + in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The + child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with @@ -1441,8 +1441,8 @@ him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they had a fight with each other).

      Note also that the COMITATIVE is not - used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by - means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I + used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by + means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed @@ -1462,17 +1462,17 @@

      The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by Series B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English - ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., + ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate - the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating - ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean - that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ - while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m - a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE + the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating + ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean + that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ + while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m + a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well with children.

       

      @@ -1489,7 +1489,7 @@

      The UTILITATIVE case is marked by Series C vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in - the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ + the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement @@ -1532,9 +1532,9 @@ implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English - ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw - him a party, Go to the teachers’ + him a party, Go to the teachers’ lounge.

       

      @@ -1550,11 +1550,11 @@

      The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by Series E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution - of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense - of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead - of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are + of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense + of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead + of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic - for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

      + for her brother       (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

       

      @@ -1569,7 +1569,7 @@

      The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by Series F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The COMMUTATIVE translates English - ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You + ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.


      4.6.15 Examples of Adverbial Cases in Use
      @@ -1587,7 +1587,7 @@

      The Subrelative cases comprise eleven cases which place a noun in a subordinate context to the main sentence, much like subordinate conjunctions in Western languages. In fact, these cases are used far more frequently with - verbal clauses than with nouns, creating what are known as “case-frames” + verbal clauses than with nouns, creating what are known as “case-frames” (to be discussed in Sec. 5.7), the Ithkuil functional equivalent to Western subordinate clauses. The eleven Subrelative cases are the ABESSIVE, CONVERSIVE, CONCESSIVE, EXCEPTIVE, @@ -1609,13 +1609,13 @@

      The ABESSIVE case is marked by Series A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite - of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ - or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not - having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless + of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ + or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not + having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE - case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when - it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception - to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

      + case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when + it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception + to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

       

      @@ -1634,12 +1634,12 @@ to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the - conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition - ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense + conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition + ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. 4.7.1 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by - such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if - it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ + such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if + it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

       

      @@ -1658,9 +1658,9 @@ radical consonant. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, - conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ - ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ - ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of + conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ + ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ + ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend @@ -1680,8 +1680,8 @@ D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 5 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main - clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ - or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except + clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ + or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats almost anything but (not) spinach.

       

      @@ -1701,7 +1701,7 @@ has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. In verbal frame adjuncts it identifies the situation which had been expected in contrast to what actually takes place. This is translatable by the English - phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ e.g., Instead + phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘as opposed to,’ e.g., Instead of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to a maid.

       

      @@ -1720,9 +1720,9 @@ radical consonant. The identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the - main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided - (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ - or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, + main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided + (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ + or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

       

      @@ -1743,14 +1743,14 @@ and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated - by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in - case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where - it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm + by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in + case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where + it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). - Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not + Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, - welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

      + welcome them, if foe, kill ’em      .

       

      @@ -1777,16 +1777,16 @@ There is no equivalent English construction which expresses this distinction. The following sentences represent approximate English translations of what would be identical Ithkuil sentences except for the three different case declensions - of the word for ‘weather’:

      -

      PROVISIONAL: We’re packing + of the word for ‘weather’:

      +

      PROVISIONAL: We’re packing umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).
      - POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in + POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation for the possibility of bad weather).
      - SUPPOSITIVE: We’re packing umbrellas supposing - [there’s] bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed - even though we don’t know how the weather will be).

      + SUPPOSITIVE: We’re packing umbrellas supposing + [there’s] bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed + even though we don’t know how the weather will be).

       

      @@ -1801,9 +1801,9 @@

      The DEPENDENT case is marked by Series G vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The DEPENDENT translates the English - phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which + phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending - on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending + on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending on her attitude.

      The DEPENDENT should be distinguished from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. @@ -1823,10 +1823,10 @@

      The COMPARATIVE case is marked by Series H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being - compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as - compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see + compared and contrasted to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as + compared to,’ ‘as opposed to.’ With verbal case-frames (see Sec. 5.7) it would translate as - ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). + ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the blue one, Sam drives a van as compared to Joe, who prefers a truck.

       

      @@ -1844,9 +1844,9 @@ J vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 6 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions - such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in - avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. - 5.7) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage + such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in + avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. + 5.7) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled by night to avoid the sun.

       

      @@ -1869,8 +1869,8 @@ While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished - in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be - inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, + in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be + inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, there are twelve cases corresponding to certain types of common spatial relationships. These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, PROLATIVE, PERLATIVE, PERVASIVE , PERIPHERAL, INTEGRAL, POSITIONAL, and @@ -1892,8 +1892,8 @@ A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The LOCATIVE signifies general static position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable - by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ - or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by + by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ + or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by the wall, on the street, at my house.

       

      @@ -1909,13 +1909,13 @@

      The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by Series B vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun - (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” + (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable - into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ + into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept - to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” + to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading the way).

       

      @@ -1938,8 +1938,8 @@ in either the ALLATIVE or POSITIONAL case (see Sections 4.8.4 and 4.8.11 below). Examples of use would be They collided sideways, She turned her back on - him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., - The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

      + him, The chair “faced” the doorway       (i.e., + The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

       

      @@ -1955,7 +1955,7 @@ D vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 7 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. When used in the context of explicit or implied directional motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, - translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ + translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered @@ -1964,7 +1964,7 @@

      When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, the ALLATIVE signifies a directional orientation of a noun relative to another, e.g., He turned his back on me, - The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the + The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk)

       

      @@ -2005,7 +2005,7 @@ medium or a two-dimensional quasi-planar surface, the position or movement being between one point and another, without implying origination at one point or destination at another, e.g., He passed through a tunnel, - She’s standing along the highway, I’ll walk across + She’s standing along the highway, I’ll walk across the patio, He pushed his way through the crowd, The vessel traversed the (surface of the) ocean.

       

      @@ -2101,12 +2101,12 @@ to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships - are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the - right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, the POSITIONAL - case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples - of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of + are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the + right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, the POSITIONAL + case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples + of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, - It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree.

      + It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree      .

       

      @@ -2146,10 +2146,10 @@

      The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases - as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ - and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear - using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ - ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the + as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ + and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear + using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ + ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, SIMULTANEITIVE, ASSESSIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations @@ -2168,11 +2168,11 @@

      The CONCURSIVE case is marked by Series A vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 - radical consonant. The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal - locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during + radical consonant. The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal + locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during - lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t + lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

      @@ -2212,7 +2212,7 @@ locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase - ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be + ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during that era; At the time of his death, the number of clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your @@ -2312,7 +2312,7 @@ H vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 8 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, - condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ + condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going back three generations, women could not even vote.

       

      @@ -2331,7 +2331,7 @@ a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little - did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

      + did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man      .

       

      @@ -2418,7 +2418,7 @@ E vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to - English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer + English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer charges by the minute, He publishes several books each year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

       

      @@ -2435,8 +2435,8 @@

      The LIMITATIVE case is marked by Series F vocalic mutation of the stem along with Grade 9 mutation of the C2 radical consonant. The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating - an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time - for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, + an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time + for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.


      4.9.16 Examples of Temporal Cases in Use

      @@ -2505,7 +2505,7 @@

      -Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

       

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 49dace0..420f56f --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5a-verb-morphology1.html @@ -92,8 +92,8 @@
      -

      The Ithkuil verbal formative (termed “verb” in - this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, +

      The Ithkuil verbal formative (termed “verb” in + this chapter for simplicity’s sake) is the workhorse of the language, inflecting for twenty-two different morphological categories. These include the eight categories shared by all formatives and already discussed in Chapter 3: Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Focus, Essence, @@ -129,10 +129,10 @@

      A highly stilted but approximate English translation of the above, capturing as many of the nuances of the Ithkuil phrase as possible, would - be: ‘…despite apparently being on the verge, contrary to the + be: ‘…despite apparently being on the verge, contrary to the allegation, of just so happening to want to succeed in vowing to maybe return periodically to the honorable practice of superlative architecture for others - to follow by example’

      + to follow by example’

      In this chapter we will examine eight of the 14 morphological categories particular to verbal formatives. The six categories specific to aspectual adjuncts will be described in Chapter @@ -190,13 +190,13 @@

      The DIRECTIVE illocution is marked by - the affix -’- (i.e., the glottal stop). For stems whose + the affix -’- (i.e., the glottal stop). For stems whose C1 radical is a single stop or affricate consonant (i.e., plus corresponding ejectives or aspirates) in mutational grades 1 through 8, this illocution is shown by gemination of the initial consonant of C1 consonantal form rather than by a glottal stop (e.g., aqqwet, - not a’qwet). + not a’qwet). The DIRECTIVE illocution is for the purpose of committing the hearer to undertake a course of action represented by the proposition, where the proposition describes a mental wish, desire, or intention on the part of @@ -266,7 +266,7 @@

      The DECLARATIVE illocution is marked - by the affix -ç- + by the affix -ç- with alternate forms -p-, -t- or -k- where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated C1 @@ -275,9 +275,9 @@ convention, cultural rules, law, subjective authority, or personal authority or control of a situation. The commitment imposed upon the hearer is one of recognition or non-recognition. Such utterances include declarations, announcements, - proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages + proclamations, and various “performative” expressions. Certain languages mark this function of a verb using a mood known as hortative. Examples would - be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances + be: I dub thee “Clown Master”!, The king will hear all grievances at noon each day, This court is now in session, We hereby declare this treaty null and void!

       

      @@ -304,11 +304,11 @@ one is not asking Would you like to dance with me? Rather, one is expressing what can only be translated either a specialized command (State whether) you will dance with me or a specialized assertion (I inquire whether) - you will dance with me. One does not say What’s your name?, + you will dance with me      . One does not say What’s your name?, but rather Tell me your name.

      Indeed, Ithkuil has no words corresponding to the English words - ‘question’ or ‘ask,’ the nearest equivalents being derived - from the words for ‘investigation’ and ‘determine.’ + ‘question’ or ‘ask,’ the nearest equivalents being derived + from the words for ‘investigation’ and ‘determine.’ Consequently, there is no question mark used at the end of the sentence, nor does the pitch of the voice rise as is usual with Western languages when asking questions. The commitment on the part of the listener in regard to the INTERROGATIVE @@ -332,8 +332,8 @@ used where euphonically appropriate and/or to avoid confusion with a geminated C1 consonantal form. The ADMONITIVE is used for admonitions and warnings, corresponding to English phrases such - as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ - or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor + as ‘(I) caution you lest…,’ ‘(I) warn you against…,’ + or ‘Be careful not to….’ The utterance is neither true nor false because it describes only a potential act or situation which may occur unless avoided. The commitment on the part of the hearer is to assess the degree of likelihood of the potentiality, followed by a choice whether to heed or ignore/defy @@ -356,7 +356,7 @@ verb, i.e., participation by one party automatically implies participation by another party to the same act, event, or state in either a parallel, corollary, or complementary fashion. Such dual participation occurs naturally in the verbs - of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” + of world languages and is the province of what is known as “co-active” verbs. While all languages implicitly have co-active verbs, Ithkuil explicitly shows this dual participation in a formal and systematic way. To illustrate the concept of co-activity in English compare the following pairs of sentences:

      @@ -405,31 +405,31 @@ that the verbs find, throw at, and perform have been replaced by the semantically similar meet, throw, and entertain. Nevertheless, the use of inanimate objects with these latter three verbs appears - unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” + unacceptable. The reason is that the verbs in the first set are “mono-active,” i.e., they do not require that the object participate in the action in any way, - whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that + whereas the verbs in the second set are “co-active,” requiring that the object participate in the action along with the subject. Thus, while I can find an old man without the old man doing anything about it or even being aware of it, I cannot meet an old man without the old man also meeting me. I can throw a ball at Sam without Sam noticing, but if I throw Sam a ball it implies that he is expected to participate by - catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re - asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating + catching it. Similarly, I can perform in front of someone even if they’re + asleep, but I can’t entertain them unless they are participating in the situation by observing me.

      The participatory relationship involving the second party of a co-active verb differs depending on the context. It can be a parallel relationship (i.e., both parties participate identically) as implied by the English adverb - ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship + ‘together’ in He and I jog together, or a reciprocal relationship as in the sentence I met the old man (i.e., and so he met me) or in - verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We + verbs used with the adverbial phrase ‘each other,’ as in We love each other. The relationship can be one of accompaniment as in I played along with him (e.g., as he sang), or a complementary relationship as in I threw Sam the ball (i.e., and so he caught it).

      Other sorts of co-active relationships are possible. It is the differences in these relationships that are systematized in Ithkuil into the category called valence. In English and other languages co-activity is rarely - explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ - ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform + explicit and systematic (the use of adverbs such as ‘together,’ + ‘each other,’ or prefixes such as ‘out-’ as in out-perform are some exceptions), and when lexified within a verb itself, are implicitly specific to that verb, giving rise to monoactive/co-active pairs such as find/meet, throw at/throw, perform/entertain, etc.

      @@ -455,7 +455,7 @@ where Vv is the vocalic prefix signifying the valence and version of the verb. These prefixes are shown below in Table 12. Following the table are explanations of each valence. It should be noted - that placement of a glottal stop infix -’- between the + that placement of a glottal stop infix -’- between the Vv prefix and assigns positive focus +FC to the main verb.


      @@ -528,7 +528,7 @@

      The RECIPROCAL valence indicates identical activity by each party directed at the other, thus translating the English adverbial - phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They + phrases ‘each other’ and ‘one another,’ as in They looked at each other, The clown and the grocer despise one another.

       

      @@ -543,13 +543,13 @@

      The COMPLEMENTARY valence indicates that the second party performs a complementary activity to that of the first party. - By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the + By “complementary” is meant an activity different from that of the first party, but necessary to complete the whole of the joint activity, i.e., - the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences + the “other half” of the joint activity. This is exemplified in sentences such as The man and his son played catch, Hortense took me into the woods, - The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies - the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the - woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ + The clown read the children a story, where ‘played catch’ implies + the complementary activities of throwing and catching, ‘took (into the + woods)’ implies someone leading while the other follows, and ‘read’ implies a reader and an audience.

      @@ -566,12 +566,12 @@ a second party engages in a completely unrelated activity from the first, i.e., an incidental or circumstantial co-activity. There is no direct way to exemplify this valence in English translation other than to add a periphrastic clause - such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved + such as ‘while the other did something else’ as in He shaved while she did something else. The way an Ithkuil sentence would utilize this valence would be in sentences overtly constructed to say, for example, - ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL - valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one - thing while the other did something else.’

      + ‘They were in the house’ with the NONRELATIONAL + valence rendering a connotation of ‘…where one party was doing one + thing while the other did something else.’

       

      @@ -585,7 +585,7 @@

      The DUPLICATIVE valence indicates that the second party copies or repeats the activity of the first party, as in the - sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, + sentences Let’s draw a picture (i.e., I’ll draw it first, then you draw the same picture), They both read that book (i.e., first one, then the other), I bought a new car (i.e., and now someone else is buying a new car, too).

      @@ -603,9 +603,9 @@

      The DEMONSTRATIVE valence indicates that the first party demonstrates for the second party how to do something or what to do. Thus an Ithkuil sentence constructed as We played chess with - the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I - showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They - fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

      + the verb in the DEMONSTRATIVE valence would mean ‘I + showed her how to play chess,’ while the sentence constructed as They + fought us in this valence would mean ‘They taught us how to fight.’

       

      @@ -620,10 +620,10 @@

      The RESISTIVE valence indicates that the second party resists or attempts to avoid participating in the activity of the first party. This sense can sometimes be suggested in English using the - adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases - such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the - children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), - They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), + adverbs ‘anyway,’ ‘nevertheless,’ or adverbial phrases + such as ‘just the same,’ as in sentences such as We took the + children to see the clowns anyway (i.e., they didn’t want to go), + They fed me liver just the same (i.e., I can’t stand liver), Nevertheless, he told us the story (i.e., despite our not wanting to hear it).

       

      @@ -672,9 +672,9 @@

      The PARTICIPATIVE valence indicates that the parties take part in an activity involving a greater whole, translatable - by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence - They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They - each took part in the race.’

      + by the English phrase ‘take part in.…’ Thus, the Ithkuil sentence + They raced in the PARTICIPATIVE means ‘They + each took part in the race.’

       

      @@ -687,11 +687,11 @@

      The INDICATIVE valence indicates that - the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s + the second party perceives a cue, nuance, or implication from the first party’s activity. Thus the sentence I looked at her in the INDICATIVE - would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ - while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what - I really meant from my words.’

      + would mean ‘She understood what I meant from my looking at her’ + while the sentence I spoke to them would mean ‘They gleaned what + I really meant from my words.’

       

      @@ -722,7 +722,7 @@

      Version refers to a six-way aspectual distinction indicating whether the verb refers to an act, event or state which is goal- or result-oriented, - and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s + and/or whether it has been successfully actualized subsequent to one’s initial intention. Like many Ithkuil morphological categories, version addresses semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation (i.e., word choice) in other languages.

      @@ -867,19 +867,19 @@ versions respectively but are specific to acts, events, or states initially expressed (whether explicitly or implicitly) as unrealized intentions, attempts, desires, needs, etc., often in conjunction with a modality affix to the verb - (see       Sec. 5.5). Such “unrealized” + (see Sec. 5.5). Such “unrealized” verbs are exemplified in the following sentences: I want to dance, She needs to work, I tried to finish, She must find him, I choose to celebrate. Each - of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” - or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that - I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether + of these sentences in itself does not specify whether the action was “realized” + or not, i.e., just because I want to dance doesn’t necessarily mean that + I actually do dance; her need to work doesn’t tell us by itself whether she in fact will work, etc.

      The INEFFECTUAL version indicates that - the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL + the outcome of an “unrealized” PROCESSUAL verb is unsuccessful. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the INEFFECTUAL - would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, + would be translated as I want to dance but I’m not going to, while the sentence I tried to eat in the INEFFECTUAL - means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

      + means I tried to eat but couldn’t.

       

      @@ -892,12 +892,12 @@

      The INCOMPLETIVE version indicates that - the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE + the outcome of an “unrealized” COMPLETIVE verb is unsuccessful. It functions identically to the INEFFECTUAL, except that it refers to a verb that is result/goal-oriented, as illustrated in the comparative chart shown above for the COMPLETIVE version. Thus, the sentence I tried to eat in the INCOMPLETIVE - means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

      + means I tried to eat all of it but couldn’t.

       

      @@ -912,7 +912,7 @@

      Complementing the INEFFECTUAL, the POSITIVE version indicates an intention brought to reality. Thus the sentence I want to dance in the POSITIVE would be translated as I - want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried + want to dance and so I’m going to, while the sentence I tried to eat in the POSITIVE means I succeeded in eating something.

       

      @@ -958,24 +958,24 @@

      1. He bicycled south. = He traveled south by bicycle.
      2. She dolled herself up. = She made herself look as pretty as a doll.
      - 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the + 3. They’re shelving the books. = They’re putting the books on the shelf/shelves.
      4. Slide me a beer. = Give me a beer by sliding it (e.g., along the bar).

      The above sentences show four verbs which respectively carry inherent senses of vector movement, transformation, positioning/placement, and - giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random + giving. The patterning of such “conflated” verbs is usually random and haphazard in any given language. For example, the English to bicycle - in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to - make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the - verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but - rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means - ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ - or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first + in sentence (1) means ‘to travel by means of bicycle,’ not ‘to + make a bicycle’ or ‘to be a bicycle.’ On the other hand, the + verb to doll up does not mean to ‘travel by doll,’ but + rather ‘to make appear like a doll.’ Yet, to shelve means + ‘to place on a shelf,’ not ‘to travel by means of shelves’ + or ‘to make appear like a shelf.’ And none of the verbs in the first three sentences connotes the idea of giving or conveyance as does slide in sentence (4).

      -

      As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” +

      As can be seen, verb conflation is essentially a “short-cut” way of combining an unspoken primary verbal sense (such as movement, transformation, placement, giving, etc.) with an overtly expressed verb that conveys a secondary sense such as means, manner, or location. This can be formally notated for our @@ -989,7 +989,7 @@ = She dolled herself up.

      They [1: (PUT+progressive) the books] [2: (TO-LOCATION-OF) shelves]
      - = They’re shelving the books.

      + = They’re shelving the books.

      [1: (GIVE+imperative)] a beer [2: (BY-MEANS-OF) sliding] to me
      = Slide me a beer.

      @@ -997,15 +997,15 @@

      Note that the particular unspoken covert and overt senses (shown by the numerals 1 and 2 in the above analyses) are specific to any given verb and must be subjectively learned by the listener, i.e., a speaker of English - must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, + must learn that to hand means to GIVE by MEANS of one’s hand, but to shoulder does not mean to GIVE by MEANS of - one’s shoulder.

      + one’s shoulder.

      Thus, while conflation of verbs presents a potential opportunity for instantiating verbs with patterns of overt and covert meaning, the lack of systemization prevents one from knowing with certainty what pattern to use when attempting to interpret the usage of a verb form. For example, imagine - an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as - in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick + an English speaker using a new verb form such as ‘to apple,’ as + in Let’s ‘apple’ today. Would this mean to pick apples?, to eat apples?, to plant apples?, to bake apples?, to buy apples?, to turn something into an apple?, to wear apple-related clothing? Without a standardized system of conflation, the meaning of such a form could only be @@ -1045,7 +1045,7 @@ a shelf, etc. (The fact that such semantically anomalous forms are morphologically permissible presents no problem from a logical perspective and is inherent in human language, as exemplified in English by morphologically permissible but - semantically anomalous forms such as ‘re-laugh’ or ‘co-beer.’)

      + semantically anomalous forms such as ‘re-laugh’ or ‘co-beer.’)

      The specifics of primary conflation, format, and derivative conflation are detailed in the following sections.

       

      @@ -1070,20 +1070,20 @@ + of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function + i.e. to be in a (temporary) state; does NOT mean “be” in the + sense of copula identification as in “I am John” @@ -1133,7 +1133,7 @@ their respective suffixes to a valence adjunct.

      The astute reader may have noted in Table 14 above that the prefixes for the OPERATIVE conflation are the same as - the default (i.e., “conflation-less”) Extension/Affiliation prefixes + the default (i.e., “conflation-less”) Extension/Affiliation prefixes for nouns previously shown in Table 11 of Sec. 3.4. One may ask, then, how one knows whether or not these particular prefixes are meant to show OPERATIVE conflation on a formative. @@ -1154,7 +1154,7 @@

      @@ -1202,7 +1202,7 @@ @@ -1272,7 +1272,7 @@ = p are as follows: CN1 = p, CN2 = b, - and CN3 = p’. + and CN3 = p’. Thus, combining CN = p with the valence adjunct forms ei, wei, @@ -1289,7 +1289,7 @@ + = p’ei
      OPR
      		 OPERATIVE To perform the action - of X; to do what X does; to carry out X’s function
      STA
      		 STATIVE Stative manifestation, - i.e. to be in a (temporary) state; does NOT mean “be” in the - sense of copula identification as in “I am John”
      MNF
      		 MANIFESTIVE To manifest or be identified - as a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” + as a specific entity; this is the nearest equivalent to the “be” copula of identification in Western languages
      SCHEMATIC
      -
      		 Indicates that the - verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I’m + verb specifies the manner of the conflated primary sense, e.g., I’m speeding through the book = reading speedily; Clouds blanketed the city = cover like a blanket
      -
      		 Indicates that the verb specifies the subsequent cause-and-effect result or purpose (not the - concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in + concurrent result) of the conflated sense, e.g., I’ll look in on the stew (conflated sense: GO [to kitchen])
      p + yei - = p’ei


      @@ -1297,10 +1297,10 @@ shown in Sec. 5.4.2 above, indicating the covert sense of the conflated verb.

      Examples of basic conflation adjuncts are bram, - téu, + tĂŠu, wiu, - llëu, - and c˙ua. + llĂŤu, + and c˙ua.

      The following tables show the CN prefixes and the overt senses associated with these derivations.

      @@ -1327,7 +1327,7 @@
      b
      -
      p’
      +
      p’
      OPERATIVE do, undertake, take on @@ -1370,7 +1370,7 @@
      t
      d
      -
      t’
      +
      t’
      OPERATIVE use, utilize @@ -1413,7 +1413,7 @@
      -
      ’
      +
      ’
      OPERATIVE get, induce to @@ -1456,7 +1456,7 @@
      k
      g
      -
      k’
      +
      k’
      OPERATIVE let, permit, allow @@ -1499,7 +1499,7 @@
      q
      -
      q’
      +
      q’
      OPERATIVE have (someone do something) @@ -2060,7 +2060,7 @@
      OPERATIVE - try out, ‘taste’ + try out, ‘taste’ STATIVE @@ -2150,7 +2150,7 @@ STATIVE - occupy space, ‘cover’ + occupy space, ‘cover’ MANIFESTIVE @@ -2230,7 +2230,7 @@
      c
      -
      c’
      +
      c’
      OPERATIVE ally (with) @@ -2273,7 +2273,7 @@
      -
      ’
      +
      ’
      OPERATIVE do right, best thing @@ -2316,7 +2316,7 @@
      j
      -
      ’
      +
      ’
      OPERATIVE respond, reply @@ -2836,7 +2836,7 @@
      st
      sn
      -
      st’
      +
      st’
      OPERATIVE waste @@ -2880,7 +2880,7 @@
      sp
      sm
      -
      sp’
      +
      sp’
      OPERATIVE practice, perform practice of @@ -2972,7 +2972,7 @@ -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.


      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 3c3c6bb..a0f1da0 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch5b-verb-morphology2.html @@ -102,14 +102,14 @@ of both the Essence (see Sec. 3.8) and the Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) of the verb, as well as invoking the use of the ACTIVATIVE - case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. + case to mark the “subject” noun (see Sec. 4.3.9). The nature of these modifications is explained as follows:

      As we saw in Sections 3.8 and 4.3.9, it is possible in human language to speak about events that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of reality. Specifically, nouns and verbs can make reference to hypothetical representations of real-world counterparts - from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically + from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically). This alternative mental space is essentially the psychological realm of potential and imagination. It is seen, for example, in the following sentences.

      @@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ imagined, or hypothetical events, the nouns and verbs within those clauses would be marked in the ABSTRACT perspective (see Sec. 3.4) and the REPRESENTATIVE essence (see Sec. - 3.8). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns + 3.8). The “subject” nouns which invoke the event (the nouns you, girl, troops, mother, teacher, and man in the six sentences above) would be marked in the ACTIVATIVE case (see Sec. 4.3.9). It should be noted that not all Ithkuil modalities necessarily @@ -181,7 +181,7 @@

      The ASPIRATIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing wishing or hoping, e.g., to wish that, to hope that, - etc. It is marked by adding the suffix -ü to a conflational + etc. It is marked by adding the suffix -Ăź to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -196,8 +196,8 @@

      The EXPECTATIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing expectation, as in He expected her to be beautiful, - or I imagine he’s reached his destination. It is marked by adding - the suffix -ď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      + or I imagine he’s reached his destination. It is marked by adding + the suffix -ď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ constructions expressing belief, as in I think she has two sons, or We believe the earth to be round. Note that it does not correspond to English expressions of opinion, i.e., it would not be used in translating - sentences such as I think she’s pretty. It is marked by adding + sentences such as I think she’s pretty. It is marked by adding the suffix -u to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -228,8 +228,8 @@

      The REQUISITIVE corresponds to English constructions expressing requests, as in I request his presence at the banquet, - or I’d like you to visit your father. It is marked by adding - the suffix -â to a conflational or valence adjunct.
      + or I’d like you to visit your father. It is marked by adding + the suffix -â to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      @@ -244,7 +244,7 @@

      The EXHORTATIVE corresponds to English expressions of exhortation or demand, as in I demand you return my book - or Let the gates be opened! It is marked by adding the suffix -ű + or Let the gates be opened! It is marked by adding the suffix -Ĺą to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -258,8 +258,8 @@

      The OPPORTUNITIVE corresponds to the - English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity - to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or + English modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the opportunity + to,’ as in Can we pass by our old house when we visit town? or Because of the delay, she was able to go to the museum after all. It is marked by adding the suffix -ai to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      @@ -275,8 +275,8 @@

      The CAPACITATIVE corresponds to the English - modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability - or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the ability + or capacity to,’ as in Can she sing opera? or He could run like the wind. Note that it would also be used when translating English generic statements implying ability or capacity as in He speaks French like a native [i.e., the sentence does not imply he is speaking French at the @@ -295,7 +295,7 @@

      The PERMISSIVE corresponds to the English modal verbs can/could/be able or may/might where they mean - ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for + ‘be permitted to,’ as in Very well, you can have ice cream for dessert; or Could I talk to you? It is marked by adding the suffix -oi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -310,12 +310,12 @@

      The POTENTIAL corresponds to the English - modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential - to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in + modal verb can/could/be able where it means ‘have the potential + to or the possibility of,’ as in Remember it can flood suddenly in this area, or That man could fly into rages for no reason. It is also used when translating generic statements implying potential or possibility, as in It rains unpredictably in the Northwest. It is marked by adding - the suffix -ëi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      + the suffix -ĂŤi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      @@ -363,7 +363,7 @@

      The IMPOSITIVE corresponds to English expressions such as be supposed to, be expected to, or be to - which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to + which impose an expectation upon a party, as in You’re supposed to smile when introduced, or He is to give a speech at the banquet. It is marked by adding the suffix -au to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      @@ -429,7 +429,7 @@

      The DISPOSITIVE corresponds to the English expression to be willing to, conveying willingness as in He is willing to give his life to defeat the clowns. It is marked by addition - of the suffix -äi to a conflational or valence adjunct. + of the suffix -äi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -444,8 +444,8 @@

      The PREPARATIVE corresponds to the English expressions be ready to or be prepared to, indicating readiness, - as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared - to endure harsh weather. It is marked by addition of the suffix -öi + as in She’s ready to host the party, or They are prepared + to endure harsh weather. It is marked by addition of the suffix -Ăśi to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -462,7 +462,7 @@ English expressions need to or be necessary to, indicating necessity, as in You need to do something about those clowns in the yard, or It was necessary to inform her about the atrocities. It is marked - by addition of the suffix -ëu to a conflational or valence + by addition of the suffix -ĂŤu to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -478,7 +478,7 @@

      The DECISIVE corresponds to English expressions such as decide to or choose to, indicating choice, as in Peter decided to cook breakfast or Colleen chose to visit the clowns. It is marked by addition of - the suffix -aď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      + the suffix -aď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -494,7 +494,7 @@ expressions such as tend to, be apt to, or be prone to, indicating tendency, as in The wolverine tended to eat platypus eggs, or Boris is apt to make a fool of himself when meeting women. It is marked by addition - of the suffix -eď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      + of the suffix -eď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -510,7 +510,7 @@ expressions such as offer to or volunteer to, indicating an act of offering as in The foreman offered to put poison in my beer, or Mrs. Blathermot volunteered to bake artichoke pie for the Open House event. It is marked by addition of - the suffix -iď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      + the suffix -iď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -524,7 +524,7 @@

      The ACCORDATIVE corresponds to the English expression agree to, as in Constance agreed to perform her go-go - number at the talent show. It is marked by addition of the suffix -oď + number at the talent show. It is marked by addition of the suffix -oď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -539,9 +539,9 @@

      The INCLINATIVE corresponds to English expressions such as to feel like or be up for, indicating - an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, + an impulsive desire, as in He’s up for going to the shindig, or Molly felt like eating the entire chocolate cake. It is marked by - addition of the suffix -öu to a conflational or valence + addition of the suffix -Ăśu to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -557,7 +557,7 @@

      The COMPULSIVE corresponds to English expressions such as feel driven to or feel a need to, indicating compulsion, as in Jack feels driven to hunt wolverines, or My hairdresser - feels a need to date bikers. It is marked by addition of the suffix -uď + feels a need to date bikers. It is marked by addition of the suffix -uď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -574,7 +574,7 @@ expressions such as like to, or enjoy, conveying simple likes and pasttimes as in Boys like to dream about cars, or My salamander enjoyed biting people on their rump. It is marked by addition of the suffix - -äu to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      + -äu to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -590,7 +590,7 @@ such as be devoted to or be committed to, indicating devotion as in Charlotte is committed to being the best seamstress in town, or They were devoted to rooting for the losing team. It is marked by - addition of the suffix -ëď to a conflational or valence + addition of the suffix -ëď to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -605,7 +605,7 @@

      The PREFERENTIAL corresponds to English expressions such as prefer, or would rather that, indicating - preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane + preference as in He’d rather work by himself, or Muldane prefers that his cats eat live food. It is marked by addition of the suffix -ua to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -621,10 +621,10 @@

      The IMPRESSIONAL corresponds to English expressions such as have an impression that, have a hunch that, or - feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve + feel that, indicating a subjective belief or impression as in I’ve a hunch that the porter is an alcoholic, or Betty feels her husband flirts too much with the secretarial pool. It is marked by addition of - the suffix -üa to a conflational or valence adjunct.

      + the suffix -Ăźa to a conflational or valence adjunct.

       

      @@ -640,7 +640,7 @@ expressions such as promise, or swear that, indicating a self-imposed obligation as in She promised that her son would visit my daughter, or Hargreaves swears that the fish from that lake are sentient. It - is marked by addition of the suffix -iů to a conflational + is marked by addition of the suffix -iĹŻ to a conflational or valence adjunct.


      5.5.31 Examples of Modality in Use

      @@ -701,9 +701,9 @@

      Shown by high tone of the conflational, valence or modality adjunct. The EQUATIVE level indicates that the first party - performs its “half” of the action equally well in comparison to - the second party. It corresponds to the English construction ‘as [well] - as’ as in She sings as well as I do or He reads as fast as + performs its “half” of the action equally well in comparison to + the second party. It corresponds to the English construction ‘as [well] + as’ as in She sings as well as I do or He reads as fast as you do.

       

      @@ -725,7 +725,7 @@ than he), although the SURPASSIVE is more flexible than the English construction, as it can be used with any of the thirteen valences of the verb. For example, when used with the NONRELATIONAL - valence for a verb such as ‘laugh,’ it would translate something + valence for a verb such as ‘laugh,’ it would translate something like I laughed more/harder than anyone did anything else. It can even be used with the MONOACTIVE valence, indicating that the party performed the action superlatively and no one else did. For example, the @@ -735,7 +735,7 @@

      The SURPASSIVE can also be used to translate the English -est superlative construction, as in She is the nicest (of all) by simply naming a contextually universal second participant to - the verb, i.e., She “out-nices” everyone else.

      + the verb, i.e., She “out-nices” everyone else.

       

      @@ -754,8 +754,8 @@ Like the other levels, it can be used with any valence of the Ithkuil verb to indicate that the performance or state of the first participant to a co-active verb is worse or less than that of the second participant. It would thus render - sentences corresponding to She “under-danced” tonight (i.e., - she didn’t dance as well as she might have) or The boy “under-weighs” + sentences corresponding to She “under-danced” tonight (i.e., + she didn’t dance as well as she might have) or The boy “under-weighs” the girl (i.e., he weighs less than her).


      5.6.5 Examples of Level in Use

      @@ -778,10 +778,10 @@

      Virtually all languages allow for sentences to be hierarchically embedded within other sentences, a process termed subordination. In Western languages, the embedded sentence becomes either a subordinate clause - or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ - ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ - or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by - whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or + or a relative clause, explicitly introduced by a conjunctions such as ‘that,’ + ‘which,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’‘although,’‘if,’‘while,’‘whereas,’ + or a preposition followed by a conjunction, such as ‘through which,’‘by + whom,’etc. In English, such clauses can also occur as an infinitive or gerundial verb construction. Both relative and subordinate clauses are illustrated in the following sentences:

      @@ -790,9 +790,9 @@ I want him to stop shouting.
      The committee voted to fire the superintendant.
      We demand (that) you give us equal pay.
      - Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
      + Although he’s a college graduate, he acts like a child.
      This is the slot through which the letter is passed.
      - In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next + In case you’re unaware, I’ll be leaving next month.
      The boy walking toward us is my nephew.

      @@ -808,7 +808,7 @@

      Suppose we want to use the second sentence to provide a temporal context for the first sentence. In English we could do this by subordinating - the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ + the second sentence to the first using the conjunction ‘while,’ as in She and I were working together while the two nations were at war. Alternately, we could create a relative clause by inserting a connecting prepositional phrase, as in She and I were working together during the time (that) the @@ -816,13 +816,13 @@

      In Ithkuil, temporal context for a sentence may be provided by a noun in any of the temporal cases such as the CONCURSIVE (see Sec. 4.9.1). A word - such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the + such as ‘summer’ or ‘famine’ would be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to create a sentence corresponding to:

      She and I were working together during the summer.
      She and I were working together at the time of the famine.

      -

      Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ +

      Just as the single words ‘summer’ and ‘famine’ are placed in the CONCURSIVE case, so an entire sentence such as The two nations were at war can be placed in the CONCURSIVE case to provide the temporal context for the main sentence. In other words, @@ -844,7 +844,7 @@ stem vowel and mutation of the C2 radical consonant. Table 17 below offers a review of these mutations for each of the 81 cases. If inserted into the middle of the main sentence, the final word of the case-frame should - be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see Sec. + be a noun (or a personal reference adjunct – see Sec. 8.1) and carries a special affix which signifies the end of the frame if this will help to avoid confusion as to which words in the sentence belong inside the frame (i.e., with the secondary sentence), and which belong to the main @@ -1389,7 +1389,7 @@ subordinate case-frames will first require us to review the nature of relative clauses in Western languages such as English.

      A relative clause refers to an imbedded sentence which modifies - or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types + or describes a “head” noun in the main clause. There are two types of relative clauses, restricted (or dependent) and unrestricted (or independent). The two types are illustrated in the following English sentences.

      RESTRICTED CLAUSE
      @@ -1402,10 +1402,10 @@ at any circus.
      (4) That book, which I just finished reading, was written by a priest.

      -

      In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing - their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, - not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just - finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered +

      In the first sentence, the clause ‘that like chasing + their tails’ refers to a specific type of lion found at a circus (i.e, + not all lions chase their tails). Similarly, the clause ‘(that) I just + finished reading’ in the second sentence is restricted in that it is considered by the speaker as being necessary in order to identify which book is being talked about, i.e., without the clause, the listener would not know which book the speaker was referring to.

      @@ -1416,8 +1416,8 @@ known to the listener, and the speaker is merely providing two additional facts about it: the fact that he just finished reading it and the fact about its author. Notice that in English, an unrestricted relative clause is set off in writing - by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ - or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in + by commas and cannot begin with ‘that’ (rather ‘which’ + or ‘who’ must be used); also, such clauses are normally spoken in a lowered intonation with juncture (i.e., brief pauses) immediately before and after the clause.


      @@ -1431,28 +1431,28 @@ book.)
      I just finished reading that book.

      In Ithkuil, the sentence which will be functioning as the - main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence + main sentence acts as a “template” in which the secondary sentence is placed. The particular place in the template to be filled is dependent on what semantic role, i.e., case (see Chapter 4) the secondary sentence is to fill. Note that the common point of reference - of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that - book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. + of the two sentences is ‘that book.’ In the main sentence, ‘that + book’ functions in the semantic role of CONTENT (See Sec. 4.1.2), superficially equivalent to the direct object of the ABSOLUTIVE - subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template - ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE + subject ‘priest’, therefore, the main sentence becomes the template + ‘A priest wrote X’ where X is in the OBLIQUE case (See Section 4.3.1). Meanwhile, in the secondary sentence, the noun which is the common point of - reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of + reference (what in Western grammar would be called the “head” of the relative clause) is marked with an affix indicating such. So we now have the two sentences as:

      A priest wrote [ ]. I just finish reading that book-H.

      -

      The ‘-H’ in the second sentence - above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common +

      The ‘-H’ in the second sentence + above is meant to represent an affix marking the “head” or common reference point between the two sentences. At this point, Ithkuil inserts the - second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the + second sentence as a case-frame into the empty “slot” based on the semantic role it will be playing, in this instance the role of CONTENT marked by the OBLIQUE case (see Sec. 4.3.1).

      @@ -1470,10 +1470,10 @@

      Reverse translating this sentence back to English, the closest literal translation would be the rather awkward construction: A priest wrote what I just finished reading, that book. However, this is how Ithkuil translates - the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

      + the English sentence ‘A priest wrote that book that I just finished reading.’

      Two observations can be noted from the Ithkuil sentence. First - of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” - Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, + of all, unlike Western languages, the main clause contains no “head.” + Instead, the “head” is marked from within the imbedded clause. Secondly, there is no difference between this process and the rendering of other types of subordinate clauses using case-frames, as the main sentence was rearranged (or reinterpreted) to provide a slot for the semantic role of the imbedded sentence, @@ -1508,13 +1508,13 @@ Relative Clauses. In Section 4.5.3 we analyzed how MONADIC or UNBOUNDED nouns in the INHERENT case take on a special function - of existential identification corresponding to the English phrase ‘that/which/who - is/are…’ to render forms structured as “the my-wife woman,” - meaning ‘the woman who is my wife.” This construction allows a “short-cut” + of existential identification corresponding to the English phrase ‘that/which/who + is/are…’ to render forms structured as “the my-wife woman,” + meaning ‘the woman who is my wife.” This construction allows a “short-cut” way of rendering what in English would be simple relative clauses involving descriptive identifications, eliminating the need in most cases to resort to a case-frame. For example, the sentence The man who came to dinner is my - father is rendered as The “my-father” man came to dinner, + father is rendered as The “my-father” man came to dinner, where the noun father would be in the INHERENT plus POSITIVE focus (see Sec. 3.5) to indicate that it is the new information being conveyed by the speaker, @@ -1588,7 +1588,7 @@

      Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
      -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

       

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 26ef5c8..fe38101 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch6-verb-morphology3.html @@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ represents either a single vowel, diphthong, or dissyllabic two-vowel combination (e.g., -ia-, -ua-); and Cx represents a single- or dual-consonant conjunct (e.g., -k-, -tt-, - -šp-). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may + -ĹĄp-      ). Not all parts of this archetypical structure may manifest themselves in any given aspectual adjunct. For example, some adjuncts may show only aspect or mood, some show validation or phase only, or any combination of these categories. These variations are described below.

      @@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ into eight additional forms depending on which of nine sanctions applies to the associated verb (see Sec. 6.3 below on Sanction). These affixes are shown in Table 18 below. Examples. ar, - ac, axx, aks, akká, amra.
      + ac, axx, aks, akkĂĄ, amra      .
    • If an aspectual adjunct shows a single aspect, it takes the form VA + Cx (+ a), where Va is the vocalic aspectual prefix followed by @@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ + Cx + Vs, that is two aspectual vowel forms, the first in as a prefix, the second as a suffix, separated by the validation-phase-sanction consonantal affix. Examples: eurai, - ňksëi, iakkua.
      • + ňksĂŤi, iakkua      .

      Having explained the structure of the aspectual adjunct, we @@ -149,17 +149,17 @@

      Technically, Validation expresses the degree or type of evidence supporting a statement, a grammatical requirement of Ithkuil. Such categories - are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various + are usually termed “evidentials” or “factives” in various non-Western languages which have them. However, Validation imparts more than simply the evidential verifiability of a statement; it also operates in conjunction with Mood (see Section 6.5 below) to indicate the precise factuality of a statement, i.e., to what extent it is likely or certain that the statement is, in fact, valid or real. We will see that Ithkuil moods generally indicate the factuality of a statement as being either certain or uncertain. - Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of + Validation in turn “fine tunes” this distinction into levels of nuance, corresponding to various English phrases which convey the specific validity - of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, - presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are CONFIRMATIVE, + of a statement, e.g., “must be so, likely that, unlikely, perhaps, supposedly, + presumably, apparently” etc. The nine validations are CONFIRMATIVE, REPORTIVE, INTUITIVE, INFERENTIAL, PRESUMPTIVE, CONJECTURAL, TENTATIVE, PUTATIVE and HORTATIVE. As explained above, they are shown in conjunction with the categories of Phase and Sanction (see Secs. 6.2 @@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ The specific usage of each validation is explained following the tables.


      Tables - 18 (a – + 18 (a – i): Cx Affixes By Validation, Phase and Sanction


      Table 18(a): Cx Affixes for @@ -218,7 +218,7 @@

      The CONFIRMATIVE indicates that a statement is based on facts actually perceived by and/or personally known to the speaker. - It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be + It can be considered the “default” validation, in that it can be unmarked (i.e., the aspectual adjunct can be deleted) if the other categories shown by the adjunct are likewise in their default modes and there is no aspect being conveyed.
      @@ -236,10 +236,10 @@

      The REPORTIVE validation indicates that the statement, while not personally known or perceived by the speaker, is assumed true based on evidence considered trustworthy by the speaker, such as direct - testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s - or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree - of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ - or ‘probably.’
      + testimony of a trusted party or knowledgeable source based on that party’s + or source’s personal knowledge or observation. If necessary, this degree + of factivity can be translated into English by the terms ‘most likely’ + or ‘probably.’

      @@ -252,9 +252,9 @@

      The INTUITIVE validation indicates that - the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” - feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ - or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’
      + the statement is based on the speakers own intuition, instinct or “gut” + feeling. This can be translated by English phrases such as ‘I feel that…’ + or ‘I’ve got a feeling that….’

      @@ -268,8 +268,8 @@

      The INFERENTIAL validation indicates that the statement is essentially an inference by the speaker based on circumstantial - evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) - must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences + evidence only. This can be conveyed in translation by phrases such as ‘(it) + must (be that)…,’ or ‘must have’ as in the sentences I must be dreaming or It must have rained last night.

      @@ -286,8 +286,8 @@ that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and the fact that the statement is potentially verifiable. If necessary, this degree of factivity - can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently - (so).’
      + can be translated by the English phrases ‘presumably (so) or ‘apparently + (so).’

      @@ -303,8 +303,8 @@ that the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed true based on the absence of a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, however its verifiability is either unlikely or unknown. Perhaps most easily translated into English simply - by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ - or ‘purportedly.’
      + by ‘may’ or ‘might,’ or more exactly by ‘allegedly’ + or ‘purportedly.’

      @@ -320,7 +320,7 @@ the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness or unreliability of the source, or a motive for deception on the part of the speaker; however, the statement is potentially verifiable. Can be approximately - translated by English ‘supposedly.’
      + translated by English ‘supposedly.’

      @@ -336,8 +336,8 @@ the statement is hearsay whose validity is assumed false due to untrustworthiness or unreliability of the source or a motive for deception on the part of the speaker, and verifiability of the statement is either unlikely or unknown. Can - be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ - ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus + be approximately translated by English ‘must not (have)…,’ + ‘must not be…,’ or ‘not likely to….’ Thus the sentence overtly structured as He caught the bus in time but marked for the PUTATIVE would actually translate as He must not have caught the bus in time.
      @@ -354,8 +354,8 @@

      The HORTATIVE validation indicates that the validity of the statement is assumed false but that the speaker wishes it - to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ - ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’

      + to be true. It corresponds to various exhortations such as ‘if only…,’ + ‘I wish that…’ or ‘Were that….’


      6.1.10 Examples of Validation in Use

      @@ -406,7 +406,7 @@ instantaneous), single holistic occurrence considered once, where the actual duration of the occurrence is not relevant in the particular context. It can be visually represented along a progressive timeline by a short dash, e.g., - —
      + —

      @@ -422,7 +422,7 @@ or event which is point-like, momentary or instantaneous in nature, such as an explosion, a flash of lightning, a blow, a single handclap, a collision between two objects, a stab of pain, a single cough, the clicking of a lock, etc. It - can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •
      + can be visually represented along a timeline by a single point, e.g., •

      @@ -439,8 +439,8 @@ itself in a rapid, on/off, staccato manner, like a machine gun burst, strobe light burst, an alarm bell ringing, or the quick unconscious tapping of a finger, the whole comprising a single CONTEXTUAL event.

      -

      Visual representation: • - • • •

      +

      Visual representation: • + • • •

      @@ -456,8 +456,8 @@ brief event of indeterminate or vague duration (i.e., as with the CONTEXTUAL phase above), but repeated in an on/off staccato manner, like a car horn being honked repeatedly in a fast steady rhythm, or an automatic machine press. Visual - representation: — — - — —
      + representation: — — + — —

      @@ -476,9 +476,9 @@ be used in describing the downbeat pattern of a pop song, the ongoing snapping of fingers to music, the steady one-drop-at-a-time dripping of a faucet, etc.

      -

      Visual representation: — - • — • — - • — •
      +

      Visual representation: — + • — • — + • — •

      @@ -496,11 +496,11 @@ where the duration between occurrences is relatively long and contextually relevant. Exemplified by the sounding of a foghorn, or the ongoing hooting of an owl.

      -

      Visual representation: —— - ——— - ——— - ——— - —
      +

      Visual representation: —— + ——— + ——— + ——— + —

      @@ -517,14 +517,14 @@ the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event. Examples would be the repetitive sets of hammerings of a woodpecker or the repeated short bursts of a jackhammer.

      -

      Visual representation: ——• - • •— - • • - •— - • • - •— - • • - •
      +

      Visual representation: ——• + • •— + • • + •— + • • + •— + • • + •

      @@ -539,15 +539,15 @@

      The FRAGMENTATIVE indicates a random pattern of punctual occurrences, the whole considered as a single CONTEXTUAL event.

      -

      Visual representation: ——• - •— - • • - • ——• - • —• - • • - • •—— - • —• - •
      +

      Visual representation: ——• + •— + • • + • ——• + • —• + • • + • •—— + • —• + •

      @@ -560,19 +560,19 @@

      The FLUCTUATIVE indicates a random pattern - of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” + of both punctual and longer occurrences. An example would be the “sputtering” of a lighted fuse, the random patterns of tongues of flames, the chirping of birds in the wild, etc.

      -

      Visual representation:—— - • • —— - • — - • •— - ——• - • — • - • • —• - •— - —— • — - • •

      +

      Visual representation:—— + • • —— + • — + • •— + ——• + • — • + • • —• + •— + —— • — + • •

       

      6.2.10 Examples of Phase in Use

      @@ -624,7 +624,7 @@ of the Cx affix. It is the default sanction, indicating the utterance represents a neutral proposition or assertion of ontologically objective fact, i.e., a statement of fact irrespective of third-party opinion, belief, or interpretation. - Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m + Example of such statements would be That is a mountain, or I’m hungry.

      @@ -656,7 +656,7 @@

      The ALLEGATIVE identifies an utterance as an ontologically subjective assertion or allegation, i.e., a proposition - expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge + expressing one’s opinion, belief, or interpretation, open to challenge or refutation. Examples would be That mountain is beautiful or No one in the United States goes hungry.

      @@ -674,7 +674,7 @@ as a rebuttable presumption, i.e., an assertion, whether ontologically objective or by convention, that is to be assumed true unless and until rebutted by a sufficient counter-argument or other evidence. Examples would be He knows - how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry + how to drive [e.g., because he owns a car] or She can’t be hungry now [e.g., because I saw her come out of the restaurant].

      @@ -771,9 +771,9 @@

      Aspect provides detailed and specific temporal information - about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance + about the verb, not in relation to the speaker’s present moment of utterance (as with Perspective in Sec. - 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of + 3.3), but rather in relation to the contextual “present” of the act, condition, or event being spoken about. There are 32 aspects, each shown by a vocalic prefix to an aspectual adjunct. A second aspect may be shown by a vocalic suffix. For the most part, they translate various common adverbial @@ -805,23 +805,23 @@ with an Ithkuil verb; however, where there is no modality, the verb displays conflation (see Sec. 5.4.1) but no derivation, and the version and valence have default values, the conflation - adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms - 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, + adjunct can be eliminated and the verb’s format can be indicated by forms + 1 through 8 of the aspect prefix to the verb’s aspectual adjunct. Thus, in the sentence , the conflation adjunct indicating INSTRUMENTATIVE format for the ACTIVE conflation shown by the main verb, can instead be shown by changing the prefix - â- - on the aspectual adjunct to wâ- + â- + on the aspectual adjunct to wâ- and eliminating the conflation adjunct, thus:


      - Wâloi  uatumul.
      + Wâloi  uatumul.

      - ‘The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring’ + ‘The motion being caused by means of an asteroid is indeed recurring’ OR
      - ‘What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an - asteroid.’

      + ‘What’s indeed happening is a recurrence of motion using an + asteroid.’


      6.4.3 Explanation of Aspect Categories

      The thirty-two aspectual categories are explained below.

      @@ -836,11 +836,11 @@ This aspect operates in conjunction with Perspective (see Sec. 3.3) to create various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, - the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have - already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, + the RETROSPECTIVE can be translated by English ‘have + already’ as in I’ve already done it. With the UNBOUNDED, the RETROSPECTIVE is equates with the English simple past tense. With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, - it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the + it adds a sense of ‘and it’s always been that way’ to the verb.

      @@ -855,10 +855,10 @@ conjunction with Perspective to create various equivalents to Western tense categories. With the MONADIC, the PROSPECTIVE equates with the English future tense. With the UNBOUNDED, - it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). + it can be translated by the English future perfect (i.e., ‘will have…’). With the NOMIC and ABSTRACT, it - adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from - now on’ to the verb.
      + adds a sense of ‘and it’ll always be that way’ or ‘from + now on’ to the verb.

      @@ -869,8 +869,8 @@
      When used with the MONADIC perspective, this aspect conveys - the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the - UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction + the idea of ‘always’ or ‘continues to’, while with the + UNBOUNDED, the English ‘used to’ construction offers an equivalent translation, as in She used to come see me on Wednesdays.

      @@ -882,7 +882,7 @@
      This aspect conveys the idea of an act in progress, similar to the English construction - ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle + ‘in the midst of [verb] + ing’ or the use of the present participle in Spanish.

      @@ -894,7 +894,7 @@
      Conveys that an action, state or event is imminent. Translates phrases such - as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I + as ‘(just) about to’ or ‘on the verge of’ as in I think Carl is about to cry.

      @@ -906,7 +906,7 @@
      Conveys that an action, state or event has immediately preceded. Translates - such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just + such phrases as ‘just’ or ‘just now,’ as in We just saw a clown in the toy store.

      @@ -919,8 +919,8 @@
      Conveys the idea of participation or involvement in an action, state, or event over an amount of time extending from the past into the future relative to the - contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ - or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of + contextual present. Translates English phrases such as ‘engaged in’ + or ‘involved in’ as in Her husband is engaged in construction of the new bridge.

      @@ -931,10 +931,10 @@
      EXPERIENTIAL
      - Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm - of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ + Translates English ‘ever’ in the sense of ‘within the realm + of one’s experience’ or ‘at some point in one’s experience,’ as in Does he ever shut up? Note the EXPERIENTIAL - does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as + does not equate to ‘ever’ when it means ‘always,’ as in Ever does he seek his destiny nor as an adverb of mere emphasis as in Was she ever tired.

      @@ -959,7 +959,7 @@ Conveys the idea of cessation of an event, state or action. Translates English - phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ + phrases such as ‘stop,’ ‘discontinue,’ or ‘cease,’ as in They stopped dancing at midnight.

      @@ -983,8 +983,8 @@
      Indicates a pause in an action, state or event, with an implied intention to - resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause - in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with + resume. Translates phrases such as ‘take a break from’ or ‘pause + in’ as in Mother took a break from cleaning to gossip with her friends.

      @@ -997,7 +997,7 @@
      Conveys the idea of a return to an original or previous action, state or event after a long hiatus involving an intervening change of state or situation, as - translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE + translated by the phrase ‘return to.’ The REGRESSIVE should be distinguished from the RESUMPTIVE above, which merely implies the restarting after a stop or pause without an intervening change of state or situation. An example would be Mr. Yates returned to golf after @@ -1012,8 +1012,8 @@ Conveys the fact that an action, state, or event takes place from inception - to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all - at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ + to conclusion all in one contextual segment, translating such phrases as ‘all + at once,’ ‘all in one go,’ ‘without stopping,’ etc. as in Walter drank the entire bottle in one gulp.

      @@ -1025,11 +1025,11 @@
      Conveys the idea that an action, event, or state continues on. Translates phrases - such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ - etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no - longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re - still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam - doesn’t love you anymore.
      + such as ‘keep on,’ ‘still,’ ‘stay,’ ‘yet,’ + etc. When used in a negative sentence, conveys the idea of English ‘no + longer’ or ‘not anymore’ as in She kept on singing, You’re + still staring at me, I’ve yet to meet him, Sam no longer loves you / Sam + doesn’t love you anymore.

      @@ -1040,8 +1040,8 @@
      Conveys that an action, state or event continues on without stopping. Translates - such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ - as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling + such English adverbials as ‘…on and on’ or ‘…away’ + as in They danced the night away or They’ve been battling on and on since last year.

      @@ -1053,10 +1053,10 @@
      Emphasizes the singularity and initial occurrence an action, state or event, - as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just - once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, - as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this - time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’
      + as translated by such English phrases as ‘for once’ or ‘just + once,’ as well as the anticipation preceding a long-expected situation, + as translated by phrases such as ‘at last,’ ‘after all this + time,’ ‘finally,’ and ‘for the first time.’

      @@ -1067,7 +1067,7 @@
      Emphasizes the finality of an action, state or event, as translated by such - English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’ + English phrases as ‘once and for all’ or ‘for the last time.’

      @@ -1095,9 +1095,9 @@
      Conveys that an action, state or event is being considered or is applicable only to the present subjective context or range of the contextual present, as - translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but - only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient - for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water. + translated by phrases such as ‘for the time being’ or ‘but + only for the moment’ or ‘for now’ as in This will be sufficient + for now or For the time being you’ll have to drink water.

      @@ -1110,8 +1110,8 @@
      Conveys that an action, state or event involves physical removal or absence of the participant from the present context of discourse. Translates such phrases - as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in - Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns. + as ‘be off …-ing’ or ‘go off to …’ as in + Dad’s off hunting or They went off to cavort with the clowns.

      @@ -1124,7 +1124,7 @@
      This aspect conveys the idea of proceeding or engaging in an action or event despite the possibility of adverse consequences. It translates the English phrases - such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went + such as ‘go ahead and’ or ‘anyway,’ as in She went ahead and bought the furniture or I decided to go there anyway.

      @@ -1136,10 +1136,10 @@ SEQUENTIAL - This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which + This aspect conveys the idea a “sequential progressive” in which a series of contextually identical instances is seen as comprising a single event, usually with an implied culmination point. It translates the English - use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, + use of ‘off’ as in He's checking off each item as it is inventoried, or The sheep died off from the disease.

      @@ -1151,7 +1151,7 @@
      Conveys a sense of haste associated with an action or event. Translates English - ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate + ‘hurry (up)’ as in Hurry up and finish or They ate in a hurry.

      @@ -1163,8 +1163,8 @@
      Focuses on the revelatory nature of an action, state or event, translating phrases - such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and - ‘be revealed that….’
      + such as ‘turn out to be,’ ‘turn out that…’ and + ‘be revealed that….’

      @@ -1175,8 +1175,8 @@
      Conveys the direct outcome of an action, state or event within the short-term - context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, - come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car + context of the situation at hand. Translates phrases such as ‘end up…, + come to, reach the point where,’ as in I ended up crashing the car or He drank to the point where he passed out.

      @@ -1190,7 +1190,7 @@ Similar to the CONCLUSIVE above, but with a focus on the eventual, long-term outcome over an extended period of time or through a series of developmental steps. Compare the following examples with the CONCLUSIVE - aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the + aspect above: In the end, I’ll have to leave town; Things got to the point where the mayor got involved; Eventually, they fell in love.

      @@ -1203,8 +1203,8 @@
      Conveys the idea that the action, state, or event takes place at some point along the timeline of, or within the duration of, another action, state, event, - or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ - or ‘somewhere along the way….’
      + or background context, as translated by the phrases ‘at some point’ + or ‘somewhere along the way….’

      @@ -1217,8 +1217,8 @@ Conveys the idea that an action, state, or event lessens, dwindles, or slackens in energy, intensity, or effect, impliedly by exhaustion of the active source of energy or agency, or by dissipation of the foundational context involved. - Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ - ‘trail off,’ etc.
      + Translates such phrases as ‘to get tired of,’ ‘peter out,’ + ‘trail off,’ etc.

      @@ -1229,9 +1229,9 @@
      Focuses on the initial stage of preparation, adjustment, or accustomization - to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ - ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, - as in I’m planning to take up golf.
      + to an action, state or event, translated by phrases such as ‘take up,’ + ‘start to,’ etc. implying a long-term process of initialization, + as in I’m planning to take up golf.

      @@ -1241,9 +1241,9 @@
      INTERCOMMUTATIVE
      - Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action + Conveys the idea of “sequential reciprocity,” meaning that the action or event is a consequent reciprocation triggered by, or in reaction to, an initiating - action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ + action or event. It translates the English verbal particle ‘back’ as in The boy threw it back or She stared back at the men ogling her.

      @@ -1256,47 +1256,47 @@ Conveys an all-consuming action, state, or event which interferes with or prevents - other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend - one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life - worrying or He’s pining away.
      + other events from occurring. It translates English phrases such as ‘spend + one’s time’ or ‘away’ as in Mother spends her life + worrying or He’s pining away.


      6.4.4 Complementary Aspects Appearing in the Same Adjunct

      Note that, while any aspectual adjunct can show two different aspects, several aspect categories above operate as complements to each other. For example, the PROSPECTIVE aspect complements the RETROSPECTIVE aspect, both being essentially opposites. Such complementary aspects normally - don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same + don’t appear in the same adjunct together. If they do appear in the same adjunct, they are interpreted as not applying to the same verb, i.e., the first aspect (shown by the prefix) applies to the adjacent verb, while the second aspect (shown by the suffix) applies to the next verb in the sentence. Such combinations of complementary aspects within a single adjunct can be considered - an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct + an optional “shortcut” to utilizing a separate aspectual adjunct with the second verb.


      6.4.5 Using Aspect Prefixes to Show Focus

      All of the aspectual prefixes shown in Table 19 above can in turn take an initial prefix y- - (or yď- + (or yď- before a w-) to show that the associated verbal formative has semantic focus (as described in Sec. 3.5), i.e., it is an alternate to the usual -w- - infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: ęstiu - yęstiu, + infix to the formative previously described in Sec. 3.5. Examples: ęstiu + yęstiu, iwuil yiwuil, - wďttu - yďwďttu.

      + wďttu + yďwďttu.

      This y- - (or yď-) - prefix can in turn be augmented to yď’ - (spelled y’ - before a vowel but still pronounced yď’) + (or yď-) + prefix can in turn be augmented to yď’ + (spelled y’ + before a vowel but still pronounced yď’) to indicate that the semantic focus instead applies to the aspectual meaning - indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: ęstiu - y’ęstiu, + indicated by the aspectual prefix. Examples: ęstiu + y’ęstiu, iwuil - y’iwuil, wďttu - yď’wďttu.

      + y’iwuil      , wďttu + yď’wďttu.


      6.4.6 Examples of Aspect In Use

      Most languages have a morphological category for verbs known - as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives + as “mood,” serving to indicate specific attitudes or perspectives on the act, condition, or event, or the degree of factuality involved. Example moods common to Western languages include the indicative (factual utterances), - subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ + subjunctive (showing doubt or probability, expressed by ‘may/might’ in English), imperative (indicating commands, e.g., Go now!, Sing it for us! ), conditional (expressing hypotheticals, e.g., She would travel if she could), optative (indicating wishes, hopes, expectations, e.g., - I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating + I wish he’d go, I expect him to be here), and hortative (indicating exhortations, e.g., May he live 100 years! Let them see for themselves!).

      We have already seen in Section 5.1 above that in Ithkuil the functions of certain moods in Western languages @@ -1352,7 +1352,7 @@

      The FACTUAL mood is shown by penultimate stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood signifies that the - factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either + factuality of the speaker’s statement is certain and that there either is no underlying presupposition to the statement, or if there is, its factuality is also certain or has no bearing on the factuality of the statement. As described above, the actual interpretation (and translation) of any statement in the FACTUAL @@ -1361,7 +1361,7 @@ Examples:

      His kids are ill. [i.e., it is known he has kids and it is known they are ill]

      -

      We’re taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our +

      We’re taking a walk later on. [i.e., it is our intention and we have the opportunity to do so]

      @@ -1377,10 +1377,10 @@

      The SUBJUNCTIVE mood is shown by ultimate stress and falling tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of an explicit or implicit presupposition underlying the statement - is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable + is certain, but the factuality of the speaker’s statement itself is questionable or uncertain, the specific nuance of factuality intended being subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Corresponds roughly - with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ + with English ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or ‘might,’ with the added distinction that an explicit or implicit (i.e., underlying) presupposition is true. Examples:

      Maybe his kids are ill. [i.e., it is known that he @@ -1403,16 +1403,16 @@ adjunct. This mood functions identically to the FACTUAL except that the factuality of an underlying presupposition is unknown. It therefore conveys an act, state, or event whose factuality is dependent on whether something - else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ - and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, + else is factual, thus corresponding to certain usages of English ‘maybe’ + and ‘will’ (where ‘will’ primarily conveys possibility, not future tense). As with all moods, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Examples:

      -

      His kids’ll be ill OR +

      His kids’ll be ill OR If he has kids, they are ill. [i.e., it is unknown whether he has kids, but if he does, they are certainly ill.]

      -

      We’ll take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] +

      We’ll take a walk later on [i.e., if we can] OR We intend to take a walk. - [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]
      + [i.e., but we don’t know if we’ll be able to]

      @@ -1427,8 +1427,8 @@

      Shown by ultimate stress and high tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of both the presupposition and the statement itself are unknown. Its translation into English is dependent on the specific - context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or - ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ + context, sometimes corresponding to ‘may,’ ‘maybe’ or + ‘might,’ and at other times corresponding to the auxiliary ‘would.’ Compare the examples below to those above:

      Maybe his kids are ill [i.e., it is unknown if he has kids but if he does, they may be ill].

      @@ -1449,15 +1449,15 @@

      Shown by penultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is false or unreal but that the factuality of the statement would otherwise - be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ - or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what + be true. It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘would’ + or ‘would have’ in its use to show counterfactuality (i.e., what would have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

      His kids would be (would have been) ill [i.e., if - he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].

      + he had kids they would be ill, but he doesn’t].

      We would take (would have taken) a walk later on [i.e., - it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].
      + it is our intention but we won’t have the opportunity].

      @@ -1472,15 +1472,15 @@

      Shown by ultimate stress and broken tone on the aspectual adjunct. This mood indicates that the factuality of the underlying presupposition is false or unreal and that the factuality of the statement itself is uncertain. - It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ + It thus corresponds to the English construction of auxiliary ‘might have’ in its use to show possible counterfactuality (i.e., what might have been if a false presupposition had been true). Again, the specific translation is subject to the particular Bias and Validation associated with the verb. Compare the examples below to those above.

      -

      His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, - but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

      -

      We might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but - we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].
      +

      His kids might’ve been ill [if he had kids, + but he doesn’t, so we’ll never know].

      +

      We might’ve taken a walk later on [i.e., but + we won’t have the opportunity, so the decision whether to do so is moot].

      @@ -1497,14 +1497,14 @@ determines the factuality of the statement and that the relationship between the two need not necessarily be a direct cause-and-effect, but merely an indirect chain of events from which the speaker infers the statement from the underlying - presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic - conditional.” Examples are shown below.

      + presupposition. In grammatical analysis, this is referred to as an “epistemic + conditional.” Examples are shown below.

      His kids are (must be) ill [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].

      -

      If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk - later on OR She’s wearing - a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on [i.e., - the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].
      +

      If she wears a blue dress, we’ll be taking a walk + later on OR She’s wearing + a blue dress, so that means we’ll be taking a walk later on [i.e., + the dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a certainty].

      @@ -1523,9 +1523,9 @@

      His kids may be ill [i.e., as implied by some other fact such as his staying home from work].

      If she wears a blue dress, we might be taking a walk later - on OR She’s wearing a + on OR She’s wearing a blue dress, so that means we might be taking a walk later on [i.e., the - dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].

      + dress implies something has happened that we’ll make the walk a possibility].


      6.5.9 Examples of Mood in Use

      The following examples compare the seven non-FACTUAL @@ -1558,7 +1558,7 @@

      Bias expresses the general, overall subjective/emotional attitude or perspective in which the speaker regards the action. There are 24 basic bias - categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which + categories, each of which has an additional “intensive” form which often warrants a change in English translation. Bias operates closely with Validation (previously discussed in Sec. 6.1), often triggering a translation change as well.

      @@ -1568,12 +1568,12 @@
      1. as a word-initial consonantal prefix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal - stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., n’urs, - ss’illui
        + stop is infixed between the prefix and the adjunct, e.g., n’urs, + ss’illui
      2. as a word-final consonantal suffix to an aspectual adjunct; a glottal - stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., ursau’n, - illui’ss
        + stop is infixed between the adjunct and the suffix, e.g., ursau’n, + illui’ss
      3. as a consonantal infix to an aspectual adjunct, which substitutes this consonantal infix for the Cx consonantal infix of the adjunct; this infix @@ -1582,11 +1582,11 @@
      4. as a word-initial consonantal prefix to formative if the formative begins with a vowel; a glottal stop is infixed between the prefix and the formative, - e.g., n’exalt, ss’imlatku
        5. + e.g., n’exalt, ss’imlatku

      These prefix, suffix, and infix forms are shown in Table 20 - below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms + below. The forms to the right of the arrow are the “intensive” forms described above. The 24 biases are explained following the table.


      Table 20: Morpho-Phonological @@ -1604,9 +1604,9 @@

      This bias indicates certainty or self-assurance on the part of the speaker, - translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ - or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness - quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’
      + translatable by such phrases as ‘of course,’ ‘after all,’ + or ‘needless to say.’ The intensive form adds a sort of self-righteousness + quality conveyed by ‘I told you so!’ or ‘You see?!’

      @@ -1617,10 +1617,10 @@
      This bias imparts a sense of hyperbole and exaggeration, captured in such colloquial - expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I - so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The - intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the - expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!
      + expressions as a prolonged ‘so’ or ‘totally’ as in I + so don’t care! or That is totally not what I wanted. The + intensive form adds a sense of “one-upmanship” as conveyed by the + expression That’s nothing, wait till you hear this!

      @@ -1631,10 +1631,10 @@
      This bias conveys a sense of coincidence or happenstance as conveyed by the - use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It - just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of - serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ - ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’
      + use of ‘happen’ in I happened to run into Jane or It + just so happens that I’m busy. The intensive form adds a sense of + serendipity, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘as luck would have it,’ + ‘luckily’ or ‘fortunately.’

      @@ -1645,9 +1645,9 @@
      This bias indicates a sense of general acceptance, as conveyed by the expression - ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation - to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and - there’s nothing to be done about it!’
      + ‘it’s just as well that.’ The intensive form conveys resignation + to fate, as expressed by phrases such as ‘like it or not’ or ‘…and + there’s nothing to be done about it!’

      @@ -1657,9 +1657,9 @@
      REACTIVE
      - This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ - or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this - sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’
      + This bias indicates surprise, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘my goodness!’ + or ‘it’s surprising that.’ The intensive form raises this + sense to the level of astonishment, as expressed by ‘Wow!’ or ‘Amazing!’

      @@ -1670,10 +1670,10 @@
      This bias indicates a mild sense of wonder or reflection, as conveyed by the - phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder - he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense - to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ - or ‘Who would’ve thought….’
      + phrase ‘it’s a wonder that’ as in It’s a wonder + he didn’t break a bone in that fall. The intensive raises this sense + to one of awe, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘Well I’ll be!’ + or ‘Who would’ve thought….’

      @@ -1683,10 +1683,10 @@
      CONTEMPLATIVE
      - This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder - how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t - get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form - raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’
      + This bias expresses puzzlement, as conveyed by phrases such as ‘I wonder + how…,’ ‘that’s odd…,’ ‘I don’t + get it…,’ or a quizzical ‘hmmmm.’ The intensive form + raises this sense to sudden bewilderment, as in ‘Huh? What do you mean…?’

      @@ -1697,9 +1697,9 @@
      This bias conveys a sense of dread or the conveyance of bad news, as expressed - by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m - afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright - despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’
      + by ‘I don’t know how to say this, but…’ or ‘I’m + afraid that….’ The intensive form raises this to the level of outright + despair, as in ‘Oh, God…’ or ‘Oh, no!….’

      @@ -1710,9 +1710,9 @@
      This bias expresses a sense of discovery, as conveyed by expressions such as - ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ - The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ - or ‘Well, well, well!….’
      + ‘No wonder….’ or ‘So that’s why….’ + The intensive form raises this to a sense of surprised revelation, as in ‘Aha!….’ + or ‘Well, well, well!….’

      @@ -1723,9 +1723,9 @@
      This bias conveys a sense of pleasantness or mild pleasure, as conveyed by expressions - such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ - The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s - nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’
      + such as ‘It’s pleasant to…’ or ‘I like to….’ + The intensive raises this to a state of bliss or rapture, as in ‘Oh, there’s + nothing like….’ or ‘(Sigh) What bliss it is to….’

      @@ -1735,10 +1735,10 @@
      SOLICITIVE
      - This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ + This bias expresses the Ithkuil equivalent of English ‘please.’ In its intensive form, this transforms into an impatient demand, expressed in - ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or - the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already! + ‘C’mon!,’ ‘What’re you waiting for?’ or + the phrase ‘so…already!’ as in the sentence So dance already!

      @@ -1750,12 +1750,12 @@
      This bias conveys the idea of subjective interpretation, as seen in expressions - such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ - ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ + such as ‘Look at it this way…,’ ‘As I see it,…,’ + ‘Subjectively speaking,…,’ or ‘From one point of view,….’ In its intensive form, it conveys a narrow, singleminded interpretation, as - conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ - ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to - it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’
      + conveyed by expressions such as ‘It can only mean one thing…,’ + ‘and that’s that!’ ‘and that’s all there is to + it!’ or ‘There’s no two ways about it,….’

      @@ -1768,7 +1768,7 @@ This bias conveys a sense of understatement, as conveyed in many subtle ways in English such as tone of voice or deliberately undramatic word choices. In its intensive form, this sense is raised to that of blatant irony, as when saying - ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.
      + ‘Well! That was fun!’ after an unpleasant or harrowing experience.

      @@ -1779,10 +1779,10 @@
      This bias conveys a sense of impatient exasperation, as conveyed by expressions - such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m - trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a + such as ‘Look, don’t you get it?…’ or ‘Look, I’m + trying to tell you….’ In its intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of outright mockery, as expressed by a mocking tone of voice in English, - or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s + or by an deliberate, exasperated echolalia, i.e., the repeating of a person’s words back at them in contempt.

      @@ -1794,12 +1794,12 @@
      This bias underscores a distinction between context and literalness, expressed - by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context - aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s - not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In + by the English phrases ‘technically speaking’ or ‘Context + aside for a moment,…’ as in Technically speaking, that’s + not a polka (i.e., it’s a polka version of a non-polka song). In the intensive form, this bias conveys a sense of total literalness and exactitude, - expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to - put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s + expressed in English by phrases such as ‘strictly speaking’ or ‘to + put it in clinical terms….’ as in Strictly speaking, that’s not a polka (i.e., its rhythm is not that of a true polka).

      @@ -1811,11 +1811,11 @@
      This bias indicates a correction on the part of the speaker, as expressed in - English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say - is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates - a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner - of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and - purposes.’
      + English by ‘that is to say…,’ ‘What I mean(t) to say + is…’ or ‘I mean….’ The intensive form indicates + a sense of subjective equivalence, as expressed in English by ‘in a manner + of speaking,’ ‘so to speak,’ or ‘for all intents and + purposes.’

      @@ -1826,10 +1826,10 @@
      This bias indicates a rephrasing or substitution of wording for means of clarification, - as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to - put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright - euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just - say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’
      + as expressed in English by ‘in other words…’ or ‘to + put it more exactly….’ The intensive form conveys a sense of outright + euphemism, as expressed in English by phrases such as ‘Let’s just + say that….’ or ‘Well, let me put it this way….’

      @@ -1839,10 +1839,10 @@
      SKEPTICAL
      - This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s - (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this - sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ - or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’
      + This bias conveys a sense of skepticism, as expressed in English by ‘It’s + (a little) hard to believe that….” The intensive form raises this + sense to that of outright incredulity, as in a derisive ‘Oh, yeah! Suuuure!’ + or a sneering ‘Yeah, right!’

      @@ -1853,10 +1853,10 @@
      This bias conveys a sense of incredulous unexpectedness or cynical surprise, - as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding - me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon - the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, - wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’
      + as in “You mean to tell me…?’ or ‘You gotta be kidding + me, ….’ The intensive form shifts this to outright sarcasm upon + the discovery, as in ‘So! You just had to go and…’ or ‘Well, + wouldn’t you know it, …’ or ‘Oh, nice!….’

      @@ -1866,10 +1866,10 @@
      CONTEMPTIVE
      - This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I - don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ + This bias expresses simple disapproval, as conveyed by phrases such as “I + don’t like the fact that…’ or ‘It bothers me that….’ The intensive form raises this to all-out contempt or disgust, as conveyed by - ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’
      + ‘Shit!’ or ‘What nonsense!’ or ‘What bullshit!’

      @@ -1880,11 +1880,11 @@
      This bias conveys a sense of downplaying or lowering of expectations, as expressed - in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. - It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but - it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal - or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ - ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’
      + in English by “sorry, but…’ or ‘It’s nothing. + It’s just…” as in It’s just a small cut or Sorry, but + it’s only the mailman. The intensive form expresses outright dismissal + or insignificance, as conveyed by such expressions as ‘Is that it?’ + ‘Big deal!’ or ‘So what!?’

      @@ -1894,11 +1894,11 @@
      INDIGNATIVE
      - This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m - sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ - or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to - outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ - or ‘How dare…!?”
      + This bias conveys a sense of second-guessing, as expressed in English by ‘I’m + sorry, what did you say?’ or ‘Say again? You want me to what?’ + or ‘I beg your pardon?’ The intensive form shifts this sense to + outright indignation, as conveyed by expressions such as ‘The nerve!’ + or ‘How dare…!?”

      @@ -1909,10 +1909,10 @@
      This bias conveys the sense of suggestiveness conveyed in English by such phrases - as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The + as ‘what if…’ or ‘It could be that….’ The intensive form shifts this to a sense of a formal suggestion or proposition, - as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ - or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’
      + as in ‘Consider this: …’ or ‘Posit the following: …’ + or ‘Assume for the sake of argument that….’

      @@ -1923,12 +1923,12 @@
      This bias expresses a proposal or suggested activity, as conveyed by English - phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general + phrases such as ‘How about,’ ‘We could,’ or general suggestions, as in the sentences How about going for a stroll?, We could meet behind the barn if you want, or You can sit on my lap. The intensive form turns this into an ultimatum, as conveyed in English by phrases - such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ - or ‘it’s now or never.’
      + such as ‘take it or leave it,’ ‘this is your last chance,’ + or ‘it’s now or never.’

       

      6.6.2 Examples of Bias in Use

      @@ -1997,7 +1997,7 @@ Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

       

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 43b5631..c75356f --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7a-affixes1.html @@ -129,12 +129,12 @@ degrees. It is the combination of affix-type and degree which determines the vowel infix which accompanies each consonantal suffix. For example, the suffix -nt of Type 1 takes the following forms for its nine degrees: - -int, -ent, -änt, -önt, (a)nt, - -ünt, -ďnt, -ont, -unt. Compare this to the same affix -nt - of Type 2, whose nine forms are: -înt, -ęnt, -ânt, - -řnt, -uint, -˙nt, -ënt, -ônt, -űnt; and + -int, -ent, -änt, -Ăśnt, (a)nt, + -Ăźnt, -ďnt, -ont, -unt. Compare this to the same affix -nt + of Type 2, whose nine forms are: -ĂŽnt, -ęnt, -ânt, + -řnt, -uint, -˙nt, -ĂŤnt, -Ă´nt, -Ĺąnt; and the suffix -nt of Type 3, whose nine forms are: -ient, - -iënt, -iunt, -iont, -iänt, -uänt, -uont, -uënt, -uent. + -iĂŤnt, -iunt, -iont, -iänt, -uänt, -uont, -uĂŤnt, -uent      . These vowel infixes for suffixes are shown in Table 21 below (this table already appeared in Chapter 2 as Table 9; it is repeated here for convenience).

      @@ -169,40 +169,40 @@ 1
      -iC
      -Cai
      -
      -îC
      -
      -Cëi
      +
      -ĂŽC
      +
      -CĂŤi
      -ieC
      -
      -Caď
      +
      -Caď
      Degree 2
      -eC
      -Cei
      -
      -ęC / -eiC
      +
      -ęC / -eiC
      -Ceu
      -
      -iëC
      -
      -Ceď
      +
      -iĂŤC
      +
      -Ceď
      Degree 3 -
      -äC / -aeC
      +
      -äC / -aeC
      -Cia
      -
      -âC /-aiC
      -
      -Câ
      +
      -âC /-aiC
      +
      -Câ
      -iuC
      -
      -Ciď
      +
      -Ciď
      Degree 4 -
      -öC
      +
      -ĂśC
      -Cua
      -
      -řC / -euC
      +
      -řC / -euC
      -Ciu
      -ioC
      -
      -Coď
      +
      -Coď
      Degree @@ -211,52 +211,52 @@
      -Ca
      -uiC
      -Cui
      -
      -iäC
      -
      -Cuď
      +
      -iäC
      +
      -Cuď
      Degree 6 -
      -üC / -ëuC
      -
      -Cü
      -
      -˙C / -auC
      +
      -ĂźC / -ĂŤuC
      +
      -CĂź
      +
      -˙C / -auC
      -Cau
      -
      -uäC
      -
      -Cäi
      +
      -uäC
      +
      -Cäi
      Degree 7 -
      -ďC / -ëiC
      -
      -Cď
      -
      -ëC
      -
      -Cëu
      +
      -ďC / -ëiC
      +
      -Cď
      +
      -ĂŤC
      +
      -CĂŤu
      -uoC
      -
      -Cöi
      +
      -CĂśi
      Degree 8
      -oC
      -Coi
      -
      -ôC / -oiC / -ouC
      +
      -Ă´C / -oiC / -ouC
      -Cou
      -
      -uëC
      -
      -Cäu
      +
      -uĂŤC
      +
      -Cäu
      Degree 9
      -uC
      -Cu
      -
      -űC
      -
      -Cű
      +
      -ĹąC
      +
      -CĹą
      -ueC
      -
      -Cöu
      +
      -CĂśu

      -

      NOTE: For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular +

      NOTE: For convenience’ sake, when referring to a particular affix of specific type and degree, we will use the notation in the paragraph above, followed by a slash and a number indicating the degree. Thus, the affix -nt of Type 1 and 4th degree will be written -V1nt/4, @@ -281,23 +281,23 @@ affix types but again convey a different overall connotation on the words to which they are affixed.

      For example, the Type 1 suffix -ej (or -jei), - i.e., -V1j/2, means ‘hardly any - (of)…’ as in the word qumjéi ‘hardly - any persons,’ while its Type 2 counterpart -ęj + i.e., -V1j/2, means ‘hardly any + (of)…’ as in the word qumjĂŠi ‘hardly + any persons,’ while its Type 2 counterpart -ęj (or -jeu), i.e., -V2j/2, - has the completely different meaning of ‘somewhat like/sort of like…’ - as in qumjéu ‘sort of like some persons.’ + has the completely different meaning of ‘somewhat like/sort of like…’ + as in qumjĂŠu ‘sort of like some persons.’ Compare this, however, to the Type 1 suffix -up (or -pu), i.e., -V1p/9, and its Type 2 counterpart - -űp (or -pű), i.e., -V2p/9, - which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the + -Ĺąp (or -pĹą), i.e., -V2p/9, + which both mean ‘exactly similar to…/identical…,’ the difference in usage being that the Type 1 affix conveys merely a circumstantial or incidental similarity, while the Type 2 suffix implies that the similarity is an integral aspect of the word. In English, such a distinction would most likely be conveyed by using a different word. For example, note the difference - when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word qum ‘person’: - qumpu means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas - qumpű means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say + when we add these two suffixes to the Ithkuil word qum ‘person’: + qumpu means ‘identical-looking person,’ whereas + qumpĹą means ‘twin.’ In this way, we can say that the suffix -Vp with Type 1 vocalic infixes conveys a circumstantial application of its meaning to a stem, while with Type 2 vocalic infixes, it conveys a derivational application of its meaning (i.e., wholly new concepts @@ -321,17 +321,17 @@ can be used to modify another suffix (usually the one following, unless there are only two affixes on the stem, in which case the suffix order is irrelevant); this is done by using Type 3 vocalic infixes. For example, the suffix -Vd/5, - which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially + which means ‘enough / sufficient(ly),’ can be used both circumstantially (using Type 1 infixes) and derivationally (using Type 2 infixes) to modify a stem, or can be used to modify only the adjacent suffix (using Type 3 infixes). This is illustrated below:

      -

      qumad (or qumda): ‘a - sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
      - qumuid (or qumdui): ‘a recruit’ +

      qumad (or qumda): ‘a + sufficient person’ (i.e., one able to perform the task at hand)
      + qumuid (or qumdui): ‘a recruit’ (i.e., one able to meet performance or entry requirements)
      - qumüxduď (or qumiädüx): - ‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 - = ‘large’)

      + qumüxduď (or qumiädüx): + ‘a sufficiently large person’ (where suffix -V1x/6 + = ‘large’)

       

      @@ -343,12 +343,12 @@

      All in all, there are five different patterns in which the meanings/functions of affixes are distributed. There are those like -ej - and -ęj above where the Type 1 meaning/function is completely + and -ęj above where the Type 1 meaning/function is completely different than that of Type 2. We will label these classes of affixes V1C affixes and V2C affixes respectively, as they represent two totally independent affixes.

      Additionally there are those like -up and - -űp which are essentially a single affix with one meaning/function + -Ĺąp which are essentially a single affix with one meaning/function that alternates between Type 1 and Type 2 infixes to distinguish a circumstantial versus a derivational aspect in the stem to which they are affixed. We will label such affixes V0C suffixes.

      @@ -444,20 +444,20 @@ its optional vowel component, giving rukas, or the suffix can be reversed to give ruksa. Such reversals are permitted under certain circumstances such as when the suffix is word-final, as is the case - here. An astute reader may be wondering at this point, wouldn’t the -ks- + here. An astute reader may be wondering at this point, wouldn’t the -ks- conjunct in ruksa once again be mistaken for the Grade 4 mutation of s as it was in ruks? In this case, the answer is no because there is no other reason for the final -a to be there. In words where a final vowel appears for no possible reason, then - it means it is the vocalic portion of a “reversed” suffix. However, + it means it is the vocalic portion of a “reversed” suffix. However, one must be certain there is not another reason for the final vowel. For example, - in the word ďruksá, one might be tempted to interpret + in the word ďruksĂĄ, one might be tempted to interpret the final vowel as being the vocalic portion of a reversed -(a)s suffix, however, in fact this word represents the word rus with Grade 4 mutation of the C2 radical s, declined into the ABSTRACT perspective, a morphological category shown by - ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic (i.e., “extra”) - vowel, in this case, the word-initial ď- (see Secs. + ultimate stress plus the addition of an anaptyctic (i.e., “extra”) + vowel, in this case, the word-initial ď- (see Secs. 2.7.3.3 and 3.3.4).


      7.5.1 Multiple Affixation

      @@ -521,9 +521,9 @@ is phonaesthetically impermissible or it causes ambiguity over the interpretation of C1 (i.e., the prefix + C1 conjunct could be misinterpreted as one of the mutational grades of that or a different - C1 radical), then an anaptyctic vowel -ď- + C1 radical), then an anaptyctic vowel -ď- must be inserted between the prefixed consonant and the C1 - consonant. For example s + kuil becomes sďkuil, + consonant. For example s + kuil becomes sďkuil, not skuil, since the sk- initial conjunct of the latter would be misinterpreted as the C1 radical of an entirely different stem.

      @@ -532,18 +532,18 @@ portion is suffixed to the stem in word-final position (and therefore its word-final form) in a manner so that it cannot be ambiguously interpreted as being associated with another suffix. Thus kuil + es, if prefixed, - becomes sďkuilei. For prefixed consonants which do not + becomes sďkuilei. For prefixed consonants which do not cause confusion over the interpretation of the C1 radical, these can be directly adjoined to the C1 radical, preceded - by a word-initial ď- if phonaesthetically necessary, e.g., + by a word-initial ď- if phonaesthetically necessary, e.g., guil + uj becomes jguilu, - while kuil + up becomes ďpkuilu. + while kuil + up becomes ďpkuilu.

      -

      Note that forms such as sďkuilei and - ďpkuilu above are considered highly affected morphological - forms, since their “standard” forms are far more euphonically desirable +

      Note that forms such as sďkuilei and + ďpkuilu above are considered highly affected morphological + forms, since their “standard” forms are far more euphonically desirable (i.e., kuiles and kuilpu). In such cases, - these “affected” prefixed forms have the rhetorical effect of emphasizing + these “affected” prefixed forms have the rhetorical effect of emphasizing or highlighting the affix as having exaggerated significance.


      7.6.2 Rules for Formatives With Vocalic Prefixes

      @@ -557,14 +557,14 @@ affix (see Sec. 5.1). The vocalic portion of the consonantal affix which indicates the degree of the affix is suffixed in word-final position so that it cannot be ambiguously interpreted - as being associated with another suffix. Thus, for example, woikâl - + uc becomes woickâlu. If placement + as being associated with another suffix. Thus, for example, woikâl + + uc becomes woickâlu. If placement of the vocalic suffix indicating degree results in ambiguity as to which consonantal affix it applies to, then prefixation of the consonantal affix is not permitted. - For example, the form ébdortui would be impermissible - because it is ambiguous as to whether the word is equivalent to édorta+bui, - édora+(a)t+bui, or - édora+tui+(a)b.

      + For example, the form ĂŠbdortui would be impermissible + because it is ambiguous as to whether the word is equivalent to ĂŠdorta+bui, + ĂŠdora+(a)t+bui, or + ĂŠdora+tui+(a)b.

       

      @@ -597,7 +597,7 @@ Degree 1 any (number - of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in + of) [random selection - NOT quantitative/partitive “any”]; in any manner @@ -619,7 +619,7 @@ Degree 5 this X or that; a certain X or more; in this way or that [identity almost known - – choices limited] + – choices limited] Degree 6 @@ -714,7 +714,7 @@ Degree 3 some few/a - few certain … ; in a few certain ways + few certain … ; in a few certain ways Degree 4 @@ -913,7 +913,7 @@

      7.7.2 Deictic Affixes

      Deictic affixes refer to the grammatical process of deixis, the act of pointing to or pointing out. The affixes correspond to the different - variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ithkuil, + variants of the concepts of ‘here’ and ‘there.’ In Ithkuil, distinctions are made in these affixes as to whether a referent is near the speaker, near the listener, distant from both, whether it is observable or accessible, and in some case, whether it is alienable or inalienable (i.e., whether the @@ -921,7 +921,7 @@

      - + @@ -975,7 +975,7 @@

       

      -V1’-V1’
      DEX
      		 Deixis Categories
      - + @@ -1142,7 +1142,7 @@

       

      -V2’-V2’
      DXX
      		 More Deixis Categories
      - + @@ -1210,7 +1210,7 @@ + / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more @@ -1261,17 +1261,17 @@ + nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction) + / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also + or even / … still [e.g., thicker still] @@ -1289,7 +1289,7 @@ @@ -1414,7 +1414,7 @@
      -V0c’-V0c’
      SQC
      		 Sequence of Cause and Effect
      Degree 2 and / also - / additionally/ furthermore/ moreover/ what’s more
      Degree 3
      Degree 1 still / - nevertheless / however — (despite seemingly inherent conflict or contradiction)
      Degree 2 besides - / not just . . . but also / in addition to X… also
      Degree 3 even / - or even / … still [e.g., thicker still]
      Degree 4
      Degree 7 however - / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent + / on the other hand — (simple difference in expected outcome, no inherent conflict)
      Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
      -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

       

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 0ac88a4..b328053 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch7b-affixes2.html @@ -240,7 +240,7 @@

       

      - + @@ -287,7 +287,7 @@ + remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone
      -V0q’-V0q’
      TPP
      		 Temporal Position Relative to Present
      Degree 9 in the - remote future / far in the future / long after we’re gone

      @@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ Degree 2 eagerly - awaited; can’t wait for / dying to + awaited; can’t wait for / dying to       Degree 3 @@ -430,7 +430,7 @@ Degree 6 [cyclic] - return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s + return of... / ...once again; return to / …back again [e.g., summer’s back] @@ -551,7 +551,7 @@ Degree 8 approximate(ly) - / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so + / somewhere around / just about; or something like that / …or so       Degree 9 @@ -602,7 +602,7 @@ Degree 7 a whole lot of / a verly large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible - amount / so much…; so + amount / so much…; so Degree 8 @@ -658,7 +658,7 @@ Degree 7 a whole lot of / a very large amount or number of / immensely, in an incredible - amount / so much…; so + amount / so much…; so Degree 8 @@ -735,7 +735,7 @@ Degree 1 none at - all; not…at all + all; not…at all Degree 2 @@ -841,7 +841,7 @@

      - + @@ -909,7 +909,7 @@ - + @@ -1117,7 +1117,7 @@ + – integrated @@ -1443,7 +1443,7 @@ + no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect @@ -1610,7 +1610,7 @@ + rung / the “dregs” @@ -1809,7 +1809,7 @@

       

      -VSšq-VSĹĄq
      EXD
      		 Dynamically Changing Degree or Extent
      Back & forth; to & fro in place (e.g., pendulum, wagging tail)
      -Vonš-VonĹĄ
      TFV
      		 Back & forth over linear vector (e.g., snake-like; zig-zag)
      Degree 1 unmovable - – integrated
      Degree 2
      Degree 1 inconsequential/sham/having - no effect; like it didn’t even happen/with no effect
      Degree 2
      Degree 1 bottom - rung / the “dregs”
      Degree 2
      - + @@ -1830,7 +1830,7 @@ - @@ -1856,7 +1856,7 @@ + [V2c’ = ‘philosophical(ly)]
      -V0’-V0’
      ITG
      		 Degree of Intelligence Manifested
      Degree 4naďve(ly) + naďve(ly) / simplistic(ally)
      Degree 9 wise(ly); - [V2c’ = ‘philosophical(ly)]

      @@ -1892,7 +1892,7 @@ Degree 6 - “yesteryear”; + “yesteryear”; in the era just passed; in the previous zeitgeist @@ -1938,7 +1938,7 @@

      The above four affixes are used to affirm or negate a formative. Because much of the information associated with an Ithkuil formative is carried in adjuncts, the above affixes are used to indicate exactly which morpho-semantic information - is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t + is being affirmed or negated. For example, in English the sentences I don’t want to stop eating, I want to not stop eating, and I want to stop not eating mean different things. The above four affixes are used with the following degrees.

      @@ -1946,23 +1946,23 @@ Degree 1 on - the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no + the contrary…most cerainly does NOT/is NOT [absolute negation]; no X whatsoever; absolutely not = emphatic negation/denial Degree 2 on the - contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation] + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [absolute negation contrary to expectation]       Degree 3 on the - contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation] + contrary…does NOT or is NOT [relative negation contrary to expectation] Degree 4 no; not - [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m + [absolute negation] = e.g., I will not win the race (because I’m not in the race) @@ -1983,12 +1983,12 @@ Degree 8 - …does + …does (too) / is (too) [= simple affirmation contrary to expectation] Degree 9 - …is + …is indeed / does indeed / most certainly is / most certainly does [emphatic affirmation] @@ -2004,12 +2004,12 @@ Degree 1 reversal - or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’ + or undoing of process = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’ Degree 2 reversal/undoing - of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’ + of process in large chunks = ‘un-’ / ‘de-’ / ‘dis-’ Degree 3 @@ -2025,7 +2025,7 @@ Degree 5 well-maintained - / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing + / well-kept / “healthy”; keep X going / maintain X-ing Degree 6 @@ -2074,7 +2074,7 @@ Degree 4 suspicious-looking - / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance + / ”fishy” seeming; presumably /allegedly / gives the appearance of having @@ -2323,7 +2323,7 @@

      - + @@ -2587,7 +2587,7 @@
      -V3ç-V3ç
      FRC
      		 Degree of Physical Force Exerted
      Degree 9 a synergy - of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to + of… / sum beyond total of parts / a synergistic composite of ; to X synergistically
      @@ -2641,7 +2641,7 @@ Degree 9 totally - right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d + right / totally correct(ly) / totally well-X’d

       

      @@ -2686,7 +2686,7 @@ Degree 7 declining/fading; trail off/fade / getting softer or weaker / faded / decrepit / has-been - / past one’s prime + / past one’s prime Degree 8 @@ -2757,7 +2757,7 @@

       

      - + @@ -2809,7 +2809,7 @@

      -V1kš-V1kĹĄ
      DRC
      		 Degree of Directness
      - + @@ -2909,22 +2909,22 @@
      -V0mš-V0mĹĄ
      SUD
      		 Degree of Suddenness
      Degree 9 overly - precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly + precise(ly) / ‘nit-picky’ / with too much scrutiny / overly meticulous(ly)

       

      - - + @@ -3023,7 +3023,7 @@

      -V2kš + -V2kĹĄ
      CNC
      		 Degree of Concern or Consideration
      Degree 1…the - hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares…the + hell…! / what the hell . . . / . . . who cares
      Degree 2
      - + @@ -3041,7 +3041,7 @@ + “back-room” @@ -3056,17 +3056,17 @@ + open(ly) / somewhat “up front” + / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly) @@ -3179,7 +3179,7 @@ + / overly structured / “anal(ly)”
      -V0çt-V0çt
      CVT
      		 Degree of Covertness versus Overtness
      Degree 3 secretive(ly) / covert(ly) / behind the scenes / between the lines / under the table / - “back-room”
      Degree 4
      Degree 6 somewhat - open(ly) / somewhat “up front”
      Degree 7 open(ly) - / overt(ly) / “up front” / out in the open / honest / forthcoming(ly)
      Degree 8 very open(ly) - / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally + / very overt(ly) / very “up front” / flaunting(ly) / brutally honest
      Degree 9 too organized - / overly structured / “anal(ly)”

       

      @@ -3202,8 +3202,8 @@ Degree 3 some sort - of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway - / does and doesn’t + of / some kind of / sort of (like) / ”kind of”; in a way / halfway + / does and doesn’t Degree 4 @@ -3233,38 +3233,38 @@ Degree 9 what (a) - ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever … + ...!; how . . .! ; Boy! Did (does) X ever …

       

      - + - + or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen... + expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what + do you know…X!’ @@ -3278,25 +3278,25 @@ - + - + + change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ + I don’t mean to change the subject, but…
      -V3št-V3ĹĄt
      CTN
      		 Degree of Contrariness to Expectation(s) or Shift in Subject
      Degree 1but X would… - / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation + but X would… + / if things were otherwise X WOULD… / on the contrary, X WOULD [affirmation of hypothetical contrary to statement/suggestion otherwise
      Degree 2 but / X - DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to + DOES/IS . . . / on the contrary … [affirmation of fact contrary to suggestion or statement otherwise]
      Degree 3 like it - or not…/ well, as much as we didn’t want to think it would happen...
      Degree 4 against - expectation or belief ‘… after all’ ‘well, what - do you know…X!’
      Degree 5
      Degree 7‘at - least/at any rate’‘at + least/at any rate’
      Degree 8 ‘by - the way/ just to mention’‘by + the way/ just to mention’
      Degree 9 not to - change the subject but…/ sorry to change the subject, but…/ - I don’t mean to change the subject, but…

       

      - + @@ -3313,7 +3313,7 @@ + control / losing the ability to… @@ -3323,12 +3323,12 @@ + / superficially able to… + to… / begin(ning) to be able to… @@ -3420,10 +3420,10 @@ - + - @@ -3461,7 +3461,7 @@ - + @@ -3519,13 +3519,13 @@ - - @@ -3543,10 +3543,10 @@ - + - @@ -3631,7 +3631,7 @@

      This affix and the following identify a formative as filling a specific semantic role corresponding in many cases to the semantic roles discussed in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. In - several instances, these affixes would translate the English “agentive” + several instances, these affixes would translate the English “agentive” suffixes -er, or -or.

      -V3’-V3’
      PHY
      		 Degree of Physical Control
      Degree 3 losing - control / losing the ability to…
      Degree 4
      Degree 5 amateur(ishly) - / superficially able to…
      Degree 6 learn(ing) - to… / begin(ning) to be able to…
      Degree 7
      -V3  attempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt toattempted, attempt at a …; try to, attempt to
      -V3çç + -V3çç   capable, able; can / able to / capable of
      -V3  …on impulse; feel like X-ing…on impulse; feel like X-ing
      -V3not unexpected; be prone to / be apt to / tend to
      -V3ç’ + -V3ç’   agreed-upon; agree to
      -V3x’ + -V3x’   responsible for/in charge of
      -V3  to guess or think [that]…to guess or think [that]…
      -V3’ + -V3’   available; available to/for
      @@ -3704,7 +3704,7 @@ + by/through which one X’s @@ -3744,7 +3744,7 @@
      Degree 2 medium - by/through which one X’s
      Degree 3

       

      - + @@ -3756,7 +3756,7 @@ + consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good” @@ -3799,12 +3799,12 @@ - - @@ -3853,7 +3853,7 @@ - + @@ -3874,7 +3874,7 @@ - @@ -3899,7 +3899,7 @@ - @@ -3917,32 +3917,32 @@ - - - - - -
      -V0ž-V0Ĺž
      CNS
      		 Degree of Consent
      Degree 2 without - consent or knowledge as a precaution or “for their own good”
      Degree 3
      -V0t
      MEC
      		Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ + Type of Mechanical Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
      Degree 1the body’s + the body’s natural method of doing so (e.g., on foot, by hand, etc.)
      -V0
      BOD
      		Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
      Degree 1
      Degree 5one’s + one’s eyes
      -V0mp
      DBI
      		Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ + Additional Bodily Instrumentality = ‘by means of’
      Degree 4one’s + one’s head
      Degree 5one’s + one’s teeth
      Degree 6one’s + one’s lips
      Degree 7one’s + one’s tongue
      Degree 8 one’s + one’s elbow
      Degree 9one’s + one’s fingers
      @@ -3951,7 +3951,7 @@ -V0
      SOC
      - Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ + Type of Social Instrumentality = ‘by means of’ @@ -3966,7 +3966,7 @@ Degree 3 - “fronts”, + “fronts”, or disguised go-betweens @@ -4003,7 +4003,7 @@

      - + @@ -4016,7 +4016,7 @@ + or naďve reason @@ -4191,7 +4191,7 @@ + better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it @@ -4244,7 +4244,7 @@ + order based on one’s real or perceived authority @@ -4308,17 +4308,17 @@ + effect or resulting change — unanticipated + resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated + max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated
      -V0šš-V0ĹĄĹĄ
      RSN
      		 Reason for an Emotional State or Motivation for an Action
      Degree 2 for foolish - or naďve reason
      Degree 3
      Degree 5 against - better judgement / can’t help but / can’t help it
      Degree 6
      Degree 5 by direct - order based on one’s real or perceived authority
      Degree 6
      Degree 7 with moderate - effect or resulting change — unanticipated
      Degree 8 with the - resulting effect to a high degree — unanticipated
      Degree 9 with the - max. resulting effect possible — unanticipated

       

      @@ -4378,7 +4378,7 @@

      7.7.13 Miscellaneous Affixes

      - + @@ -4434,7 +4434,7 @@ including Sentence Topic.

      -V1_’-V1_’
      TPF
      		 Topic, Frame and Focus
      - + - + @@ -4553,8 +4553,8 @@ - @@ -4570,7 +4570,7 @@ + blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was… @@ -4812,23 +4812,23 @@

       

      -V2_’-V2_’
      SWR
      		 Switch Reference & Obviative Specification (For an explanation and illustration of this affix, see Sec. @@ -4492,7 +4492,7 @@
      -V0s
      PLA
      		Place, State, Setting Where… Place, State, Setting Where…
      Degree 1
      Degree 2‘even’ - as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to + ‘even’ + as in “I don’t even like them” = in the least bit, to the slightest extent
      Degree 5 on first - blush / at first / upon initial impression / [my] first thought is/was…
      Degree 6
      - + - - + - @@ -4853,12 +4853,12 @@ - - +
      -V0š-V0ĹĄ
      PTG
      		 Part/Whole Gestalt Componential Metaphors
      Degree 1“base”portion + “base”portion (e.g., upper arm)
      Degree 2“extension” - portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”“extension” + portion (e.g., forearm) or “flange”
      Degree 3“trunk” + “trunk” or central bulk portion
      Degree 8 “head” + “head” extension or main interface area
      Degree 9extension/”arm”extension/”arm”

      @@ -4921,7 +4921,7 @@

      - + @@ -4976,7 +4976,7 @@

      -V1t’-V1t’
      SSD
      		 Stem-Specific Derivatives
      - + @@ -5035,7 +5035,7 @@

       

      -V2t’-V2t’
      SBS
      		 Subset of Configurative Set
      - + @@ -5047,7 +5047,7 @@ + to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing @@ -5062,7 +5062,7 @@ + to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed @@ -5089,14 +5089,14 @@

      -V1k’-V1k’
      ATN
      		 Degree of Attention or Determination
      Degree 2 concentrate - to point of distraction, to be ‘lost’ in X-ing
      Degree 3
      Degree 5 pay attention - to; attend to; be careful that you…; heed
      Degree 6
      - + + contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…” @@ -5122,23 +5122,23 @@ - + (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals + (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
      -V1šk-V1ĹĄk
      DPR
      		 Dispersion or Separability of a Configurative Set
      Degree 1 in total - contact / contiguous mass of; pile, “ball of…”
      Degree 2
      Degree 6“virtual” + “virtual” association only
      Degree 7 temporal - (iterative) set – iteration at long intervals
      Degree 8 temporal - (iterative) set – iteration at frequent intervals
      Degree 9 temporal - (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one + (iterative) set – iteration at very short, immediate intervals / one after another
      @@ -5158,17 +5158,17 @@ Degree 2 Loosely - integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another + integrated spatially – one positioned far away from another       Degree 3 Loosely - integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another + integrated spatially – one positioned a little ways away from another Degree 4 Well-integrated - spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another + spatially – one positioned right next to or behind another Degree 5 @@ -5178,17 +5178,17 @@ Degree 6 Well-integrated - temporally – one right after the other + temporally – one right after the other Degree 7 Loosely - integrated temporally – one a little while after the other + integrated temporally – one a little while after the other Degree 8 Loosely - integrated temporally – one a long while after the other + integrated temporally – one a long while after the other Degree 9 @@ -5206,26 +5206,26 @@ Degree 1 first, - top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., upper lip, inhale/inhalation, left hand) Degree 2 beginning - or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead - “half” of a duplex event or object + or leading “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object Degree 3 middle - section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of + section of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead “half” of a duplex event or object Degree 4 ending - or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead - “half” of a duplex event or object + or trailing “edge” of the first, top, front, lefthand or lead + “half” of a duplex event or object Degree 5 @@ -5235,25 +5235,25 @@ Degree 6 beginning - or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing - “half” of a duplex event or object + or leading “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object Degree 7 middle - section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of + section of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing “half” of a duplex event or object Degree 8 ending - or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing - “half” of a duplex event or object + or trailing “edge” of 2nd, bottom, back, righthand or trailing + “half” of a duplex event or object Degree 9 2nd, bottom, - back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., + back, righthand or trailing “half” of duplex set or pair (e.g., lower lip, exhale/exhalation, right hand) @@ -5310,11 +5310,11 @@ Degree 1 - quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.) + quasi-linear “trail” or wake left behind on path of linear movement; trail or wake is not composed of the moving entity itself but shows effect of its passage (e.g., slime trail left by snail, footprints left on snow, mowed down foliage left by moving convoy, etc.) Degree 2 - quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline) + quasi-linear spread of entity stretching behind linearly moving “head” (e.g., a line of soldiers put in place to create a front, a line left on a piece of paper as written by an ink pen, path of a ball of string or skein of yarn as it unravels while rolling down an incline) Degree 3 @@ -5345,7 +5345,7 @@ 3-d volume left behind passage of moving front as volume/spatial area of demarcation/zone/restricted space -

      The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

      +

      The above affix distinguishes movement of an entity from the “trail” or spread left behind, e.g., movement which leaves behind a wake or affected area; used with motion roots as well as roots designating shapes/forms. Use of the above suffixes in conjunction with the various roots pertaining to paths of translative movement allows for very nuanced translations of English words such as surround, cover, inundate, enclose, expand, spread out, encompass, etc.

       

      @@ -5399,11 +5399,11 @@ - + - + @@ -5427,11 +5427,11 @@ - + - +
      Degree 1uneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoiduneven /assymmetrical n–sided 2-D obtusely angled form (e.g., quadrilateral, pentagonoid, hexagonoid
      Degree 2uneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formationuneven/assymetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation
      Degree 3
      Degree 8 symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)symetrical n-pointed 2-D acutely angled “star” formation (can be used with numbers as low as 2, which would refer to an elongated diamond shape)
      Degree 9symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)symmetrical n–sided 2-D form (e.g., square, pentagon, hexagon)

      The above affix is used with the number stems (see Chapter 12) to provide words for forms, shapes, and solids bearing a distinct number of angles, points, sides, facets, etc.

      @@ -5439,7 +5439,7 @@ 7.7.14 Locational Affixes - + + / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant 1 + / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2 + / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3 + / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4 @@ -5473,28 +5473,28 @@ + / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5 + / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6 + / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7 + / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8
      -V0çç-V0çç
      LCT
      		 Locational Quadrant Markers for Object Being Located (These affixes will be explained and illustrated in Chapter @@ -5448,22 +5448,22 @@
      Degree 1 +X / +Y - / +Z = “right / ahead / above” = Quadrant 1
      Degree 2 +X / +Y - / -Z = “right / ahead / below” = Quadrant 2
      Degree 3 +X / -Y - / +Z = “right / behind / above” = Quadrant 3
      Degree 4 +X / -Y - / -Z = “right / behind / below” = Quadrant 4
      Degree 5
      Degree 6 -X / +Y - / +Z = “left / ahead / above” = Quadrant 5
      Degree 7 -X / +Y - / -Z = “left / ahead / below” = Quadrant 6
      Degree 8 -X / -Y - / +Z = “left / behind / above” = Quadrant 7
      Degree 9 -X / -Y - / -Z = “left / behind / below” = Quadrant 8

       

      - + @@ -5657,7 +5657,7 @@
      -V0p’-V0p’
      PRX
      		 Degree of Proximity

      -Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 480bd6c..8f1b7a0 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch8-adjuncts.html @@ -109,11 +109,11 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      The first type of adjunct we will analyze are those relating - to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical + to personal reference. By “personal reference” is meant the grammatical description of nouns by abbreviated forms of reference. In most languages, this is accomplished by means of personal pronouns (e.g., English he, she, it, I, you, him, her, mine, ours, etc.). Generally, personal pronouns are distinguished - by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English + by “person” (1st, 2nd , or 3rd) and case (e.g., compare English we, us, and ours). Ithkuil accomplishes the equivalent function by means of personal reference adjuncts, of which there are two types: single-referent and dual-referent.

      @@ -171,10 +171,10 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      8.1.1.1 Monadic vs. Unbounded. These terms were discussed in detail in Sec. - 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between + 3.3 on Perspective. For simplicity’s sake, the difference between a MONADIC third party versus an UNBOUNDED - third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ - and ‘they.’

      + third party can be thought of as the difference between ‘he/she/it’ + and ‘they.’

      8.1.1.2 Speaker and Addressee. These terms refer respectively to the party @@ -182,22 +182,22 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      second person), and a third party being considered or mentioned (the third person). Unlike the standard six-person matrix common in Western grammar (the three persons divided into singular and plural), Ithkuil divides personal reference along - logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance. + logical lines of inclusion versus exclusion in the speaker’s utterance.

      From the viewpoint of Ithkuil grammar, only a single individual can speak. Even if there are two or more persons speaking the same utterance simultaneously it is but a collection of single individuals, each of which is - one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, + one speaker. Therefore, the “first person” of Ithkuil, the speaker, can be only MONADIC, never UNBOUNDED. - Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” - since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is - the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this - we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s + Thus, in Ithkuil, there is no true equivalent to the word “we,” + since inherent in the various categories which translate “we” is + the concept of “I plus some other entity or entities.” From this + we can begin to see how it is the idea of inclusion or exclusion in the speaker’s utterance that determines the various personal reference categories.

      -

      The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, +

      The “second person” in Ithkuil is the addressee, the person(s) being addressed or spoken to. There can be one addressee, or more than one addressee, i.e., MONADIC or UNBOUNDED.

      -

      The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get +

      The “third person” in Ithkuil is where things get very complicated, in that a party being referenced who is not the speaker or the addressee can have many distinctions, including the presence or absence of animacy, being MONADIC versus UNBOUNDED, @@ -213,18 +213,18 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      distinction between gender (he vs. she) found in most Western languages does not exist in the Ithkuil personal reference system.

      8.1.1.4 - “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third + “Mixed” Third-Party Reference. It is possible for the third party being referenced to be two or more entities of different natures. For - example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where - “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic + example a speaker could make reference to “I, you, and they” where + “they” consists of a group consisting of one person (i.e., a monadic animate entity), three boxes (i.e., a polyadic inanimate entity), and an intangible - concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such - cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” + concept such as ‘happiness’ (i.e., an abstract entity). In such + cases, Ithkuil personal reference categories provide for such “mixed” parties to be included in a particular personal referent.

      8.1.1.5 Collective Reference. This corresponds to the NOMIC Perspective in which a noun can be spoken of as a generic collective. For example, - the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast + the word ‘dog’ in the sentence The dog is a noble beast refers to all dogs in a collective sense, not any dog in particular. This COLLECTIVE category has its own set of personal reference affixes in Ithkuil, depending on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

      @@ -232,7 +232,7 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      Abstract Reference. This corresponds to the ABSTRACT perspective, equivalent to derivational abstract forms such as English nouns ending with -hood, -ness, etc. In Ithkuil, all nouns can be - spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the + spoken of in this abstract sense (e.g., “bookhood” = the sense of being or functioning as a book), and the personal reference system provides affixes for this category whose form again depends on what other entities are included in the context of the utterance.

      @@ -241,9 +241,9 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      Western languages, although it is found in various Native American languages. It refers to a third party referent other than one previously mentioned, which would otherwise be identically marked. In Native American grammatical treatises, - this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. + this category is usually termed the obviative or “fourth” person. For example, the English sentence He saw his book is ambiguous because - we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the + we are uncertain whether ‘he’ and ‘his’ refer to the same person or to two different persons (i.e., one who did the seeing and another who owns the book). In Ithkuil, no such ambiguity occurs because the latter third person referent, if a distinct person from the initial third person referent, @@ -256,32 +256,32 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      Indefinite Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers to any third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent - indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or - ‘anybody,’ while the referent - indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’ + indicates an indefinite animate party, i.e., English ‘anyone’ or + ‘anybody,’ while the referent + indicates an indefinite inanimate party, i.e., English ‘anything.’

      8.1.1.9 Universal Reference. This category indicates that the third party refers to every third party within the specified parameters. For example, the referent -l - indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or - ‘everybody,’ while the referent -lŻ + indicates a universal animate party, i.e., English ‘everyone’ or + ‘everybody,’ while the referent -lĹť - indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’ + indicates a universal inanimate party, i.e., English ‘everything.’

      8.1.1.10 Impersonal Reference. This category corresponds to the German pronoun man or French pronoun on, as well as the various circumlocutions - used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ - ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). + used in English to describe impersonal reference (e.g., ‘one,’ ‘you,’ + ‘they,’ the passive voice, and certain usages of ‘someone’). Such impersonal reference is illustrated in the following English sentences:

      -

      ˇ One should +

      ¡ One should never speak to clowns alone.
      - ˇ To dance the tango you need a partner.
      - ˇ They say it never rains in August.
      - ˇ That town is said to be haunted.
      - ˇ She just wants to talk to someone + ¡ To dance the tango you need a partner.
      + ¡ They say it never rains in August.
      + ¡ That town is said to be haunted.
      + ¡ She just wants to talk to someone without being criticized.

      8.1.1.11 Inclusivity vs. Exclusivity. Since @@ -289,12 +289,12 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      addressee(s), and any third party is included or excluded in the context of the utterance, there are many possible personal reference distinctions possible in Ithkuil for which English has no equivalent pronouns. Such exacting distinctions - would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ - the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and - he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English - word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you - (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ - ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.

      + would have to be made periphrastically in English, e.g., instead of saying ‘we,’ + the speaker would have to specify ‘the two of us,’ or ‘I and + he but not you,’ or ‘I, you, and they.’ Similarly, the English + word ‘you’ breaks down into specific meanings equivalent to ‘you + (singular),’ ‘you (plural),’ ‘you (singular) and it,’ + ‘you and those people,’ ‘you and those things,’ etc.


      8.1.2 Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts

      Adjuncts with one personal referent are termed single-referent @@ -387,7 +387,7 @@ additional types of adjuncts are introduced.

      = vocalic suffix showing Context for Referent 1: -a = EXS; -u - = FNC; -ű = SYM; -â + = FNC; -Ĺą = SYM; -â = AMG @@ -487,7 +487,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      which indicates the degree of . The values of are shown in Table 26 below. The affix-type - of is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern. Optional terms are , + of is shown by the adjunct’s stress pattern. Optional terms are , one of four vocalic suffixes showing the Context of the personal referent, and , a consonantal bias affix previously introduced in Sec. @@ -509,7 +509,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      - + @@ -517,7 +517,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      - + @@ -529,7 +529,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      - + @@ -537,7 +537,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      - + @@ -565,10 +565,10 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      a personal referent, just as an affix category would normally apply to the formative to which it is affixed. This allows personal referents to be spoken of in contexts created by affix categories, such as when combining -V1/7 - ‘there (by addressee)’ with paw(a) + ‘there (by addressee)’ with paw(a) to give the form pawo - meaning ‘you people there.’

      + meaning ‘you people there.’

      8.1.2.4 Examples of Single-Referent Personal Reference Adjuncts in Use

      @@ -592,9 +592,9 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      - @@ -645,7 +645,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      = @@ -722,13 +722,13 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      - + - + @@ -736,11 +736,11 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      - + - +
      Degree 1
      ď
      ď
      Degree 2
      Degree 3
      ë
      ĂŤ
      Degree 4
      Degree 6
      ö
      Ăś
      Degree 7
      Degree 8
      ä
      ä
      Degree 9
      Form 3:

      Examples: p’awik
      - Examples: űksaiwénz
      - Examples: ççäyokluss

      +

      Examples: p’awik
      + Examples: ĹąksaiwĂŠnz
      + Examples: ççäyokluss
      vocalic suffix showing Affiliation of Referent 2: -a = CSD, -u - = ASO, -ű = VAR, -â + = ASO, -Ĺą = VAR, -â = COA
      AMG
      ä
      ä
      +FR
      FORMAL
      EXS
      ď
      ď
      FNC
      RPS
      ë
      ĂŤ
      AMG
      ü
      Ăź

      @@ -754,7 +754,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      renders the composite prefix sf-, while the combination of the prefix t- with the prefix q- - gives the composite t’-. + gives the composite t’-. Table 30 below illustrates how the 23 single-consonant prefixes combine with each other.

      Table 30: Personal Reference @@ -852,16 +852,16 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      composite prefixes from Table 30 under the following circumstance: to show that two different parties are governed by the same case and participate equally with the verb, equivalent to connecting two pronouns - in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or - The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksauŻ, - xnű, + in English by ‘and’ as in He and I went to the store or + The man looked at them and me. Examples: ksauĹť, + xnĹą, hhea. Note in the last example hhea how the combination of a low-toned referent and a high-toned referent combines to give a rising-toned adjunct.

      8.1.3.2 Illustration of a Dual-Referent Adjunct: Based on the above information, we can now analyze an example dual-referent - adjunct — diawŕsműç:

      + adjunct — diawŕsműç:

      - + @@ -900,12 +900,12 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      configuration for Referent No. 2 - + - + @@ -920,8 +920,8 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      [= along my body] + what belongs to a rag-tag amalgamation of you (singular) and all those things + [sense of surprise].

      While such a word might seem contrived at first, it nevertheless - proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star TrekŠ - character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” + proves quite functional in a sentence such as the following (which a Star TrekŠ + character might say to a Borg after the latter has produced an “assimilated” spider from its pocket and let it loose during the night):


      @@ -950,7 +950,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      party relevant to a discourse, even to a third party not previously mentioned.

      ( @@ -877,15 +877,15 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      =
      		 combination of Referent No. 1, t- , - plus Referent No. 2, Ż- + plus Referent No. 2, Ĺť-
      -iaw-
      =
      		PROLATIVE case infix (meaning “along [the - surface of] X”) for Referent No. 1PROLATIVE case infix (meaning “along [the + surface of] X”) for Referent No. 1
      -a-
      -ű-
      -Ĺą-
      =
      		 VARIATIVE affiliation for Referent No. 2
      -ç
      -ç
      =
      		 REACTIVE bias
      - + @@ -1017,7 +1017,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      for these 23 consonants (from which the 46 categories are derived) is shown by distinguishing between the V+C standard form of the suffix and its reversed C+V form (see Sec. 7.5.2 on - the “reversed” form of suffixes). Unlike other -V3C + the “reversed” form of suffixes). Unlike other -V3C suffixes, there are no -V1C or -V2C counterparts to these suffixes (or rather, the -V1C or -V2C counterparts have completely different meanings and @@ -1086,20 +1086,20 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      -V2_’-V2_’
      SWR
      		 Switch Reference & Obviative Specification

      Subsidiary adjuncts refer to adjuncts which are essentially - subsets or “pieces” of the conflation adjunct first introduced in + subsets or “pieces” of the conflation adjunct first introduced in Chapter 5. Conflation adjuncts comprise the morphological categories of Derivation, Valence, Version, Format, Modality and Level, and are of the form CN - + VV + CK + Vm [+ tone], exemplified by the word t’uilliaŻ - = t’+ui+ll+ia+Ż.
      + + VV + CK + Vm [+ tone]      , exemplified by the word t’uilliaŻ + = t’+ui+ll+ia+Ż.
      However, it is possible to take this same adjunct and present only select portions of it. We already saw this in Sec. 5.2 when we were introduced to valence adjuncts, - which are essentially composed of the VV + CK “subset” of a conflation + which are essentially composed of the VV + CK “subset” of a conflation adjunct. Similarly we can have simple modality adjuncts of the form Vm - [+ tone] as in the word iaŻ which also shows + [+ tone] as in the word iaĹť which also shows the category of Level (via the tone indication). A simple format adjunct is possible by simply using CK by itself as a word, e.g., ll. To this can be added the Vm [+ tone] increment to provide a - subsidiary adjunct showing Format, Modality and Level, as in lliaŻ.

      + subsidiary adjunct showing Format, Modality and Level, as in lliaĹť.

       

      @@ -1125,13 +1125,13 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      or y- plus tone (the tone pattern is shown in Table 32 below). This is followed by one of the 32 aspect suffixes from Table - 19 in Sec. 6.4.1. Examples: weaŻ, - yaď. + 19 in Sec. 6.4.1. Examples: weaĹť, + yaď. Note that, in the absence of an aspectual adjunct (which normally shows mood), this simple element can function by itself as a mood adjunct by simply using the neutral -VS suffix, e.g., wa, - yaŻ.

      + yaĹť.


      Table 32: Consonant + Tone Values for Mood Adjuncts and Mood+Aspect Adjuncts

      @@ -1175,7 +1175,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      in Section 6.5

      -

      Example: oweiç.

      +

      Example: oweiç.


      Table 33: Vj Format + Level Vocalic Infixes for Combination Adjuncts
      @@ -1191,7 +1191,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      forms of the Format/Focus infix from Table 33 above are now used to indicate affix-type instead of Level. Examples: psiyoul, - juwä’mm. + juwä’mm.

       

      @@ -1202,36 +1202,36 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      removed from the formative and positioned as an adjacent adjunct for purposes of euphony. Additionally, since affix categories represent common concepts generally applicable to many contexts, an affixual adjunct can also be informally used - as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an + as a “short cut” method of conveying a notion, essentially as an abbreviated one-word sentence somewhat like an interjection or exclamation in English, thus conveying the concept of the affix category. For example, the affix -V1/7 - connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ď.’a, + connotes disappointing typicality, but as an affixual adjunct, ď.’a, it can be used by itself as an informal expression translatable by the English phrase How typical!


      8.4.1 Forms for Single- and Dual-Affix Adjuncts

      -

      The form of a single-affix affixual adjunct is CV’a, +

      The form of a single-affix affixual adjunct is CV’a, where CV represents the word-final - “reversed” form of a standard suffix for formatives from Sec. + “reversed” form of a standard suffix for formatives from Sec. 7.7 (see Secs. 2.7.2 and 7.5.2 on the alternate - “reversed” forms of suffixes). So, for example, the suffix -eu’/’iu - (i.e., -V2’/4) - becomes the autonomous word ’iu’a, - meaning ‘scattered all around here.’

      -

      The form for a dual-affix affixual adjunct is CV’’VC, + “reversed” forms of suffixes). So, for example, the suffix -eu’/’iu + (i.e., -V2’/4) + becomes the autonomous word ’iu’a, + meaning ‘scattered all around here.’

      +

      The form for a dual-affix affixual adjunct is CV’’VC, where the first part, CV, is the same reversed form of a standard suffix as for the single-affix adjunct above. The second part, VC, - represents the “normal,” unreversed form of a standard suffix. When + represents the “normal,” unreversed form of a standard suffix. When pronouncing such an adjunct, it is important to geminate (i.e., double) the glottal stop, so as not to confuse the word with a simple formative in Secondary Mode, Series B vowel mutation (see Sec. 2.5). So, combining the two suffixes -V2v/7 and -V1kt/9 - would give the adjunct v뒒ukt, - meaning ‘probably this one.’

      + would give the adjunct vë’’ukt, + meaning ‘probably this one.’


      8.4.2 Combining Mood with Affixual Adjuncts

      Using stress and tone, it becomes possible to combine Mood @@ -1253,7 +1253,7 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts

      In looking at the tables in Sec. 2.5, one can see that several vocalic mutational series cause an additional syllable to be added to a formative (e.g., kad - ka’wed). + ka’wed). For phonaesthetic purposes (see Sec. 1.4.5), it may become desirable to eliminate this extra syllable in the formative by indicating the vocalic mutation series elsewhere. Ithkuil allows @@ -1287,25 +1287,25 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts

      Series J
      - + - - - + + +
      —
      —
      a-
      i-
      e-
      u-
      o-
      ö-
      ë-
      ä-
      Ăś-
      ĂŤ-
      ä-

      To illustrate this process for the - two example adjuncts ’iu’a - and v뒒ukt, - adding Series B and Series G mutation respectively results in the forms a’iu’a + two example adjuncts ’iu’a + and vë’’ukt, + adding Series B and Series G mutation respectively results in the forms a’iu’a and - öv뒒ukt. Illustrating the process - for conflation adjuncts, the adjunct p’uimű - plus Series C mutation becomes ip’uimű.

      + övë’’ukt      . Illustrating the process + for conflation adjuncts, the adjunct p’uimű + plus Series C mutation becomes ip’uimű.

       

      @@ -1337,24 +1337,24 @@ for Personal Reference Adjuncts
      8.6.2 Informal Bias Adjuncts

      Just as affixual adjuncts can stand on their own as informal expressions, so can the consonantal Bias affixes (shown Table 20 of Sec. - 6.6.1) be used autonomously to informally convey one’s attitude toward + 6.6.1) be used autonomously to informally convey one’s attitude toward a situation. For example, if one wishes to convey a sense of awe, one could state the Ithkuil equivalent to the sentence, I feel a sense of awe! - or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ + or one can simply hiss out a long s-sound, ‘ss,’ which is the intensive form of the affix for the STUPEFACTIVE bias category, whose translation can be approximated by the English expressions - ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

      + ‘Well, I’ll be!’ or ‘Who would’ve thought?!’

      Other examples would be the expression to signify fulfillment and contentment, the equivalent to a long sigh of satisfaction - ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression kšš - to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ - or ‘What bullshit!’

      + ‘ahhh’ in English; or the expression kšš + to convey contempt and disgust, similar to English ‘Poppycock!’ + or ‘What bullshit!’

      It is even possible to combine two biases into a single bias - adjunct, using the form C+ď+C, where each C + adjunct, using the form C+ď+C, where each C represents a single consonantal bias affix. For example, combining the intensive forms of the REVELATIVE and the ASSURATIVE - biases gives the adjunct llďnn, - translatable as ‘Aha! I told you so!’

      + biases gives the adjunct llďnn, + translatable as ‘Aha! I told you so!’

       

      Proceed to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

      @@ -1413,7 +1413,7 @@ to Chapter 9: Syntax >>

      Revised Ithkuil: Ilaksh
      -

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +

      Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

      diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 239b2b5..95f6d7f --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-ch9-syntax.html @@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ 9.3 Morpho-Semantic Considerations - 9.4 The “Carrier” + 9.4 The “Carrier” Root @@ -107,7 +107,7 @@
    • Pragmatic role: This refers to the function of a word or phrase in relation to its predicate or the rest of the sentence in terms - of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” + of whether and how it represents “given” versus “new” information, i.e., whether or not the word or phrase represents background information already known to the addressee, or whether it represents new information previously unknown to the addressee. Three such roles or relations @@ -119,11 +119,11 @@ refers to whatever information in a sentence is new to the addressee, (i.e., not previously known), and has been discussed in detail in Sec. 3.5. To illustrate these concepts, consider the sentence I can see - why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened + why Mary’s angry, but what about Bill? (i.e., What happened to make Bill angry, too?). In the hypothetical answer Bill (or - He) is angry because he lost his keys, ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) - is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, - and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
      + He) is angry because he lost his keys      , ‘Bill’ (or ‘he’) + is the topic, ‘is angry because he lost his keys’ is the comment, + and ‘he lost his keys’ is the focus.
    • Grammatical (or syntactical) relations: the arbitrary word-ordering rules of a language, irrespective @@ -141,7 +141,7 @@ syntax (one exception is the strong tendency for placing wh- question words in sentence-initial position in specialized questions, even if they represent a direct object, e.g., What have you done? or Who[m] are they talking - about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” + about?), however, such roles do tend to be marked “supra-segmentally” by inflection of vocal pitch and tone of voice.

      We have already seen the extreme to which Ithkuil marks semantic roles morphologically as opposed to syntactically. And since grammatial relations @@ -164,7 +164,7 @@

      The highly inflected nature of Ithkuil morphology allows the order of words within a sentence to be quite flexible. Nevertheless, two neutral - or “default” patterns exist, one for main clauses, the other for + or “default” patterns exist, one for main clauses, the other for case frames.


      9.1.1 Word Order Within Main Clauses

      @@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ cases, followed by nouns in non-transrelative cases. The last part of the clause consists of the verb in final position preceded by any aspectual adjunct, conflation (or valence) adjunct, and combination or affixual adjunct, in that order. As - for “higher-” versus “lower-” order transrelative nouns, + for “higher-” versus “lower-” order transrelative nouns, this refers to the hierarchy or sequence of transrelative cases in which certain cases take precedence over others. This hierarchy is as follows:

      ERGATIVE @@ -225,7 +225,7 @@ adjuncts, then any secondary nouns, followed by any transrelative nouns with the highest-order transrelative noun or any personal reference adjunct in final position within the case-frame. Additionally, the last noun within the case-frame - will usually take one of the –V1’ + will usually take one of the –V1’ suffixes (see Sec. 7.7.13) signifying the end of the case-frame unless this is clear without the suffix (e.g., because the case-frame is in sentence-final position).

      @@ -241,7 +241,7 @@
      • Nouns in Attributive, Associative and Adverbial cases (see Secs. 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5) - which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must + which are dependent on, or in apposition to a “head” noun, must immediately precede or follow that head noun, unless the relationship between the two nouns is readily ascertainable without the two being in apposition.
        • @@ -253,7 +253,7 @@
      • A case-frame cannot be broken apart into segments within a main sentence, i.e., the case-frame must constitute a single cohesive clause and not contain - elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” + elements of the main clause within it. It is possible to “nest” a second case-frame within a case-frame, similar to the way in which subordinate or relative clauses can be nested in English and other Western languages, e.g., [Despite owning a Picasso [that comes from his Blue period] [of @@ -271,10 +271,10 @@ was described in Sec. 1.4.5, words of six syllables or more are generally undesirable, therefore any formative with numerous affixes is potentially subject to having several of its morphemes - redistributed to adjuncts. As an example, the word umreiquçîîmšën - ‘series of bombs’ can separate out two of its four suffixes into - a separate word çu’’î - to give the form çu’’î_umreiqîmšën + redistributed to adjuncts. As an example, the word umreiquçÎÎmĹĄĂŤn + ‘series of bombs’ can separate out two of its four suffixes into + a separate word çu’’î + to give the form çu’’î_umreiqĂŽmĹĄĂŤn whose morphological structure is .

        When ordering such phonaesthetically-induced adjuncts, it is important that they can be easily associated with the formative to which they @@ -287,25 +287,25 @@ understanding of what is being described, i.e., the order of the words themselves reflects information about how we are to understand the utterance. Such a phenomenon is known as iconicity. In English and other Western languages, - the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential - order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in + the most common way in which iconicity is manifested is what is termed “sequential + order iconicity,” the idea that the actual sequential order of words in a phrase or sentence reflects the sequential order of the events they describe. - For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, - I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential + For example, the phrases ‘eye it, try it, buy it,’ ‘I came, + I saw, I conquered,’ or ‘dine and dash’ describe sequential events where the sequence of the words reflect the sequence of the events. What is most important is that re-ordering of the words either changes the meaning - of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try - it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than - ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated + of the phrase or leads to semantic nonsense, e.g., ‘buy it, eye it, try + it’ implies that a different sequence of events actually takes place than + ‘eye it, try it, buy it.’ This can be more dramatically illustrated with the following pair of sentences.

        1) Jane got married and had a baby.
        2) Jane had a baby and got married.

        -

        In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted - as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to - mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then - next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two +

        In English, the ambiguous word ‘and’ is interpreted + as connecting a sequence of events, i.e., ‘and’ is interpreted to + mean sequential ‘then’ (= ‘and following that,’ ‘then + next’ or ‘then later’). As a result, the meanings of the two sentences imply very different social interpretations about Jane.

        Besides the reflection of sequential order, other types of word-order iconicity are possible. For example, compare the subtle difference @@ -319,8 +319,8 @@ painted before. In the second sentence, not only do we know what color the fence had been, but also that it was not previously unpainted, however, we do not necessarily know what its new color is. This sort of iconicity is used to convey - a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ - after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun + a resultative state of affairs, i.e., by placing the adjective ‘white’ + after the word ‘fence’ (seemingly in violation of the usual adjective-before-noun word order used in English), we describe a resulting state of affairs.

        Yet another type of word-order iconicity is displayed in comparing the following two sentences.

        @@ -329,21 +329,21 @@ 6) Loretta gave a wedding gift to Sue.

        Most grammar textbooks would state that these two sentences - are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” - pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct - object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” + are semantically equivalent, the first employing a “ditransitive” + pattern (i.e., juxtaposing an indirect object ‘Sue’ with a direct + object ‘wedding gift’), while the second uses a “complement” pattern in which the indirect object follows the direct object and is changed - to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle + to a prepositional phrase using ‘to.’ However, there is a subtle semantic distinction between the two sentences. The first strongly implies that the wedding gift is for Sue, i.e., Sue is the bride and intended recipient. The second sentence, however, invites the possibility that Sue is only a temporary or circumstantial goal for the act of giving, but not the bride and intended recipient. For example, if Sue is merely a guest at the wedding and Loretta - needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give + needed Sue’s help carrying an armload of wedding gifts, she might give a wedding gift to Sue, but that does not mean she would give Sue a wedding gift. This type of iconicity distinguishing a recipient from a directional - goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because - the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in + goal is an example of what is termed “distance iconicity,” because + the two linked words are made more “distant” from each other in the sentence as a reflection of their more circumstantial association.

        Ithkuil does not display iconicity. While the order of words in an Ithkuil phrase or sentence may coincidentally reflect a temporal or causative @@ -352,21 +352,21 @@ resulting states, and the distinction of recipients from directional goals, no iconicity patterns are required.

        For example, we saw in sentences (1) and (2) above how English - ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also + ‘and’ can be used to convey not just mere coordination, but also a sequencing function. In Sections 7.7.3 and 7.7.4, we saw that Ithkuil has no less than thirty-six suffixes (four suffix categories, each with nine different degrees) which convey various coordinative and sequencing patterns with great specificity. Thus, Ithkuil has no morpheme directly equivalent - to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding - to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears - and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator - of simultaneity (e.g., ‘I clenched my fists and scowled’), another - corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., ‘The - clown likes children and loves to eat’), another to its use as an indicator - of parallel description or activity (e.g., ‘We went dancing and so did - they’), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., ‘I - went to the window and looked out’).

        + to the ambiguous English word ‘and.’ There is an affix corresponding + to ‘and’ in its use as a mere additive listing device (e.g., ‘pears + and apples and bananas’), another corresponding to its use as an indicator + of simultaneity (e.g., ‘I clenched my fists and scowled’), another + corresponding to its use as an indicator of additional information (e.g., ‘The + clown likes children and loves to eat’), another to its use as an indicator + of parallel description or activity (e.g., ‘We went dancing and so did + they’), and yet another as a temporal sequencing indicator (e.g., ‘I + went to the window and looked out’).

         

        @@ -383,7 +383,7 @@ in Ithkuil, word order changes are not necessary to distinguish new from background information in a sentence. Comparison between the word-order based system of English and the morphology based system of Ithkuil is analyzed in Sec. 9.2.1 - below. Additionally, while Ithkuil’s system for indicating topics and + below. Additionally, while Ithkuil’s system for indicating topics and semantic focus does not require changes in word order per se, it does allow for significant word deletion, creating abbreviated sentences which, in effect, modify the default word order of a sentence. Such word deletion is analyzed @@ -406,10 +406,10 @@ then going home. The difference between them is one of focus and viewpoint. In the first two sentences, going home has semantic focus, as that is the new information being conveyed, while in the latter two sentences it is shopping - that has focus. The first and third sentence have a “prospective” + that has focus. The first and third sentence have a “prospective” viewpoint in that the sentence conveys the events in the same sequence in which they occurred, looking upon the events from the viewpoint of the one that occurred - first. However, the second and fourth sentences have a “retrospective” + first. However, the second and fourth sentences have a “retrospective” viewpoint, conveying the two events in a reverse order from how they occurred, looking back on the events from the viewpoint of the event which occurred last.

        In Ithkuil, the distinction in focus and viewpoint in these @@ -428,9 +428,9 @@ carrying semantic focus need be spoken. Similarly, the topicalization suffix in conjunction with the INTERROGATIVE illocution affix, allows for abbreviated inquiries within a known contextual - discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and - Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies - to Bill.’

        + discourse, similar to such abbreviated sentences in English, e.g., ‘and + Bill?’ in lieu of the full sentence ‘Comment on how this applies + to Bill.’

         

        @@ -455,7 +455,7 @@ 2) That path descends steeply into the canyon.

        Both of these sentences are describing the same property of - the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from + the path — its steepness. The distinction in the sentences comes from the point of view being reflected by the speaker. In sentence (1) the implied point of view is from the bottom of the canyon upward, while in sentence (2) the viewpoint is from the top of the canyon downward. What is important is that, @@ -478,7 +478,7 @@

        Similarly, care must be made, when comparing Ithkuil sentence structure with other languages, to note that Ithkuil grammar allows for a more overt reflection of the underlying semantic roles inherent in a given sentence. - As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” + As a result, sentence structures in Western languages which “mask” potentially anomalous semantic structures are avoided in Ithkuil. For example, compare the following pairs of sentences.

        @@ -498,22 +498,22 @@

        The syntactical patterns of these two pairs of sentences are identical, yet the word-order in sentence (4b) is ungrammatical (as indicated by the asterisk), while the same word-order in sentence (3b) presents no problem. - The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ - can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are + The underlying reason for the difference is one of semantic role. While ‘analysts’ + can function in the role of Recipients, ‘stains’ cannot (they are merely directional Goals, i.e., where the solvent gets applied). Cognitively, - stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” + stains cannot “possess” a solvent the way analysts can “possess” a report. In Ithkuil, the semantic roles would be clearly defined by the case-markings of the participants. Therefore, syntactically inconsistent pairs such as (3b) and (4b) do not occur.

        -

        Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s +

        Sometimes, rather than semantic role, it is a participant’s relationship to an underlying clause that presents the problem. For example, - He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who - is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president - mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, - while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ - ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ + He’s a tall president means ‘He’s a president who + is tall.’ So why doesn’t He’s a likely president + mean ‘*He’s a president who is likely’? The reason is that, + while ‘tall’ describes its adjacent referent ‘president,’ + ‘likely’ does not describe its adjacent referent. Rather, ‘likely’ describes an underlying process in which that referent is or will be engaged, - i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences + i.e., ‘running for president.’ Therefore, while these two sentences are morpho-syntactically identical in English, their Ithkuil translations are quite different from one another morpho-syntactically:

        @@ -530,11 +530,11 @@

        9.3.3 Negation

        Negation is another morpho-semantic area where translation from English or other Western languages can be tricky. Consider the English - sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this + sentence Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Note this sentence does not mean what a literal word-for-word analysis implies, i.e., - ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ - Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like - her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components + ‘That they like her cooking is not something that Shelly is thinking.’ + Rather, the correct meaning is ‘Shelly thinks that they don’t like + her cooking.’ Ithkuil is very precise in specifying exactly what components of a sentence are to be negated. Use of the four affirmation/negation affixes from Sec. 7.7.9 () in conjunction with a formative carries very specific information as to what @@ -542,14 +542,14 @@ what degree. Using these four affixes alone, Ithkuil can distinguish between the following four sentences without any syntactic rearrangement of the words:

        -

        I don’t want to begin singing.

        -

        I’m beginning to not want to sing.

        +

        I don’t want to begin singing.

        +

        I’m beginning to not want to sing.

        I want to not begin singing.

        -

        I’m beginning to want to not sing.

        +

        I’m beginning to want to not sing.

        Thus when translating negative sentences into Ithkuil, care - must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with - Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ithkuil + must be taken to not syntactically “rearrange” a sentence as with + Shelly doesn’t think they like her cooking. Additionally, Ithkuil makes a morpho-semantic distinction not found in Western languages: the difference between absolute negation and relative negation. Absolute negation implies that the non-existence or non-occurrence of an entity, @@ -558,16 +558,16 @@ is illustrated in the two sentences below:



        - The girl doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is + The girl doesn’t sing [because she can’t, i.e., she is mute].


        .
        - The girl doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses + The girl doesn’t sing [even though she can, i.e., she chooses not to].

         

        -

        9.4 THE “CARRIER” +

        9.4 THE “CARRIER” ROOT
        @@ -576,14 +576,14 @@ nouns such as personal and place names, as well as non-Ithkuil words from other languages are by nature morpho-phonologically incompatible with such as system. Nevertheless, such words can be declined or conjugated like any other Ithkuil - formative by means of the “carrier” root k-r. + formative by means of the “carrier” root k-r. In addition to this use, the carrier root is employed in certain other contexts as well, as described below.


        9.4.1 Words that Cannot Take Affixes or Be Mutated

        The six primary stems of the carrier root (kar, - kur, kir and their Form II counterparts kâr, - kűr, kîr) are respectively associated with animate + kur, kir and their Form II counterparts kâr, + kĹąr, kĂŽr) are respectively associated with animate beings (the two complementary derivatives being humans versus non-humans or figuratively/metaphorically animate entities); inanimate entities (the two complementary derivatives being objectively concrete entities versus subjective entities such @@ -600,11 +600,11 @@

        9.4.2 Emphasizing or Highlighting a Particular Category

        Another use of the carrier root is to emphasize or topicalize a particular affix or grammatical element associated with a word. For example, - in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation - on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis + in English we can say ‘a big house’ with extra intonation + on the word ‘big’ to emphasize that word. To accomplish such emphasis in Ithkuil, the carrier root is used with the augmentative suffix in conjunction - with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative - suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation + with the noun ‘house’ as opposed to simply using the augmentative + suffix on the stem for ‘house.’ No change in vocal pitch or intonation is required, as the grammatically unnecessary use of the carrier root serves to accomplish the required emphasis. Any morphological category manifested by a carrier root rather than an adjunct or mutation serves to emphasize that category. @@ -676,7 +676,7 @@
        -Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website. diff --git a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html old mode 100755 new mode 100644 index 5f509b6..ea71de5 --- a/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html +++ b/2004-en-alt/ithkuil-lexicon.html @@ -84,8 +84,8 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most or Derivation (see Sec. 5.4).

        Ideally, the best way to represent the meanings of Ithkuil stems would be to - use a semantic “meta-language” comprised of a closed set of semantically - universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic “formulas” + use a semantic “meta-language” comprised of a closed set of semantically + universal (or near-universal) “primitives” to create semantic “formulas” which define the use of a particular stem. (The design and use of such a meta-language to translate the meanings of words from one language to another can be found in the writings of linguist Anna Wierzbicka.) However, the author has chosen @@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

        - + @@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        H-Š ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’

        H-Š ‘WHOLE NUMBER/INTEGER’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        L-S   ‘ONE/UNITY’

        L-S   ‘ONE/UNITY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        K-S   ‘TWO/DUALITY’

        K-S   ‘TWO/DUALITY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -245,18 +245,18 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

        N-S   ‘SEVEN’

        N-S   ‘SEVEN’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. to the negative 7th power; to divide by the 7th power of
        -

        THE ABOVE PATTERN FOR ‘TWO’ AND ‘SEVEN’ APPLIES TO THE REMAINING NUMBER ROOTS AS FOLLOWS:
        - Š-S     ‘3’
        - P-S    ‘4’
        - Ţ-S    ‘5’
        - T-S    ‘6’
        - X-S    ‘8’
        - F-S    ‘9’
        - M-S   ‘10’
        - R-S    ‘100’
        - Q-S    ‘10,000’
        - Ç-S   ‘100,000,000’
        - Ċ-S    ‘10 QUADRILLION’
        +

        THE ABOVE PATTERN FOR ‘TWO’ AND ‘SEVEN’ APPLIES TO THE REMAINING NUMBER ROOTS AS FOLLOWS:
        + Ĺ -S     ‘3’
        + P-S    ‘4’
        + Ţ-S    ‘5’
        + T-S    ‘6’
        + X-S    ‘8’
        + F-S    ‘9’
        + M-S   ‘10’
        + R-S    ‘100’
        + Q-S    ‘10,000’
        + Ç-S   ‘100,000,000’
        + Ċ-S    ‘10 QUADRILLION’


        @@ -264,7 +264,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

        - + @@ -298,7 +298,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        H-P   ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’

        H-P   ‘FACT/KNOW/LEARN/UNDERSTAND/EXPERTISE’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -334,7 +334,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most - + @@ -345,7 +345,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        H-T  - ‘(CRIMINAL) LAW/ADJUDICATION’

        H-T  - ‘(CRIMINAL) LAW/ADJUDICATION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. gather material evidence as part of criminal investigation, e.g., questioning of witnesses, viewing of records, inspecting clues and material evidence

        3. act by law enforcement for purposes of criminal identification or apprehension, e.g., interrogation or component of sting-type operation, or legal “trap” set up

        3. act by law enforcement for purposes of criminal identification or apprehension, e.g., interrogation or component of sting-type operation, or legal “trap” set up

        3. presentation of evidence in support of alleged crime; prosecution

        3. formal weighing of evidence by judge or jury
        - + @@ -372,7 +372,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        K-P   ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’

        K-P   ‘GOOD/BENEFICIAL’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -417,7 +417,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        K-T   ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’

        K-T   ‘QUESTION/INQUIRY/ANSWER/RESPONSE’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -428,7 +428,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most - + @@ -449,7 +449,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        L-T   ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’

        L-T   ‘DEITY / SPIRITUAL ENTITY / SUPERNATURAL ENTITY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. angel

        2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit

        2. deity / god / “overseer” spirit

        2. God / Supreme Being / Creator deity
        - + @@ -473,7 +473,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most - + @@ -486,11 +486,11 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

        P-Q    ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’

        P-Q    ‘REMEMBER/RECALL/MEMORY/RECORD’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. a memory itself (i.e., the content thereof)

        1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the process of using one’s memory)

        1. faculty of memory/recall (i.e., the process of using one’s memory)

        same as above 3 stems with focus on that which the physical manifestation memorializes or gives evidence/remembrance of

        same as above 3 stems with focus on the object/event/physical manifestation itself which conveys the memory or record

        3. process of committing something to memory
        -

        MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

        +

        MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS:  recollect(ion), remind, memorize, memento, monument, archive, commemorate, commemoration, souvenir/keepsake, relic, to bear in mind, ponder/relish a memory, sear into one’s memory

         

        - + @@ -527,7 +527,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        PŠ-K     ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’

        PĹ -K     ‘FANTASTIC OR IMAGINARY CREATURE’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -571,7 +571,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: ponder, deliberate/deliberation, plan, contemplate, theory, hypothesis, deduce/deduction, postulate, infer(ence), judge, conclude/conclusion

        R-K   ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’

        R-K   ‘THOUGHT/IDEA/REASON’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -595,7 +595,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most - + @@ -608,15 +608,15 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most - - + +

        S-T  ‘MIND’

        S-T  ‘MIND’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. mental faculty / mind

        1. application of mental faculty; act of mentation / use one’s mind

        1. application of mental faculty; act of mentation / use one’s mind

        1. feeling of sentience

        1. act of self-reflection

        3. instinct

        3. instinctual act; to act instinctively

        3. intellect; use one’s intellect

        3. product of one’s intellect / intellectual feat

        3. intellect; use one’s intellect

        3. product of one’s intellect / intellectual feat

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: philosophy, metaphysics

         

        - + @@ -631,7 +631,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most - + @@ -652,7 +652,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

        ST-K   ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’

        ST-K   ‘COMPARISON/MEASUREMENT/WEIGH’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. discern

        3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis

        3. “weigh”/ponder choice/pro-con analysis

        3. relate/collate/determine relationships between
        - + @@ -689,7 +689,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most

         

        H-C      ‘WEATHER CONDITION’

        H-C      ‘WEATHER CONDITION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -725,7 +725,7 @@ to this list as the author finds time to convert his handwritten notes. The most The following roots follow the same model as the above:
        T-C  roast
        P-Ċ  toast
        -Š-Č  fry
        +Ĺ -Č  fry
        F-C  griddle
        T-Ċ  smoke
        Ķ-Č  sun-dry
        @@ -749,7 +749,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        K-C  - ‘BAKE/SOMETHING BAKED’

        K-C  - ‘BAKE/SOMETHING BAKED’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -795,7 +795,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -823,7 +823,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        L- Č ‘BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’

        L- Č â€˜BINARY REVERSAL / POLARITY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. utensil, specialized implement for assisting in refined task

        2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, fulcrum, etc.

        2. tool, instrument as means of “defying nature” (e.g., wheel, wedge, fulcrum, etc.

        2. mechanical/motorized/electric/electronic implement/device
        - + @@ -858,7 +858,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        M-Č   ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’

        M-Č   ‘SWITCH/ALTERATION BETWEEN MULTI-VALUED SETTINGS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -894,7 +894,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        P-C   ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’

        P-C   ‘GROWTH/CULTIVATION/HUSBANDRY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -927,7 +927,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        P-Č ‘LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’

        P-Č â€˜LARGE IMPLEMENT FOR COUNTERING GRAVITY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -935,7 +935,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1010,7 +1010,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        Q-Č ‘PHYSICAL CONTACT’

        Q-Č â€˜PHYSICAL CONTACT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. physical contact between 2 or more objects [contact + effect]

        FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc.

        FORMAL Stems for this root have the same meanings as the INFORMAL stems except that the context is specific to physical contact by one’s “default” appendage(s) for volitional physical contact, i.e., hands/fingers, beak, snout, tongue, pseudopod, tendril, tentacle, etc.

        2. application of physical pressure/force + effect

        - + @@ -1045,7 +1045,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1056,7 +1056,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        C-M  ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’

        C-M  ‘SENSE OF TASTE / THE TASTE OF SOMETHING’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. flavor detected via instrument

        3. imagine a taste in one’s mind

        3. imagine a taste in one’s mind

        3. an imagined taste

        3. create/manufacture a flavor

        3. flavor created
        - + @@ -1085,12 +1085,12 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        C-Ņ   ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’

        C-Ņ   ‘SPECIALIZED VOLITIONAL BODILY SOUNDS’

        INFORMAL Stems

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the sound itself
        -

        SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1:  1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound

        -

        SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3:  1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack  9) other joint cracking

        +

        SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 1:  1) whistle 2) hum 3) “raspberry” 4) hoot/whoop 5) non-avian animal call 6) bird call 7) scream 8) click-sound (i.e., w/ ingressive airstream) 9) non-phonemic consonantal gibberish sound

        +

        SSD Derivations from Informal Stem 3:  1) slap 2) rubbing sound 3) footfall (--> stomp) 4) snap of fingers 5) finger tap 6) toe/foot tap 7) suction-based sound (e.g., “armpit fart”) 8) knuckle crack  9) other joint cracking

         

        - + @@ -1134,7 +1134,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Ċ-N   ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’

        Ċ-N   ‘IN-LAW/FOSTER RELATIONS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1169,7 +1169,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Ç-M   ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’

        Ç-M   ‘LOWER ORDER LIFE FORM’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1180,7 +1180,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1204,7 +1204,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1214,7 +1214,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Ç-Ņ    ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’

        Ç-Ņ    ‘HEAR(ING)/SOUND’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. listen to a (specific) sound / discern aurally a (specific) sound

        2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oído + oreja)

        2. ear (aural organ + physical part of body, i.e., Spanish oĂ­do + oreja)

        2. aural instrument / device for detecting sound waves + sound detected

        2. sound detected via aural instrument

        3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind

        3. imagine a sound / hear in one’s mind

        3. imagined sound

        3. create or manufacture a sound

        3. sound created
        - + @@ -1237,28 +1237,28 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - - - - + + + + - - - - + + + + - - - - + + + +

        F-N  ‘COUSIN’

        F-N  ‘COUSIN’

        INFORMAL Stems

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s mother]

        1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s father]

        1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepmother]

        1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepfather]

        1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s mother]

        1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s father]

        1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepmother]

        1. cousin [male or female – related through one’s stepfather]

        2. male cousin [related through one’s mother]

        2. male cousin [related through one’s father]

        2. male cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

        2. male cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

        2. male cousin [related through one’s mother]

        2. male cousin [related through one’s father]

        2. male cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

        2. male cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

        3. female cousin [related through one’s mother]

        3. female cousin [related through one’s father]

        3. female cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

        3. female cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

        3. female cousin [related through one’s mother]

        3. female cousin [related through one’s father]

        3. female cousin [related through one’s stepmother]

        3. female cousin [related through one’s stepfather]

         

        - + @@ -1293,7 +1293,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        FL-Ņ    ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’

        FL-Ņ    ‘TYPES OF HARD OR NON-LIVING BODILY TISSUES’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1337,7 +1337,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        H-N   ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’

        H-N   ‘NUCLEAR FAMILY MEMBER’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1373,7 +1373,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        KS-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM

        KS-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF BODY’S RESPIRATORY/CARDIO-VASCULATORY SYSTEM

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1381,7 +1381,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1401,18 +1401,18 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Ķ-Ņ   ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’

        Ķ-Ņ   ‘ABDOMEN/THORAX/TORSO/CHEST’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. thorax/torso [both body part and function]

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “mid-section” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “mid-section” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        2. abdomen/midsection (lower front half of torso) [both body part and function]
        - + - + - + @@ -1431,7 +1431,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        M-Ņ  ‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’

        M-Ņ  ‘CLASSES OF ANIMAL’

        INFORMAL Stems

        FORMAL Stems

        1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”)

        1. animal of land or air (i.e., “terroid”)

        Same as INFORMAL holistic stems but domesticated, tamed, captive, or bred

        2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”)

        2. waterlife (i.e., “aquoid”)

        3. amphibian
        - + @@ -1476,7 +1476,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        K-N   ‘GENDER’

        K-N   ‘GENDER’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1512,7 +1512,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        KL-Ņ    ‘BODILY JOINT’

        KL-Ņ    ‘BODILY JOINT’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1520,7 +1520,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1548,7 +1548,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        KŞ-Ņ    ‘NECK’

        KŞ-Ņ    ‘NECK’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. neck (as gestalt entity) [body part + function]

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “neck” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

        2. neck (as bodily support/swivel point for head) [body part + function
        - + @@ -1592,7 +1592,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        L-M  ‘SIBLING’

        L-M  ‘SIBLING’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1619,7 +1619,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1630,7 +1630,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        L-N   ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’

        L-N   ‘CLASSES OF WATERLIFE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. crustacean

        2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.)

        2. “non-standard”-shaped fish (e.g., ray, eel, squid, octopus, etc.)

        3. shellfish
        - + @@ -1665,7 +1665,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Ļ-Ņ     ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’

        Ļ-Ņ     ‘CLASSES OF LAND/AIR ANIMAL’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1693,7 +1693,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - +

        M-L   ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’

        M-L   ‘TRAGICOMIC-BASED VOCAL/FACIAL GESTURE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. whine, moan

        3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’)

        3. “light up” (referring to one’s face’)

        3. crestfallen look, look of dejection
        @@ -1701,7 +1701,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        - + @@ -1735,7 +1735,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        N-N   ‘FOOD PLANT’

        N-N   ‘FOOD PLANT’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1776,11 +1776,11 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        P-M   ‘SMELL/ODOR’

        P-M   ‘SMELL/ODOR’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. manufactured odor
        -

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench

        +

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sniff, aroma, “bouquet”, perfume, stench

         

        - + @@ -1809,12 +1809,12 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        P-Ņ   ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’

        P-Ņ   ‘STATE OF HEALTH/ILLNESS/WELL-BEING’

        INFORMAL Stems

        Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on cause
        -

        SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give:  1) nurse 2) emergency technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant
        +

        SSD affix used with Stem 2 of both INFORMAL and FORMAL stem in conjunction w/ the AGC2/7 affix give:  1) nurse 2) emergency technician 3) therapist 4) caregiver 5) doctor 6) surgeon 7) healer 8) “medicine man” 9) medical assistant
        Derivations:  madness, craziness, insanity

         

        - + @@ -1822,7 +1822,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1838,11 +1838,11 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        PL-Ņ    ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’

        PL-Ņ    ‘THROAT (interior tract of neck)/GULLET’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. throat (= interior respiratory/digestive tract of neck)

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “throat/gullet” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “throat/gullet” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, complex 3-dimensional form, plant, etc.

        2. gullet (= tube- or trumpet-shaped digestive conduit from oral cavity)

        Same as above 3 stems referring to function
        -

        SSD derivatives:  pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

        +

        SSD derivatives:  pharynx, larynx, syrinx, epiglottis, glottis, trachea/windpipe, vocal fold/chord, hyoid bone / “Adam’s apple”

         

        - + @@ -1877,7 +1877,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        PS-Ņ    ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’

        PS-Ņ    ‘GASTRO-INTESTINAL/UROLOGICAL COMPONENT’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1908,7 +1908,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        PŞ-Ņ    ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’

        PŞ-Ņ    ‘PREGNANCY/GESTATION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1953,7 +1953,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        Q-M   ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’

        Q-M   ‘HIGHER ORDER ANIMAL LIFE’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -1961,7 +1961,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1974,7 +1974,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -1985,11 +1985,11 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        R-N  DČ-  ‘HAND’

        R-N  DČ-  ‘HAND’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. hand (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “hand” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        2. hand (as holder, grasper, striker) [both physical body part and function]; to grasp-->hold

        1. hand as physical body part

        1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile sense

        1. function of hand as “feeler”- focuser of body’s tactile sense

        2. hand as main tool of body

        3. function of hand as manipulator/handler
        -

        SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger

        +

        SSD derivatives:  1) fist 2) palm 3) knuckle 4) hand as flat “blade”, e.g., for karate chop 5) finger 6) thumb 7) “butt” of hand [=lower part of palm] 8) fingernail  9) bottom side of fist [as when pounding fist onto table; for individual fingers, use following affixes + SSD/5 for ‘finger’:  index = “main finger” or “first finger”, middle finger = “mid-finger” or “long finger” or “2nd finger”, ring finger = “3rd finger”, pinkie = 4th finger or small(est) finger

         

        - + @@ -2033,7 +2033,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        R-Ņ    ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’

        R-Ņ    ‘COLLATERAL FAMILY MEMBER/RELATIVE’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2074,7 +2074,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        R-M  ‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’

        R-M  ‘NUTRITION / NUTRITIONAL CONSUMPTION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2101,7 +2101,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Ŗ-N    ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’

        Ŗ-N    ‘CLASSES OF MAMMAL’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2133,7 +2133,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Ŗ-Ņ   - ‘INFIRMITY/PHYSICAL DISABILITY’
        Ŗ-Ņ   - ‘INFIRMITY/PHYSICAL DISABILITY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2141,7 +2141,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -2166,12 +2166,12 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        S-M    ‘LEG’

        S-M    ‘LEG’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. leg (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        2. leg (as support) [both physical body part and function]

        SIMILAR PATTERNS EXIST FOR:
        - Ņ-N  ‘TAIL’
        - K-Ņ   ‘FOOT’ -->   SSD Derivatives:  heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon

        + Ņ-N  ‘TAIL’
        + K-Ņ   ‘FOOT’ -->   SSD Derivatives:  heel, ball of foot, upper side of foot, arch, plantar fascia, achilles tendon

         

        - + @@ -2208,7 +2208,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        S-N  ‘PLANT TYPES’

        S-N  ‘PLANT TYPES’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2244,7 +2244,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        S-Ņ     ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’

        S-Ņ     ‘RESPIRATORY PAROXYSM’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2271,7 +2271,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        SX-M   ‘MOUTH/ORAL’

        SX-M   ‘MOUTH/ORAL’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2301,14 +2301,14 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

        Ş-Ņ    ‘BODY PART’

        Ş-Ņ    ‘BODY PART’

        INFORMAL Stems

        MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  body, corpse
        - SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3:  1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot  6) “shield” bone (e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone
        + SSD Affix with Informal Stem 3:  1) spine 2) rib 3) skull 4) limb bone (tibia, femur, ulna, etc.) 5) bone of hand/foot  6) “shield” bone (e.g., patella, shoulder blade) 7) hipbone
        SSD Affix with Formal Stem 1:  1) membrane 2) tendon 3) ligament 4) nerve 5) muscle 6) skin/integument 7) sphincter/valve 8)  marrow 9) fat/gristle
        SSD Affix with Formal Stem 2:  1) gonad 2) esophagus 3) adrenal gland 4) bowel/intestine 5) brain 6) lung 7) kidne        y 8) pancreas 9) liver
        SSD Affix with Formal Stem 3:  1) tear  2) bile 3) semen 4) pus 5) blood 6) mucus/mucal secretion 7) saliva 8) lymph  9) sweat/perspiration

         

        - + @@ -2352,7 +2352,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Š-N   ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’

        Ĺ -N   ‘NON-SANGUINE RELATION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2384,7 +2384,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        Š-Ņ    ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’

        Ĺ -Ņ    ‘SOIL/GROUND/DIRT (MIXED ORGANIC + MINERAL)’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2417,7 +2417,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        T-M  ‘BREATHE/RESPIRATION’

        T-M  â€˜BREATHE/RESPIRATION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2462,7 +2462,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        T-N   ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’

        T-N   ‘ALIVE/LIVING THING/LIVING BEING’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2491,7 +2491,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        T-Ņ    ‘PLEASURE- or PAIN-BASED VOCALIZATION’

        T-Ņ    ‘PLEASURE- or PAIN-BASED VOCALIZATION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2525,7 +2525,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        TL-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’

        TL-Ņ    ‘COMPONENT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2533,13 +2533,13 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + - + @@ -2553,7 +2553,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - +

        Ţ-N   ‘HEAD’

        Ţ-N   ‘HEAD’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. head (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        2. head (as seat of brain/mind) [both body part and function]

        3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body)

        3. head (as entity’s primary “interface” area of body)

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        2. head as functional seat of brain/mind

        3. head as “top” or “forward” part or “access” point

        3. head as “top” or “forward” part or “access” point

        3. head as vital seat of identity
        @@ -2561,7 +2561,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        - + @@ -2593,7 +2593,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        ŢL-Ņ    ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’

        ŢL-Ņ    ‘MISCELLANEOUS BODY PARTS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2601,7 +2601,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -2628,7 +2628,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        X-M   ‘ARM’

        X-M   ‘ARM’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. arm (as gestalt entity) [both physical body part and function]

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        FORMAL stems are the same as INFORMAL stems but applied to “arm” of a non-animal entity, e.g., a mechanical device, vehicle, plant, etc.

        2. arm (as holder, support, carrier) [both body part and function]
        - + @@ -2643,7 +2643,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -2664,7 +2664,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + @@ -2673,7 +2673,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        X-N   ‘VISION/SIGHT’

        X-N   ‘VISION/SIGHT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. optical instrument + image

        3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image

        3. visualize / imagine / picture a visual image in one’s mind + image

        3. create image / render an image

        3. visualize / envision; act of visualization

        3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind)

        3. an image / a vision (in one’s mind)

        3. create image

        3. image created
        - + @@ -2701,14 +2701,14 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        X-Ņ    ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’

        X-Ņ    ‘BACK/DORSAL AREA OF BODY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + - + @@ -2745,7 +2745,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        XL-M   ‘SENSE/SENSATION’

        XL-M   ‘SENSE/SENSATION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        FORMAL Stems

        1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

        1. sense/sensation, “feel” / “feeling” [faculty/act of sensing + sensation itself]

        1. examine via the senses [both act and result/outcome]
        - + @@ -2774,7 +2774,7 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su

         

        XL-Ņ    ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’

        XL-Ņ    ‘DEGREE OF BODILY SLENDERNESS/FATNESS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2782,15 +2782,15 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su - + - - + + - - + + @@ -2808,34 +2808,34 @@ FL-Ċ  non-heat related method of food preparation, e.g., preparing su PL-M  neuro-muscular/myalgic disorder 
        PŞ-M  cardio-vascular disorder 
        KL-M peripheral nervous system disorder
        - KŠ-M  pulmonary disorder
        + KĹ -M  pulmonary disorder
        KŞ-M  non-malignant tumorous/neoplastic disorder; non-cancerous growth 
        -ŠL-N  malignant tumorous /neoplastic disorder; cancer  SSD derivatives:
        +Ĺ L-N  malignant tumorous /neoplastic disorder; cancer  SSD derivatives:
        TL-M  genetic disorder 
        ŢL-M  musculo-skeletal disorder 
        -ŠL-M  lower gastro-intestinal disorder; bowel problem 
        -PŠ-M  upper gastric disorder; throat/mouth disorder 
        +Ĺ L-M  lower gastro-intestinal disorder; bowel problem 
        +PĹ -M  upper gastric disorder; throat/mouth disorder 
        SL-N  mid gastric disorder; stomach/esophagal disorder 
        KS-N  ocular/eye disorder 
        PS-N  nasal disorder 
        -PŠ-N  mid/inner ear disorder; hearing problem 
        +PĹ -N  mid/inner ear disorder; hearing problem 
        PŞ-N  topical skin disorder 
        KL-N invasive skin disorder 
        -KŠ-N auto-immune condition 
        +KĹ -N auto-immune condition 
        KŞ-N blood/hematological disorder 
        PL-N  glandular/endocrine disorder 
        -TL-N  liver disorder  — SSD derivatives:
        -ŢL-N  cellular/metabolic disorder — SSD derivative: 1) diabetes (Type 2 only)
        +TL-N  liver disorder  — SSD derivatives:
        +ŢL-N  cellular/metabolic disorder — SSD derivative: 1) diabetes (Type 2 only)
        XL-N  inflammatory disorder
        SL-M degenerative tissue disorder
        - FL-N physical brain disorder (i.e., discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  general dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke
        -ŞL- M  mental disorder (i.e., no discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  1) schizo-affective 2) sociopathic condition 3) schizophrenia 4) personality disorder 5) depression 6) dissociative disorder 7) manic condition, mania 8) unknown disorder 9) bipolar condition
        + FL-N physical brain disorder (i.e., discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  general dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke
        +ŞL- M  mental disorder (i.e., no discernible lesion) — SSD Derivatives:  1) schizo-affective 2) sociopathic condition 3) schizophrenia 4) personality disorder 5) depression 6) dissociative disorder 7) manic condition, mania 8) unknown disorder 9) bipolar condition
        ŞL- N  spinal condition or disorder
        FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        x + cedilla-M  - ‘DISEASE/DISORDER/MALADY’

        x + cedilla-M  - ‘DISEASE/DISORDER/MALADY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. chronic systemic illness/condition/ailment; to suffer from

        1. acute abnormal/unhealthy condition/illness/malady/ailment; “come down with”

        1. acute abnormal/unhealthy condition/illness/malady/ailment; “come down with”

        2. chronic illness/condition/ailment – infectious in origin; to suffer from a chronic infectious illness

        2. infection; infect(ed), to “catch” a disease

        2. chronic illness/condition/ailment – infectious in origin; to suffer from a chronic infectious illness

        2. infection; infect(ed), to “catch” a disease

        3.  chronic illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

        3. acute illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

        3.  chronic illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

        3. acute illness/condition/ailment – ideopathic, genetic/neoplastic, or unknown origin

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems
        - + @@ -2874,7 +2874,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        x + cedilla-Ņ    ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’

        x + cedilla-Ņ    ‘GASTRONOMIC PAROXYSM’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -2900,14 +2900,14 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - +

        K-L   ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’

        K-L   ‘SPEAK/VOICE/ORAL SOUND/INTERPRETATION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        same as above 3 stems referring to physical production of sound

        same as above 3 stems referring to communication/conveying of content

        same as above 3 stems referring to objective meaning, signification or denotation

        same as above 3 stems referring to subjective interpretation, connotation or “impact”

        same as above 3 stems referring to subjective interpretation, connotation or “impact”

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: voice, (a) language, linguistic(s), yell, shout, cry, bark/meow/bleat/neigh, etc., [vocal] message, account, recount, story, tell, eloquence, glib(ness), smooth-talk, rhetoric, speech, dialect, slang

         

        - + @@ -2930,7 +2930,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -2939,7 +2939,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        KŠ-L   ‘FOOL/CLOWN’

        KĹ -L   ‘FOOL/CLOWN’

        INFORMAL Stems

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        Same as above 3 stems in non-serious context of “in fun” or “for laughs”

        Same as above 3 stems in non-serious context of “in fun” or “for laughs”

        Same as above 3 stems in poignant, sorrowful, pathetic context

        Same as above 3 stems in context of entertainment

        Same as above 3 stems in context of parody or as a foil for society
        - + @@ -2971,7 +2971,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        Ķ-R  - ‘DESCRIPTION/ACCOUNT/STORY’

        Ķ-R  - ‘DESCRIPTION/ACCOUNT/STORY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3003,7 +3003,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        P-L  - ‘SIGN/MARK/SYMBOL/VISUAL MEANS OF INDICATION/REPRESENTATION’

        P-L  - ‘SIGN/MARK/SYMBOL/VISUAL MEANS OF INDICATION/REPRESENTATION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3018,7 +3018,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -3036,7 +3036,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        T-L   ‘WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’

        T-L   â€˜WRITE/INSCRIBE/DOCUMENT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. document

        3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author

        3. “write” [= compose via writing] / to author

        3. a writing / a written work
        - + @@ -3073,7 +3073,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        T-R   ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’

        T-R   ‘NAME/DESIGNATION/TITLE’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3143,36 +3143,36 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’

        H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’

        INFORMAL Stems

        The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
        THE PATTERN FOR THIS ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
        - T-B    ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’
        - K-B    ‘LENGTH’
        - Ķ-B    ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’
        - Q-B    ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
        - P-B    ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
        - C-B    ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
        - Č-B    ‘DEPTH’
        - Ċ-B    ‘INTERVAL/GAP’
        - Ç-B    ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’
        - Ņ-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’
        - M-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’
        - ST-B    ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’
        - Ŗ-B    ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATTIVE TO GRAVITY)
        - H-B    ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’
        - KS-B    ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’
        - PL-B    ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’
        + T-B    ‘PROXIMITY/DISTANCE’
        + K-B    ‘LENGTH’
        + Ķ-B    ‘WIDTH (= “SLENDERNESS”)’
        + Q-B    ‘GIRTH (= 2-DIMENSIONAL X-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
        + P-B    ‘AMPLITUDE (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Z-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
        + C-B    ‘ “REACH” (= 2-DIMENSIONAL Y-PLANAR DIMENSION)’
        + Č-B    ‘DEPTH’
        + Ċ-B    ‘INTERVAL/GAP’
        + Ç-B    ‘VOLUME (= 3-DIMENSIONAL SIZE)’
        + Ņ-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF A POINT’
        + M-B    ‘SHARPNESS/DULLNESS OF AN EDGE’
        + ST-B    ‘SPEED/VELOCITY/ACCELERATION’
        + Ŗ-B    ‘HEIGHT (= “TALLNESS” – RELATTIVE TO GRAVITY)
        + H-B    ‘FLATNESS/LEVELNESS (RELATIVE TO GRAVITY)’
        + KS-B    ‘PERIPHERY/CIRCLE/RING’
        + PL-B    ‘CONVEXITY/ROTUNDITY’
        KŢ-B    CONCAVITY/DEPRESSION
        - S-B     ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’
        - Š-B     ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
        - Ş-B    ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
        - x + cedilla-B    ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’
        - KL-B    ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’
        - TL-B     ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’
        - XL-B    ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’
        - Ļ-B    ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’

        + S-B     ‘PERPENDICULARITY/UPRIGHTNESS’
        + Ĺ -B     ‘PLANARITY/FLATNESS RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
        + Ş-B    ‘STRAIGHTNESS/LINEARITY RELATIVE TO OBJECT ITSELF’
        + x + cedilla-B    ‘SPHERICALNESS/ROUNDNESS’
        + KL-B    ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-SURFACED IN PLANAR CONTEXT)’
        + TL-B     ‘ “EVEN” (= SMOOTH-EDGED IN LINEAR CONTEXT)’
        + XL-B    ‘RECTILINEAR/POLYHEDRAL/STRAIGHT-ANGLED’
        + Ļ-B    ‘ELASTICITY / STRETCH CAPACITY’

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: big/large, small/little, shrink, expand, grow, diminish, huge, immense, tiny, enormous, shallow

         

        - + @@ -3197,22 +3197,22 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        SX-B  ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’

        SX-B  ‘QUALITY OR PROPERTY OF MATTER’

        INFORMAL Stems

        The stems of this root are commonly used with the SUF, EXD, FLC, PTW and Intensity affixes. 
        - PS-B      ‘THICKNESS (= VISCOSITY/RUNNINESS)
        - KŠ-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
        - SL-B      ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’
        - SP-B      ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED)
        - SŢ-B      ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY)
        - ŢL-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
        - PŠ-B      ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS)
        - FL-B      ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’
        - Ţ-B    ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’
        - X-B    ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’
        - F-B    ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS)
        - R-B     ‘WEIGHT/MASS’

        + PS-B      ‘THICKNESS (= VISCOSITY/RUNNINESS)
        + KĹ -B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
        + SL-B      ‘SOLIDITY/HOLLOWNESS (= PERMEABILITY)’
        + SP-B      ‘DURABILITY/FRAGILITY’ (= CAPACITY FOR BEING DAMAGED)
        + SŢ-B      ‘RESILIENCE/DELICATENESS’ (= CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY)
        + ŢL-B      ‘TENSENESS (= STRAIN)’
        + PĹ -B      ‘SMOOTHNESS/ROUGHNESS (= TACTILE COARSENESS)
        + FL-B      ‘FULLNESS/EMPTINESS’
        + Ţ-B    ‘FLEXIBILITY/RIGIDITY’
        + X-B    ‘HARD/SOFT (= MALLEABILITY)’
        + F-B    ‘TIGHTNESS/SLACK’ (= TAUTNESS)
        + R-B     ‘WEIGHT/MASS’

         

        - + @@ -3244,11 +3244,11 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        PL-D   ‘COLOR/HUE’

        PL-D   ‘COLOR/HUE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. a dark color
        -

        NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color. The following root K-D ‘RED’ provides an example.

        +

        NOTE: This stem patterns for the above root are a template for all other roots donating a specific color. The following root K-D ‘RED’ provides an example.

         

        - + @@ -3280,12 +3280,12 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        K-D   ‘RED’

        K-D   ‘RED’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. dark red
        -

        SIMILARLY: T-D  ‘BLUE’, N-D   ‘GREEN’, H-D  ‘YELLOW’, Q-D   ‘ORANGE’, L-D  ‘SKY BLUE’, F-D  ‘PINK’, Ç-D  ‘PURPLE’, R-D   ‘OCHRE’, Ķ-D  ‘ECRU’, Ţ-D  ‘BEIGE/TAN’, Ņ-D   ‘PEACH’, Ļ-D   ‘MAUVE’, Ŗ-D  ‘LAVENDER’, C-D   ‘BURGUNDY’, Ş-D   ‘TEAL’, x + cedilla-D   ‘TURQUOISE’, Š-D   ‘AQUAMARINE’, Č-D  ‘BROWN’, X-D   ‘WHITE’, M-D  ‘BLACK’, S-D  ‘GRAY’, P-D    ‘YELLOW-GREEN’, Ċ-D   ‘MAROON’
        - The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions for all color-stems: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

        +

        SIMILARLY: T-D  ‘BLUE’, N-D   ‘GREEN’, H-D  ‘YELLOW’, Q-D   ‘ORANGE’, L-D  ‘SKY BLUE’, F-D  ‘PINK’, Ç-D  ‘PURPLE’, R-D   ‘OCHRE’, Ķ-D  ‘ECRU’, Ţ-D  ‘BEIGE/TAN’, Ņ-D   ‘PEACH’, Ļ-D   ‘MAUVE’, Ŗ-D  ‘LAVENDER’, C-D   ‘BURGUNDY’, Ş-D   ‘TEAL’, x + cedilla-D   ‘TURQUOISE’, Ĺ -D   ‘AQUAMARINE’, Č-D  ‘BROWN’, X-D   ‘WHITE’, M-D  ‘BLACK’, S-D  ‘GRAY’, P-D    ‘YELLOW-GREEN’, Ċ-D   ‘MAROON’
        + The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions for all color-stems: 1) extra light 2) pale (= mixed with gray) 3) clear, transparent 4) fluorescent 5) vibrant / bright 6) –ish 7) translucent 8) opaque 9) extra dark

         

        - + @@ -3310,11 +3310,11 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + - + @@ -3330,7 +3330,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        XL-D   ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’

        XL-D   ‘WATER AS SUBSTANCE AND TOOL’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. (some) water [substance itself]

        1. degree of moisture [from water]

        1. (some) water of one’s corporeal body

        1. (some) water of one’s corporeal body

        1. hydration; hydrate

        2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, for powering a turbine, etc.)

        2. water as “tool” (e.g., for washing, for powering a turbine, etc.)

        2. wash, clean [with water]

        2. act of drinking water; to drink water

        2. to water (e.g., plants)
        - + @@ -3362,20 +3362,20 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + - +

        KL-D   ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’

        KL-D   ‘WATER IN NATURAL MOTION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. water component of a sprinkle/shower

        2. trajectory or course of a sprinkle/shower

        2. water component of rain

        2. “path” or course of a rain shower

        2. “path” or course of a rain shower

        3. water component of a cascade or pouring of water

        3. trajectory or course of a pouring of water

        3. water component of a waterfall

        3. channel or “groove” of a waterfall

        3. channel or “groove” of a waterfall

        -

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain

        +

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: flood, downpour, to rain “cats and dogs”, brook, stream, rivulet, arroyo, floodplain

         

        - + @@ -3421,14 +3421,14 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        TL-D   ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’

        TL-D   ‘WATER IN STATIC SETTING’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + - + @@ -3453,7 +3453,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        M-G  ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’

        M-G  ‘HORIZONTAL SUPPORTING SURFACE AGAINST GRAVITY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        FORMAL Stems

        1. “ground”/firmament

        1. “ground”/firmament

        1. floor
        - + @@ -3495,29 +3495,29 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        L-G    ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’

        L-G    ‘ARTICLE OF CLOTHING’

        INFORMAL Stems

        THE STEM PATTERN OF THIS ROOT APPLIES TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
        - P-G    ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’
        - T-G     ‘PANTS’
        - Č-G   ‘COAT/JACKET’
        - Ķ-G    ‘GLOVE’
        - Q-G    ‘SCARF’
        - S-G   ‘HAT’
        - Š-G    ‘FOOTWEAR’
        - K-G    ‘LEGGING/SOCK’
        - Ç-G   ‘BELT’
        - X-G   ‘APRON’
        - PL-G   ‘COLLAR’
        - TL-G   ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE
        - KL-G   ‘HELMET’
        - Ţ-G   ‘SKIRT/KILT’
        - F-G   ‘DRESS’
        - PS-G   ‘VEIL’
        - KS-G   ‘SARI’
        - Ċ-G   ‘TUNIC’
        - Č-G   ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’

        + P-G    ‘SHIRT/BLOUSE’
        + T-G     ‘PANTS’
        + Č-G   ‘COAT/JACKET’
        + Ķ-G    ‘GLOVE’
        + Q-G    ‘SCARF’
        + S-G   ‘HAT’
        + Ĺ -G    ‘FOOTWEAR’
        + K-G    ‘LEGGING/SOCK’
        + Ç-G   ‘BELT’
        + X-G   ‘APRON’
        + PL-G   ‘COLLAR’
        + TL-G   ‘NECKTIE/CRAVATTE
        + KL-G   ‘HELMET’
        + Ţ-G   ‘SKIRT/KILT’
        + F-G   ‘DRESS’
        + PS-G   ‘VEIL’
        + KS-G   ‘SARI’
        + Ċ-G   ‘TUNIC’
        + Č-G   ‘ROBE(S)/TOGA’

         

        - + @@ -3550,7 +3550,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        Ļ-G   ‘PLANETARY BODY’

        Ļ-G   ‘PLANETARY BODY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3591,11 +3591,11 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’

        N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. viscous state (quasi-liquid but able to be deformed/shaped; semi-solid)
        -

        The stem pattern above also applies to the root P-Ġ  ‘liquid chemical’.

        +

        The stem pattern above also applies to the root P-Ġ  ‘liquid chemical’.

         

        - + @@ -3607,7 +3607,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -3640,7 +3640,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        R-G   ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’

        R-G   ‘LIGHT / RADIANT ENERGY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. the Sun / Sol

        2. flame / “tongue” of fire

        2. flame / “tongue” of fire

        3. star
        - + @@ -3672,7 +3672,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        SP-G   ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’

        SP-G   ‘ROCK/MINERAL-BASED SOIL/GROUND’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3720,7 +3720,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        T-Ġ   ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’

        T-Ġ   ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3752,7 +3752,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        Ċ-Ļ   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’

        Ċ-Ļ   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPHEROID SHAPES/FORMS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3777,7 +3777,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -3785,22 +3785,22 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        F-Ç   ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’

        F-Ç   ‘COMPONENTIAL PART OF WHOLE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. phsycial appearance/condition of component/part

        2. impact/effect of component’s/part’s condition on its function/purpose

        2. impact/effect of component’s/part’s condition on its function/purpose

        3. component/part itself as seen in relation to the greater whole

        THE ABOVE PATTERN APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS
        - Ţ-Ç    ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
        - Ç-Ç   ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
        - X-Ç   ‘side/flank, lateral area’
        - x + cedilla-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity)
        - S-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity)
        - Ş-Ç   ‘top, peak, summit’
        - SP-Ç   ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’
        - ST-Ç   ‘upper part or “half”’
        - SK-Ç   ‘lower part or “half”’
        - SF-Ç   ‘edge’
        - SŢ -Ç   ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’
        - SX-Ç   ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’

        + Ţ-Ç    ‘front [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
        + Ç-Ç   ‘rear, back part of [relative to directional orientation or primary interface]’
        + X-Ç   ‘side/flank, lateral area’
        + x + cedilla-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen perpendicular to long axis of entity)
        + S-Ç   ‘middle, center (as seen parallel to long axis of entity)
        + Ş-Ç   ‘top, peak, summit’
        + SP-Ç   ‘bottom, lowest part of, foundation’
        + ST-Ç   ‘upper part or “half”’
        + SK-Ç   ‘lower part or “half”’
        + SF-Ç   ‘edge’
        + SŢ -Ç   ‘interior, inner/internal part of, insides, innards’
        + SX-Ç   ‘exterior, outer/external part of, outside, “skin”’

         

        - + @@ -3835,7 +3835,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        F-Ļ   ‘VERTICAL ELEVATION’

        F-Ļ   ‘VERTICAL ELEVATION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3858,8 +3858,8 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - - + + @@ -3878,33 +3878,33 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        H-F   ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

        H-F   ‘PATH-ORIENTED TRANSLATIVE MOTION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        1. motion “outward”; go

        1. motion “inward”; come

        1. motion “outward”; go

        1. motion “inward”; come

        1. go travelling / be off

        1. journey toward

        Morphological derivations:  sojourn, set off / set out, set in motion; self-directed movement
        THE PATTERN FOR THE ABOVE ROOT IS APPLIED TO ALL OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
        - P-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’
        - S-Ţ    ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’
        - L-Ţ   ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane)
        - T-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane)
        - SK-Ţ   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE 3-DIMENSIONAL RANGE OF MOTION/3-DIMENSIONAL PERVASIVE MOVEMENT / MOVEMENT THROUGHOUT 3-D VOLUME’
        - N-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
        - Č-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
        - KŢ-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’
        - FL-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’
        - ŠK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’
        - ŞQ-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’
        - ŢL-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’
        - ŞK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’
        - KŢ-Ţ   ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion)
        - QŢ-Ţ   ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude)
        - X-Ţ     ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’
        - ST-Ţ   ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’
        - XL-F      ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’
        - SL-F      ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR  MOTION (relative to XYZ grid)
        - SP-F  ‘2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround
        - Q-Ţ   ‘2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR INSIDE EDGE’
        - KL-F  ‘3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR SURFACE OF’
        - SL-Ţ   ‘3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D BOUNDARY OF’

        + P-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL MOTION / ASCENT & DESCENT / UP & DOWN’
        + S-Ţ    ‘OBLIQUE VERTICAL MOTION’
        + L-Ţ   ‘PLANAR RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional horizontal plane)
        + T-Ţ   ‘VERTICAL RANGE OF MOTION’ (= randomly directed movement within/throughout 2-dimensional vertical plane)
        + SK-Ţ   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE 3-DIMENSIONAL RANGE OF MOTION/3-DIMENSIONAL PERVASIVE MOVEMENT / MOVEMENT THROUGHOUT 3-D VOLUME’
        + N-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG Y-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
        + Č-Ţ     ‘LINEAR/HORIZONTAL MOTION ALONG X-AXIS RELATIVE TO TOPICAL REFERENT’
        + KŢ-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN HORIZONTAL PLANE’
        + FL-F   ‘CIRCULAR MOTION IN VERTICAL PLANE’
        + Ĺ K-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE CIRCULAR MOTION’
        + ŞQ-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG HORIZONTAL PLANE’
        + ŢL-F   ‘SPIRAL MOTION ALONG VERTICAL PLANE’
        + ŞK-F   ‘GENERIC OR OBLIQUE SPIRAL MOTION’
        + KŢ-Ţ   ‘CIRCULAR VECTOR MOTION’ (i.e., “corkscrew” motion)
        + QŢ-Ţ   ‘SPIRAL VECTOR MOTION (i.e., corkscrew motion with increasing or decreasing amplitude)
        + X-Ţ     ‘ARC / PARABOLIC MOTION RELATIVE TO GRAVITY’
        + ST-Ţ   ‘CURVED MOTION / CURVE’
        + XL-F      ‘SWITCH BACK / VEER’
        + SL-F      ‘OBLIQUELY LINEAR  MOTION (relative to XYZ grid)
        + SP-F  â€˜2-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR OUTSIDE EDGE’ encircle, surround
        + Q-Ţ   â€˜2-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG BOUNDARY OR INSIDE EDGE’
        + KL-F  â€˜3-DIMENSIONAL EXTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG PERIPHERY OR SURFACE OF’
        + SL-Ţ   â€˜3-DIMENSIONAL INTERNAL CIRCUMLATIVE MOTION / MOVEMENT AROUND/ALONG INTERNAL 3-D BOUNDARY OF’

         

        - + @@ -3948,7 +3948,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        H-Ļ   ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’

        H-Ļ   ‘LONGITUDE / EAST-WEST’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -3992,7 +3992,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        K-Ļ   ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’

        K-Ļ   ‘LATITUDE / NORTH-SOUTH’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4027,7 +4027,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        K-Ţ   ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’

        K-Ţ   ‘ANGULAR STRUCTURE / CORNER’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4054,7 +4054,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        KL-Ç   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’

        KL-Ç   ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL BLOCK-LIKE SHAPES/FORMS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4095,13 +4095,13 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        M-Ļ  ‘CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’

        M-Ļ  â€˜CURVATURE/BENDING/OPEN LINEAR FORMS OR SHAPES’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. object manifesting a mathematically determined form made of lines
        -

        Morphological Derivatives:  fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature
        +

        Morphological Derivatives:  fold, bend, pleat, zig-zag/“sawtooth”/serrated pattern, undulate/undulation, S-curve, wave(s)/wavy, bent, crooked, jagged, serrated, curvature
        The above root use PHASE and the iterative series of affixes to specify extent/number/pattern of folds.
        SSD Derivatives for INFORMAL Stem 3:  parabola, hyperbola, exponential curve

         

        - + @@ -4146,8 +4146,8 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        M-Ţ    ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’

        M-Ţ    ‘ACCESS/PASSAGE’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4179,7 +4179,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        N-Ļ  ‘PRESSURE-BASED or REACTION-BASED
        - or GRAVITATION-BASED EQUILIBRIUM/MOTION/PROPULSION’

        N-Ļ  â€˜PRESSURE-BASED or REACTION-BASED
        + or GRAVITATION-BASED EQUILIBRIUM/MOTION/PROPULSION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4214,7 +4214,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        P-Ç   ‘INVERSION’

        P-Ç   ‘INVERSION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4222,7 +4222,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -4246,7 +4246,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        P-Ļ    ‘RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY

        P-Ļ    â€˜RECLINE / PRONE POSITION OR ORIENTATION / HORIZONTALITY

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. recline(d) / prone position (relative to long axis of object) / lie (down) / lay (out)

        1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity

        1. horizontal (relative to gravity or plane of the earth’s surface) / orientation perpendicular to direction of gravity

        2. recumbent position / position of relaxation relative to gravity --> sprawl, loll
        - + @@ -4278,7 +4278,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        SF-Ļ   ‘QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’

        SF-Ļ   ‘QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL SHAPES/FORMS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4286,37 +4286,37 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + - - + + - + - - - - + + + + - - - - + + + + - - - - + + + +

        SK-F    ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’

        SK-F    ‘SPATIAL ORIENTATION / POSITION / DIRECTION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. general spatial position [currently or within context of utterance]; be situated at

        1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end point” of

        1. specific spatial position at “end point”; be situated at “end point” of

        2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to “face” [toward]

        2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely

        2. general orientation (along or relative to directional axes); to “face” [toward]

        2. specific orientation toward “end point” of; to “face” squarely

        3. general direction/axis of movement; direct/move along axis of

        3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to head straight for

        3. specific direction/axis of movement toward “end point” of; to head straight for

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        1. general position toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

        1. general position toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

        1. specific position at “one end” of opposed spatial points

        1. specific position at “other side” of opposed spatial points

        1. general position toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

        1. general position toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

        1. specific position at “one end” of opposed spatial points

        1. specific position at “other side” of opposed spatial points

        2. general orientation toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

        2. general orientation toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

        2. specific orientation toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

        2. specific orientation toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

        2. general orientation toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

        2. general orientation toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

        2. specific orientation toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

        2. specific orientation toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

        3. general direction toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

        3. general direction toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

        3. specific direction toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

        3. specific direction toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

        3. general direction toward “one side” of opposed spatial points

        3. general direction toward “other side” of opposed spatial points

        3. specific direction toward “one end” of opposed spatial points

        3. specific direction toward “other end” of opposed spatial points

        THE ABOVE PATTERN OF STEMS IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING 3-DIMENSIONAL NOTATIONAL SCHEMA:
        @@ -4324,42 +4324,42 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        -Y = BEHIND, +Y = AHEAD
        -Z = BELOW, + Z = ABOVE
        0 = LEVEL WITH OR IN LINE WITH SPECIFIC X, Y, OR Z AXIS
        - PL-F   ‘+X/+Y/+Z’
        - Ņ-F    ‘+X/+Y/-Z’
        - R-F    ‘+X/-Y/+Z’
        - Ŗ-F    ‘+  X/-Y/-Z’
        - Ļ-F    ‘-X/+Y/+Z’
        - PS-F    ‘-X/+Y/-Z’
        - KS-F    ‘-X/-Y/+Z’
        - PŢ- F    ‘-X/-Y/-Z’
        - Ķ-F   ‘+X/+Y/0’
        - K-F    ‘+X/-Y/0’
        - Q-F    ‘-X/+Y/0’
        - M-F    ‘-X/-Y/0’
        - F-F    ‘+X/0/+Z’
        - Ţ-F    ‘+X/0/-Z’
        - Ç-F    ‘-X/0/+Z’
        - x + cedilla-F    ‘-X/0/-Z’
        - S-F    ‘0/+Y/+Z’
        - Ş-F    ‘0/+Y/-Z’
        - C-F    ‘0/-Y/+Z’
        - Ċ-F    ‘0/-Y/-Z’
        - Č-F    ‘+X/0/0’
        - Š-F    ‘-X/0/0’
        - L-F     ‘0/+Y/0’
        - N-F     ‘0/-Y/0’
        - P-F     ‘0/0/+Z’
        - T-F     ‘0/0/-Z’
        - SK-F    ‘0/0/0’
        - SF-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue]
        - ŠL-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room]
        - ŠP-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists]
        - ŠT-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable]
        - TL-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components inseparable/mixed/permanently combined]

        + PL-F   ‘+X/+Y/+Z’
        + Ņ-F    ‘+X/+Y/-Z’
        + R-F    ‘+X/-Y/+Z’
        + Ŗ-F    ‘+  X/-Y/-Z’
        + Ļ-F    ‘-X/+Y/+Z’
        + PS-F    ‘-X/+Y/-Z’
        + KS-F    ‘-X/-Y/+Z’
        + PŢ- F    ‘-X/-Y/-Z’
        + Ķ-F   ‘+X/+Y/0’
        + K-F    ‘+X/-Y/0’
        + Q-F    ‘-X/+Y/0’
        + M-F    ‘-X/-Y/0’
        + F-F    ‘+X/0/+Z’
        + Ţ-F    ‘+X/0/-Z’
        + Ç-F    ‘-X/0/+Z’
        + x + cedilla-F    â€˜-X/0/-Z’
        + S-F    ‘0/+Y/+Z’
        + Ş-F    ‘0/+Y/-Z’
        + C-F    ‘0/-Y/+Z’
        + Ċ-F    ‘0/-Y/-Z’
        + Č-F    ‘+X/0/0’
        + Ĺ -F    ‘-X/0/0’
        + L-F     ‘0/+Y/0’
        + N-F     ‘0/-Y/0’
        + P-F     ‘0/0/+Z’
        + T-F     ‘0/0/-Z’
        + SK-F    ‘0/0/0’
        + SF-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [linear unidimensional context, e.g., between two others in a queue]
        + Ĺ L-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [planar 2-dimensional context, e.g., among others in a crowded room]
        + Ĺ P-F   ‘POSITION BETWEEN / AMIDST / AMONG [volume-based 3-dimensional context, e.g., sky crowded with balloonists]
        + Ĺ T-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components separable/extractable]
        + TL-F   ‘INTERTWINED/INTERMINGLED/INTERMIXED POSITION/STATE’ [individual components inseparable/mixed/permanently combined]

         

        - + @@ -4391,7 +4391,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        SL-Ç   ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’

        SL-Ç   ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL (i.e., LINEAR) SHAPES/FORMS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4407,7 +4407,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -4420,18 +4420,18 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        SP-Ţ   ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’

        SP-Ţ   ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL OUTLINE SHAPES’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. generic 2-D outline vertically elongated

        3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., “squished/pinched in the middle”

        3. 2-D outline shape medially compressed, i.e., “squished/pinched in the middle”

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        Same as above 3 stems referring to an object having that shape or form
        -

        The above root’s stem pattern is applied to all of the following roots:
        - XL-Ţ  : ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’
        - R-Ļ  :  ‘circle/ellipse’
        - PS-Ç  : ‘oval’
        - ŠF-Ţ   :  ‘egg-shaped’
        - Š-Ç  : ‘half-circle/semi-circle’
        - K-Ç  :  ‘sliver-moon shaped’
        - SX-Ţ  :  ‘irregular/amorphous outline’

        +

        The above root’s stem pattern is applied to all of the following roots:
        + XL-ޠ : ‘square/rectangle/rhombus’
        + R-Ļ  :  ‘circle/ellipse’
        + PS-Ç  : ‘oval’
        + Ĺ F-Ţ   :  ‘egg-shaped’
        + Ĺ -Ç  : ‘half-circle/semi-circle’
        + K-Ç  :  ‘sliver-moon shaped’
        + SX-Ţ  :  ‘irregular/amorphous outline’

         

        - + @@ -4454,8 +4454,8 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - - + + @@ -4465,7 +4465,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        ST-F    ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’

        ST-F    ‘FIT/HOLD/CONTAIN AS INTERNAL-EXTERNAL PARTITION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        same as above 3 stems referring to the physical boundaries (“walls”) which define the containment area and prevent contents from leaking or escaping

        same as above 3 stems referring to the space (“room”) within the holding area and protection of contents from external environment

        same as above 3 stems referring to the physical boundaries (“walls”) which define the containment area and prevent contents from leaking or escaping

        same as above 3 stems referring to the space (“room”) within the holding area and protection of contents from external environment

        same as above 3 stems referring to the room as a container separating inside from outside

        same as abvoe 3 stems referring to the space within the room as shelter or sanctuary
        - + @@ -4510,7 +4510,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        ST-Ļ    ‘2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’

        ST-Ļ    â€˜2-DIMENSIONAL CURVATURE/DISTORTION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4522,7 +4522,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -4539,11 +4539,11 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        Ş-Ţ   ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’

        Ş-Ţ   ‘EXTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION OUTSIDE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. position/orientation somewhere outside of (2-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the area defined by a boundary line

        2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court)

        2. an external surface / functional planar area beyond/outside the boundaries of (e.g., the “out of bounds” area of a tennis court)

        3. position/orientation somewhere outside of (3-D context), i.e., beyond/outside the volume set off by a boundary membrane, surface/wall, etc.

        same as above 3 stems with focus on position on exterior surface (i.e. position on outside surface of boundary between interior and exterior
        -

        compare to root SX-Ç 

        +

        compare to root SX-Ç 

         

        - + @@ -4558,7 +4558,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -4576,7 +4576,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        Š-Ţ    ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’

        Ĺ -Ţ    ‘PATH/WAY/COURSE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. road [taken]

        3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc

        3. trajectory; move(ment) along a trajectory / “sail” / arc

        3. channel [taken]
        - + @@ -4584,11 +4584,11 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + - + @@ -4608,7 +4608,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        T-Ļ   ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION

        T-Ļ   ‘UPRIGHT POSITION OR ORIENTATION/VERTICALITY/PERPENDICULAR/PROTRUSION

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. upright/erect position or orientation (relative to long axis of object) / stand (up)

        1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface)

        1. vertical (i.e., parallel to gravity or plane of earth’s surface)

        2.  stick up or out/ protrude

        2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action

        2. occupying position of maximum contrast to a position of repose; position of maximum “alertness” or readiness or action

        3. perpendicular / position or orientation at right angles  to background firmament (relative to long axis of object); be or stand on end
        - + @@ -4616,7 +4616,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -4642,7 +4642,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        X-F   ‘AMBULATION’

        X-F   ‘AMBULATION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. ambulate (as natural to specific species, e.g., walk, slither, fly, crawl, etc.)

        1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance

        1. “formal” ambulation, e.g., march, prance

        2. rapid ambulation (as per specific species, e.g., run, gallop, scamper, scurry, etc.)
        - + @@ -4677,7 +4677,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        X-Ļ     ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’

        X-Ļ     ‘TERRAIN-BASED/GEOGRAPHICAL ELEVATION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -4706,22 +4706,22 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        X-Ţ   ‘INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’

        X-Ţ   â€˜INTERIORITY / POSITION OR ORIENTATION INSIDE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        same as above 3 stems with focus on position on interior surface (i.e. position on inside surface of boundary between interior and exterior
        -

        compare to roots SŢ -Ç 

        +

        compare to roots SŢ -Ç 

         


        CLASS 8 ROOTS: taxonomies of organic life

        -

        The stem pattern of the following Class 8 Roots is identical to the pattern for the Class 4 Root N-N ‘FOOD PLANT’:
        +

        The stem pattern of the following Class 8 Roots is identical to the pattern for the Class 4 Root N-N ‘FOOD PLANT’:
        P-Paspiration   cabbage (plant/leaves of sp. Brassica oleracea capitata)
        Ķ-Paspiration   lettuce (plant/leaves of genus Lactuca)
        Ċ-Paspiration   spinach (plant/leaves of sp. Spinacia oleracea)
        F-Paspiration     tea (plant/leaves of sp. Camellia sinensis)
        - ŠL-Taspiration  kelp (seaweed of orders Laminariales and Fucales)
        + Ĺ L-Taspiration  kelp (seaweed of orders Laminariales and Fucales)
        QŢ-Taspiration    mustard (plant of sp. Brassica hirta / B. nigra / B. juncea)
        Ţ-Paspiration   corn, maize (plant/seeds of sp. Zea mays)
        KŢ-Taspiration    oat (plant/seed of genus Avena)
        - Ç-Paspiration   wheat (plant/seed of sp. Triticum aestivum)
        + Ç-Paspiration   wheat (plant/seed of sp. Triticum aestivum)
        PŢ-Taspiration    tobacco (plant/leaves of sp. Nicotiana tabacum)
        SP-Taspiration    hemp, marijuana (plant/material of sp. Cannabis sativa)
        ŞP-Taspiration    sesame (plant/seed of genus Sesamum)
        @@ -4731,25 +4731,25 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        ŞT-Taspiration    soya, soybean (plant/seed of sp. Glycine max)
        PŞ -Paspiration   peanut (plant/seed/pod of sp. Arachis hypogaea)
        S-Paspiration   rice (plant/seed of sp. Oryza sativa)
        - ŠT-Taspiration    pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- plant/pod of genus Capsicum)
        + Ĺ T-Taspiration    pepper (hot/sweet/bell pepper -- plant/pod of genus Capsicum)
        Ş-Paspiration   pepper (black -- plant/seed of sp. Piper nigrum)
        SK-Taspiration    millet
        ŞK-Taspiration    amaranth
        - ŠK-Taspiration    sorghum
        + Ĺ K-Taspiration    sorghum
        SF-Taspiration    teff
        ŞF-Taspiration    ginseng (plant/root of genus Panax)
        - KŠ-Paspiration   potato (plant/tuber of sp. Solanum tuberosum)
        - PŠ -Paspiration   carrot (plant/root of sp. Daucus carota sativus)
        - ŠF-Taspiration    yam, sweet potato
        + KĹ -Paspiration   potato (plant/tuber of sp. Solanum tuberosum)
        + PĹ  -Paspiration   carrot (plant/root of sp. Daucus carota sativus)
        + Ĺ F-Taspiration    yam, sweet potato
        SX-Taspiration    garlic (herb of sp. Allium sativum)
        Ŗ-Paspiration   onion (plant/bulb of sp. Allium sepa)
        L-Paspiration   grape (plant/fruit of genus Vitis)
        SŢ-Taspiration    tomato (plant/berry of genus Lycopersicon)
        ŞŢ-Taspiration    squash, melon (plant/fruit of genus Cucurbita grown for edible fruit)
        - ŠŢ-Taspiration    gourd (plant/hard-rinded fruit of genera Lagenaria & Cucurbita)
        + Ĺ Ţ-Taspiration    gourd (plant/hard-rinded fruit of genera Lagenaria & Cucurbita)
        ŞX-Taspiration    date (tree/fruit of sp. Phoenix dactylifera)
        - ŠX-Taspiration    cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
        - Š-Qaspiration     bamboo (plant/stem of genera Bambusa / Arundinaria / Dendrocalamus)
        + Ĺ X-Taspiration    cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
        + Ĺ -Qaspiration     bamboo (plant/stem of genera Bambusa / Arundinaria / Dendrocalamus)
        N-Qaspiration      cork (tree/elastic tissue of sp. Quercus suber)
        L-Qaspiration      cotton (plant/fibers of genus Gossypium)
        H-Qaspiration      ginger (plant/rhizome of genus Zingiber)
        @@ -4758,7 +4758,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        - + @@ -4799,50 +4799,50 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        P-Taspiration        ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT’

        P-Taspiration        ‘BRANCHED AND/OR LEAVED PLANT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. sap product/syrup
        -

        SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 7) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine
        +

        SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) meat of fruit, 2) seed within fruit, 3) rind, 4) juice, 5) flavor, 6) odor of fruit, 7) oil, 8) [unassigned/specific to individual root] 9) fermented juice, i.e., wine
        THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
        - C-Taspiration       ‘BIRCH’
        - T-Taspiration       ‘SPRUCE’
        - Ķ -Taspiration       ‘CEDAR’
        - X-Taspiration       ‘OAK’
        - K-Taspiration       ‘PINE’
        - Ċ-Taspiration       ‘PALM’
        - F-Taspiration       ‘CHERRY’
        - Č-Taspiration       ‘WALNUT’
        - Ţ-Taspiration       ‘MAPLE’
        - Ç-Taspiration       ‘ASH’
        - aspiration       ‘CYPRESS’
        - S-Taspiration       ‘BEECH’
        - Ş-Taspiration       ‘MAHOGANY’
        - M-Taspiration       ‘COCONUT’
        - N-Taspiration       ‘EUCALYPTUS’
        - Ņ-Taspiration       ‘MAGNOLIA’
        - Š-Taspiration       ‘REDWOOD’
        - H-Taspiration       ‘LARCH’
        - L-Taspiration       ‘ELM’
        - Ļ-Taspiration       ‘FIG’
        - R-Taspiration       ‘BANANA’
        - Ŗ-Taspiration       ‘YEW’
        - PS-Taspiration       ‘ALMOND’
        - PŞ-Taspiration       ‘CHESTNUT’
        - PŠ-Taspiration       ‘ALDER’
        - KS-Taspiration       ‘OLIVE’
        - KŞ-Taspiration       ‘POPLAR’
        - TL-Taspiration       ‘PINEAPPLE’
        - KŠ-Taspiration       ‘APPLE’
        - PL-Taspiration       ‘ORANGE’
        - KL-Taspiration       ‘LEMON’
        - FL-Taspiration       ‘LIME’
        - ŢL-Taspiration       ‘PEAR’
        - XL-Taspiration       ‘PLUM’
        - SL-Taspiration       ‘PEACH’
        - ŞL-Taspiration       ‘TANGERINE’
        - Q-Taspiration       ‘COFFEE’
        - ŠP-Taspiration      FLAX

        + C-Taspiration       ‘BIRCH’
        + T-Taspiration       ‘SPRUCE’
        + Ķ -Taspiration       ‘CEDAR’
        + X-Taspiration       ‘OAK’
        + K-Taspiration       ‘PINE’
        + Ċ-Taspiration       ‘PALM’
        + F-Taspiration       ‘CHERRY’
        + Č-Taspiration       ‘WALNUT’
        + Ţ-Taspiration       ‘MAPLE’
        + Ç-Taspiration       ‘ASH’
        + aspiration       ‘CYPRESS’
        + S-Taspiration       ‘BEECH’
        + Ş-Taspiration       ‘MAHOGANY’
        + M-Taspiration       ‘COCONUT’
        + N-Taspiration       ‘EUCALYPTUS’
        + Ņ-Taspiration       ‘MAGNOLIA’
        + Ĺ -Taspiration       ‘REDWOOD’
        + H-Taspiration       ‘LARCH’
        + L-Taspiration       ‘ELM’
        + Ļ-Taspiration       ‘FIG’
        + R-Taspiration       ‘BANANA’
        + Ŗ-Taspiration       ‘YEW’
        + PS-Taspiration       ‘ALMOND’
        + PŞ-Taspiration       ‘CHESTNUT’
        + PĹ -Taspiration       ‘ALDER’
        + KS-Taspiration       ‘OLIVE’
        + KŞ-Taspiration       ‘POPLAR’
        + TL-Taspiration       ‘PINEAPPLE’
        + KĹ -Taspiration       ‘APPLE’
        + PL-Taspiration       ‘ORANGE’
        + KL-Taspiration       ‘LEMON’
        + FL-Taspiration       ‘LIME’
        + ŢL-Taspiration       ‘PEAR’
        + XL-Taspiration       ‘PLUM’
        + SL-Taspiration       ‘PEACH’
        + ŞL-Taspiration       ‘TANGERINE’
        + Q-Taspiration       ‘COFFEE’
        + Ĺ P-Taspiration      FLAX

         

        - + @@ -4883,38 +4883,38 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

          Q-Paspiration   ‘INSECT’

          Q-Paspiration   ‘INSECT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. female as derived resource or processed product
        -

        MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc.
        - SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open]
        +

        MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: larvae/grub, chrysalis, cocoon, adult, etc.
        + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) wing, 3) oil/secretion, 4) silk/web, 5) skin/pellicle, 6) tail, 7) horn, 8) leg(s) 9) [open]
        THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
        - ŠT-Paspiration      ‘BUMBLEBEE’
        - ST-Paspiration      ‘HONEYBEE’
        - SL-Paspiration      ‘ANT’
        - ŞL-Paspiration      ‘COCKROACH’
        - SX-Paspiration     ‘BUTTERFLY’
        - ŠX-Paspiration     ‘MOTH’
        - ŞT-Paspiration      ‘HOUSEFLY’
        - SK-Paspiration     ‘WASP’
        - ŞK-Paspiration     ‘HORNET’
        - SŢ-Paspiration     ‘GNAT’
        - ŠK-Paspiration     ‘MOSQUITO’
        - ŞŢ-Paspiration      ‘APHID’
        - SF-Paspiration      ‘FIREFLY’
        - ŠŢ-Paspiration      ‘FLEA’
        - ŠL-Paspiration      ‘BEETLE’
        - QŢ-Paspiration     ‘SPIDER’
        - ŠF-Paspiration      ‘TICK’
        - Ş-Paspiration       ‘TERMITE’
        - ŞF-Paspiration      ‘WATERBUG’
        - SP-Paspiration      ‘GRASSHOPPER’
        - ŠP-Paspiration      ‘LOCUST’
        - ŞX-Paspiration      ‘DRAGONFLY’
        - KŞ-Paspiration     ‘MANTIS’
        - PŢ-Paspiration    BLẠ-  ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’
        - KŢ-Paspiration    GLẠ-  ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’

        + Ĺ T-Paspiration      ‘BUMBLEBEE’
        + ST-Paspiration      ‘HONEYBEE’
        + SL-Paspiration      ‘ANT’
        + ŞL-Paspiration      ‘COCKROACH’
        + SX-Paspiration     ‘BUTTERFLY’
        + Ĺ X-Paspiration     ‘MOTH’
        + ŞT-Paspiration      ‘HOUSEFLY’
        + SK-Paspiration     ‘WASP’
        + ŞK-Paspiration     ‘HORNET’
        + SŢ-Paspiration     ‘GNAT’
        + Ĺ K-Paspiration     ‘MOSQUITO’
        + ŞŢ-Paspiration      ‘APHID’
        + SF-Paspiration      ‘FIREFLY’
        + Ĺ Ţ-Paspiration      ‘FLEA’
        + Ĺ L-Paspiration      ‘BEETLE’
        + QŢ-Paspiration     ‘SPIDER’
        + Ĺ F-Paspiration      ‘TICK’
        + Ş-Paspiration       ‘TERMITE’
        + ŞF-Paspiration      ‘WATERBUG’
        + SP-Paspiration      ‘GRASSHOPPER’
        + Ĺ P-Paspiration      ‘LOCUST’
        + ŞX-Paspiration      ‘DRAGONFLY’
        + KŞ-Paspiration     ‘MANTIS’
        + PŢ-Paspiration    BLẠ-  ‘GENERIC CRAWLING BUG’
        + KŢ-Paspiration    GLẠ-  ‘GENERIC FLYING BUG’

         

        - + @@ -4955,99 +4955,99 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        SK-Kaspiration     ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’

        SK-Kaspiration     ‘GENERIC MAMMAL/AVIAN/REPTILE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. female as derived resource or processed product
        -

        MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc.
        - SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 7) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat
        +

        MAT Suffix –V0k used to indicate life stage: e.g., foal, fawn, yearling, adult, etc.
        + SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) milk, 3) oil/secretion/venom, 4) fat, 5) skin/hide, 6) tail, 7) tusk/horn, 8) fur/feathers 9) flesh/meat
        THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
        - P-Kaspiration      ‘HORSE’
        - T-Kaspiration      ‘COW’
        - Ķ-Kaspiration       ‘PIG’
        - C-Kaspiration       ‘SHEEP’
        - F-Kaspiration       ‘GOAT’
        - Ċ-Kaspiration        ‘DEER’
        - K-Kaspiration       ‘BISON/BUFFALO’
        - M-Kaspiration       ‘CHICKEN’
        - Š-Kaspiration        ‘DUCK’
        - PL-Kaspiration         ‘GOOSE’
        - Ş-Kaspiration         ‘SWAN’
        - Q-Kaspiration        ‘TURKEY’
        - Ţ-Kaspiration         ‘OSTRICH’
        - Ç-Kaspiration         ‘DOLPHIN’
        - Č-Kaspiration         ‘MULE’
        - X-Kaspiration         ‘DONKEY’
        - aspiration         ‘ZEBRA’
        - XL-Kaspiration         ‘LION’
        - L-Kaspiration       ‘TIGER’
        - R-Kaspiration        ‘BEAR’
        - S-Kaspiration       ‘ELK’
        - Ņ-Kaspiration      ‘MOOSE’
        - Ļ-Kaspiration         ‘BOAR’
        - PS-Kaspiration         ‘YAK’
        - KS-Kaspiration         ‘CAMEL’
        - PŞ -Kaspiration         ‘WALRUS’
        - Ŗ-Kaspiration        ‘ELEPHANT’
        - PŠ-Kaspiration         ‘GIRAFFE’
        - N-Kaspiration         ‘CAT’
        - H-Kaspiration         ‘DOG’
        - KŠ-Kaspiration        ‘RABBIT’
        - TL-Kaspiration        ‘CHIMPANZEE’
        - KŞ-Kaspiration        ‘GORILLA’
        - ŢL-Kaspiration        ‘LEMUR’
        - KL-Kaspiration        ‘ORANGUTAN’
        - FL-Kaspiration        ‘OTTER’
        - SL-Kaspiration       ‘WHALE’
        - ŠL-Kaspiration        ‘SEAL’
        - ŞX-Kaspiration        ‘SEA LION’
        - PŢ-Kaspiration        ‘ANTELOPE’
        - ŞL-Kaspiration       ‘GAZELLE’
        - KŢ-Kaspiration       ‘BABOON’
        - QŢ-Kaspiration        ‘FOX’
        - SP-Kaspiration       ‘WOLF’
        - ST-Kaspiration        ‘COYOTE’
        - ŠP-Kaspiration       ‘SKUNK’
        - SF-Kaspiration         ‘PORCUPINE’
        - ŞP-Kaspiration       ‘POSSUM’
        - ŞT-Kaspiration         ‘KANGAROO’
        - SŢ-Kaspiration       ‘MOUSE’
        - SX-Kaspiration       ‘RAT’
        - SF-Kaspiration      ‘LEOPARD’
        - ŠK-Kaspiration      ‘CHEETAH’
        - ŠX-Kaspiration        ‘PANTHER’
        - ŠF-Kaspiration         ‘JAGUAR’
        - ŞF-Kaspiration        ‘MOLE’
        - ŞK-Kaspiration        ‘SQUIRREL’
        - ŞŢ-Kaspiration        ‘VOLE’
        - ŠT-Kaspiration         ‘CHIPMUNK’
        - ŠŢ-Kaspiration        ‘SHREW’
        - P-Qaspiration        ‘ROBIN’
        - T-Qaspiration        ‘LARK’
        - F-Qaspiration        ‘SPARROW’
        - Ţ-Qaspiration        ‘OWL’
        - Ç-Qaspiration         ‘PIGEON’
        - Č-Qaspiration        ‘EAGLE’
        - Ċ-Qaspiration         ‘GULL’
        - Ķ-Qaspiration       ‘ALBATROSS’
        - C-Qaspiration        ‘HAWK’
        - Q-Qaspiration       ‘VULTURE’
        - K-Qaspiration        ‘PHEASANT’
        - S-Qaspiration        ‘NIGHTINGALE’
        - R-Qaspiration         ‘SNAKE’
        - TL-Qaspiration        ‘VIPER’
        - KS-Qaspiration       ‘COBRA’
        - PS-Qaspiration         ‘RATTLESNAKE’
        - SX-Qaspiration       ‘PYTHON’
        - SF-Qaspiration        ‘ASP’
        - SK-Qaspiration       ‘ALLIGATOR’
        - ST-Qaspiration         ‘CROCODILE’
        - PL-Qaspiration        ‘LIZARD’
        - KŞ-Qaspiration       ‘GILA MONSTER’
        - PŞ-Qaspiration        ‘IGUANA’
        - KŠ-Qaspiration        ‘FROG’
        - PŠ-Qaspiration        ‘TOAD’
        - KL-Qaspiration       ‘TURTLE’

        + P-Kaspiration      â€˜HORSE’
        + T-Kaspiration      â€˜COW’
        + Ķ-Kaspiration       â€˜PIG’
        + C-Kaspiration       â€˜SHEEP’
        + F-Kaspiration       â€˜GOAT’
        + Ċ-Kaspiration        â€˜DEER’
        + K-Kaspiration       â€˜BISON/BUFFALO’
        + M-Kaspiration       ‘CHICKEN’
        + Ĺ -Kaspiration        â€˜DUCK’
        + PL-Kaspiration         ‘GOOSE’
        + Ş-Kaspiration         â€˜SWAN’
        + Q-Kaspiration        â€˜TURKEY’
        + Ţ-Kaspiration         â€˜OSTRICH’
        + Ç-Kaspiration         â€˜DOLPHIN’
        + Č-Kaspiration         â€˜MULE’
        + X-Kaspiration         â€˜DONKEY’
        + aspiration         ‘ZEBRA’
        + XL-Kaspiration         ‘LION’
        + L-Kaspiration       ‘TIGER’
        + R-Kaspiration        ‘BEAR’
        + S-Kaspiration       ‘ELK’
        + Ņ-Kaspiration      ‘MOOSE’
        + Ļ-Kaspiration         ‘BOAR’
        + PS-Kaspiration         â€˜YAK’
        + KS-Kaspiration         ‘CAMEL’
        + PŞ -Kaspiration         ‘WALRUS’
        + Ŗ-Kaspiration        ‘ELEPHANT’
        + PĹ -Kaspiration         ‘GIRAFFE’
        + N-Kaspiration         â€˜CAT’
        + H-Kaspiration         â€˜DOG’
        + KĹ -Kaspiration        ‘RABBIT’
        + TL-Kaspiration        â€˜CHIMPANZEE’
        + KŞ-Kaspiration        ‘GORILLA’
        + ŢL-Kaspiration        â€˜LEMUR’
        + KL-Kaspiration        ‘ORANGUTAN’
        + FL-Kaspiration        â€˜OTTER’
        + SL-Kaspiration       â€˜WHALE’
        + Ĺ L-Kaspiration        â€˜SEAL’
        + ŞX-Kaspiration        ‘SEA LION’
        + PŢ-Kaspiration        â€˜ANTELOPE’
        + ŞL-Kaspiration       â€˜GAZELLE’
        + KŢ-Kaspiration       ‘BABOON’
        + QŢ-Kaspiration        ‘FOX’
        + SP-Kaspiration       â€˜WOLF’
        + ST-Kaspiration        â€˜COYOTE’
        + Ĺ P-Kaspiration       â€˜SKUNK’
        + SF-Kaspiration         â€˜PORCUPINE’
        + ŞP-Kaspiration       â€˜POSSUM’
        + ŞT-Kaspiration         â€˜KANGAROO’
        + SŢ-Kaspiration       â€˜MOUSE’
        + SX-Kaspiration       ‘RAT’
        + SF-Kaspiration      â€˜LEOPARD’
        + Ĺ K-Kaspiration      ‘CHEETAH’
        + Ĺ X-Kaspiration        ‘PANTHER’
        + Ĺ F-Kaspiration         â€˜JAGUAR’
        + ŞF-Kaspiration        â€˜MOLE’
        + ŞK-Kaspiration        ‘SQUIRREL’
        + ŞŢ-Kaspiration        â€˜VOLE’
        + Ĺ T-Kaspiration         â€˜CHIPMUNK’
        + Ĺ Ţ-Kaspiration        â€˜SHREW’
        + P-Qaspiration        â€˜ROBIN’
        + T-Qaspiration        â€˜LARK’
        + F-Qaspiration        â€˜SPARROW’
        + Ţ-Qaspiration        â€˜OWL’
        + Ç-Qaspiration         â€˜PIGEON’
        + Č-Qaspiration        â€˜EAGLE’
        + Ċ-Qaspiration         â€˜GULL’
        + Ķ-Qaspiration       â€˜ALBATROSS’
        + C-Qaspiration        â€˜HAWK’
        + Q-Qaspiration       â€˜VULTURE’
        + K-Qaspiration        â€˜PHEASANT’
        + S-Qaspiration        â€˜NIGHTINGALE’
        + R-Qaspiration         â€˜SNAKE’
        + TL-Qaspiration        ‘VIPER’
        + KS-Qaspiration       ‘COBRA’
        + PS-Qaspiration         ‘RATTLESNAKE’
        + SX-Qaspiration       ‘PYTHON’
        + SF-Qaspiration        ‘ASP’
        + SK-Qaspiration       ‘ALLIGATOR’
        + ST-Qaspiration         ‘CROCODILE’
        + PL-Qaspiration        ‘LIZARD’
        + KŞ-Qaspiration       ‘GILA MONSTER’
        + PŞ-Qaspiration        ‘IGUANA’
        + KĹ -Qaspiration        ‘FROG’
        + PĹ -Qaspiration        ‘TOAD’
        + KL-Qaspiration       ‘TURTLE’

         

        - + @@ -5088,115 +5088,115 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        T-Paspiration    ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’

        T-Paspiration    ‘GENERIC WATERLIFE ’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. female as derived resource or processed product
        -

        SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat
        +

        SSD Suffix = -V1t’ used as follows: 1) egg, 2) meat, 3) skin/shell, 4) fluid/ink, 5) smoked meat, 6) as bait, 7) as fodder, 8) as ingredient in food or as fishmeal 9) cooked meat
        THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO THE FOLLOWING ROOTS:
        - N-Paspiration      ‘OCTOPUS’
        - X-Paspiration      ‘SQUID’
        - R-Paspiration      ‘EEL’
        - Ş-Paspiration      ‘LAMPREY’
        - Ņ-Paspiration      ‘RAY’
        - K-Paspiration      ‘SHARK’
        - XL-Paspiration     ‘CLAM’
        - FL-Paspiration     ‘SCALLOP’
        - PL-Paspiration      ‘MUSSEL’
        - ŢL-Paspiration      ‘CRAB’
        - TL-Paspiration      ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’
        - KL-Paspiration     ‘LOBSTER’
        - aspiration       ‘TROUT’
        - H-Paspiration       ‘TUNA’
        - Ļ-Paspiration       ‘COD’
        - Ç-Paspiration       ‘BASS’
        - C-Paspiration     ‘PIKE’

        + N-Paspiration      ‘OCTOPUS’
        + X-Paspiration      ‘SQUID’
        + R-Paspiration      ‘EEL’
        + Ş-Paspiration      ‘LAMPREY’
        + Ņ-Paspiration      ‘RAY’
        + K-Paspiration      ‘SHARK’
        + XL-Paspiration     ‘CLAM’
        + FL-Paspiration     ‘SCALLOP’
        + PL-Paspiration      ‘MUSSEL’
        + ŢL-Paspiration      ‘CRAB’
        + TL-Paspiration      ‘SHRIMP/PRAWN’
        + KL-Paspiration     ‘LOBSTER’
        + aspiration       ‘TROUT’
        + H-Paspiration       ‘TUNA’
        + Ļ-Paspiration       ‘COD’
        + Ç-Paspiration       ‘BASS’
        + C-Paspiration     ‘PIKE’

        CLASS 9 ROOTS: taxonomies of physical substances

        -

        The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to that of the Class 6 root T-Ġ ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’:
        - P-P’ ‘brass’
        - P-T’  ‘chalk’
        - P-K’  ‘cloth/fabric’
        - P-Q’ ‘coal’
        - T-P’ ‘spice/herb/seasoning’
        - T-T’ ‘glass’
        - T-K’ ‘jade’
        - T-Q’ ‘metal/ore’
        - Ķ-P’ ‘mineral’
        - Ķ-T’ ‘oil (petroleum)’
        - Ķ-K’ ‘plastic’
        - Ķ-Q’ ‘quartz’
        - K-P’ ‘rubber’
        - K-T’ ‘salt’
        - K-K’ ‘steel’
        - K-Q’ ‘silk’
        - C-P’ ‘tar’
        - C-T’ - ‘wax’
        - C-K’ Aluminium
        - C-Q’ Antimony
        - Ċ-P’ Arsenic        
        - Ċ-T’ Beryllium     
        - Ċ-K’ Bismuth      
        - Ċ-Q’ Boron                      
        - Č-P’ Cadmium     
        - Č-T’  Calcium      
        - Č-K’ Carbon        
        - Č-Q’ Chromium   
        - Ç-P’ Cobalt          
        - Ç-T’ Copper
        - Ç-K’ Gallium       
        - Ç-Q’ Gold
        - F-P’ Iridium         
        - F-T’ Iron
        - F-K’ Lead
        - F-Q’ Lithium        
        - Ţ-P’ Magnesium  
        - Ţ-T’ Manganese   
        - Ţ-K’ Molybdenum           
        - Ţ-Q’ Nickel
        - X-P’ Palladium    
        - X-T’ Phosphorus  
        - X-K’ Platinum     
        - X-Q’ Plutonium   
        - S-P’ Potassium
        - S-T’ Radium        
        - S-K’ Rubidium    
        - S-Q’ Selenium      
        - Ş-P’ Silicon          
        - Ş-T’ Silver            
        - Ş-K’ Sulfur
        - Ş-Q’ Tin
        - Š-P’ Titanium
        - Š-T’ Uranium       
        - Š-K’Vanadium
        - Š-Q’ Tungsten
        - M-P’ Zinc
        - M-T’Zirconium
        -         KL-P’ Germanium
        - KL-T’ Krypton     
        - KL-K’ Osmium
        - M-K’   asbestos     magnesium silicate
        - M-Q’ aspirin          acetylsalicylic acid
        - N-P’ baking soda               
        - N-T’ bicarbonate of soda               
        - N-K’ graphite (carbon)
        - N-Q’ diamond       
        - Ņ-P’ marble            
        - Ņ-T’ emery powder           
        - Ņ-K’  epsom salts              
        - Ņ-Q’ fluorspar     
        - L-P’  gypsum       
        - L-T’ linoleum       
        - L-K’ lime             
        - L-Q’ magnesia     
        - H-P’ milk of magnesium 
        - H-T’ plaster of Paris           
        - H-K’  potash        
        - H-Q’ saltpeter      
        - R-P’ silica             
        - R-T’ sugar, table 
        - R-K’ talc or talcum          
        - R-Q’  washing soda         
        - Ŗ-P’  zinc white   
        -         PS-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ACTINIDE OR UNSTABLE/RADIOACTIVE HEAVY ELEMENT
        +

        The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to that of the Class 6 root T-Ġ ‘(QUASI-)SOLID SUBSTANCE (i.e., non-liquid & non-gaseous)’:
        + P-P’ ‘brass’
        + P-T’  ‘chalk’
        + P-K’  ‘cloth/fabric’
        + P-Q’ ‘coal’
        + T-P’ ‘spice/herb/seasoning’
        + T-T’ ‘glass’
        + T-K’ ‘jade’
        + T-Q’ ‘metal/ore’
        + Ķ-P’ ‘mineral’
        + Ķ-T’ ‘oil (petroleum)’
        + Ķ-K’ ‘plastic’
        + Ķ-Q’ ‘quartz’
        + K-P’ ‘rubber’
        + K-T’ ‘salt’
        + K-K’ ‘steel’
        + K-Q’ ‘silk’
        + C-P’ ‘tar’
        + C-T’ - ‘wax’
        + C-K’ Aluminium
        + C-Q’ Antimony
        + Ċ-P’ Arsenic        
        + Ċ-T’ Beryllium     
        + Ċ-K’ Bismuth      
        + Ċ-Q’ Boron                      
        + Č-P’ Cadmium     
        + Č-T’  Calcium      
        + Č-K’ Carbon        
        + Č-Q’ Chromium   
        + Ç-P’ Cobalt          
        + Ç-T’ Copper
        + Ç-K’ Gallium       
        + Ç-Q’ Gold
        + F-P’ Iridium         
        + F-T’ Iron
        + F-K’ Lead
        + F-Q’ Lithium        
        + Ţ-P’ Magnesium  
        + Ţ-T’ Manganese   
        + Ţ-K’ Molybdenum           
        + Ţ-Q’ Nickel
        + X-P’ Palladium    
        + X-T’ Phosphorus  
        + X-K’ Platinum     
        + X-Q’ Plutonium   
        + S-P’ Potassium
        + S-T’ Radium        
        + S-K’ Rubidium    
        + S-Q’ Selenium      
        + Ş-P’ Silicon          
        + Ş-T’ Silver            
        + Ş-K’ Sulfur
        + Ş-Q’ Tin
        + Š-P’ Titanium
        + Ĺ -T’ Uranium       
        + Š-K’Vanadium
        + Š-Q’ Tungsten
        + M-P’ Zinc
        + M-T’Zirconium
        +         KL-P’ Germanium
        + KL-T’ Krypton     
        + KL-K’ Osmium
        + M-K’   asbestos     magnesium silicate
        + M-Q’ aspirin          acetylsalicylic acid
        + N-P’ baking soda               
        + N-T’ bicarbonate of soda               
        + N-K’ graphite (carbon)
        + N-Q’ diamond       
        + Ņ-P’ marble            
        + Ņ-T’ emery powder           
        + Ņ-K’  epsom salts              
        + Ņ-Q’ fluorspar     
        + L-P’  gypsum       
        + L-T’ linoleum       
        + L-K’ lime             
        + L-Q’ magnesia     
        + H-P’ milk of magnesium 
        + H-T’ plaster of Paris           
        + H-K’  potash        
        + H-Q’ saltpeter      
        + R-P’ silica             
        + R-T’ sugar, table 
        + R-K’ talc or talcum          
        + R-Q’  washing soda         
        + Ŗ-P’  zinc white   
        +         PS-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ACTINIDE OR UNSTABLE/RADIOACTIVE HEAVY ELEMENT
        SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Actinium 2) Thorium @@ -5207,7 +5207,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        7) Francium 8) Polonium 9) Technetium
        - PŠ-P’  SYNTHETIC ACTINIDE ELEMENT
        + PĹ -P’  SYNTHETIC ACTINIDE ELEMENT
        SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Americium 2) Curium @@ -5217,7 +5217,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        7) Mendelevium 8) Nobelium 9) Lawrencium
        - PŞ-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
        + PŞ-P’  NATURALLY OCCURRING ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
        SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Barium 2) Caesium (Cesium)  @@ -5228,7 +5228,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        7) Ruthenium 8) Strontium 9) Tellurium
        - x-cedilla-P’ RARE NATURAL ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
        + x-cedilla-P’ RARE NATURAL ELEMENT FOUND ONLY IN COMPOUNDS OR MIXED ORES
        SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Indium 2) Scandium @@ -5239,7 +5239,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        7) 8) 9) primary source ore in which element is found
        - KS-T’  SYNTHETIC HEAVY ELEMENT
        + KS-T’  SYNTHETIC HEAVY ELEMENT
        SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Rutherfordium 2) Dubnium @@ -5249,7 +5249,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        6) Meitnerium   7) Darmstadtium 8) Roentgenium 9) trans-Roentgenium synthetic element (i.e., Ununbium, Ununtrium, etc.)
        - KŞ-T’   LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
        + KŞ-T’   LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
        SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Lanthanum 2) Cerium @@ -5260,7 +5260,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        7) Europium 8) Gadolinium 9) Terbium
        - KŠ-T’  HEAVIER LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
        + KĹ -T’  HEAVIER LANTHANIDE ELEMENT
        SSD Derivatives specify exact element: 1) Dysprosium 2) Holmium @@ -5271,43 +5271,43 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        8) 9) lanthanide-based compound

         

        -

        The stem pattern for the following Class 9 roots are identical to the pattern for the Class 6 root N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’:
        - SK-P’ ‘paint’
        - Ŗ -T’ ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’
        - Ŗ -K’‘honey’
        - Ŗ -Q’‘vinegar’
        - Ļ-P’ acetone           
        - Ļ-T’ alcohol, grain             
        - Ļ-K’ alcohol, wood
        - Ļ-Q’  ammonia
        - PL-P’ iodine         
        - PL-T’  mercury
        - PL-K’ brine           aqueous sodium chloride solution
        - PL-Q’ benzene
        - TL-P’  lye or soda lye       sodium hydroxide
        - TL-T’ formalin      aqueous formaldehyde solution
        - TL-K’ rubbing alcohol      isopropyl alcohol
        - TL-Q’ methanol    methyl alcohol

        -

         

        -

        The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to the pattern of the Class 6 root H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’:
        - SL-P’ ‘carbon dioxide’
        - SL-T’  ‘carbon monoxide’
        - SL-K’ Chlorine    
        - SL-Q’ Argon        
        - PŢ-P’ Helium       
        - PŢ-T’ Hydrogen  
        - PŢ-K’ Fluorine     
        - PŢ-Q’ Nitrogen    
        - SP-P’ Oxygen      
        - SP-T’  Neon         
        - SP-K’ Radon       
        - SP-Q’ Xenon
        - ST-P’ ozone
        - ST-T’ laughing gas             
        - ST-K’ air

        +

        The stem pattern for the following Class 9 roots are identical to the pattern for the Class 6 root N-Ġ ‘LIQUID/FLUID’:
        + SK-P’ ‘paint’
        + Ŗ -T’ ‘oil (fatty liquid derived from plants/animals)’
        + Ŗ -K’‘honey’
        + Ŗ -Q’‘vinegar’
        + Ļ-P’ acetone           
        + Ļ-T’ alcohol, grain             
        + Ļ-K’ alcohol, wood
        + Ļ-Q’  ammonia
        + PL-P’ iodine         
        + PL-T’  mercury
        + PL-K’ brine           aqueous sodium chloride solution
        + PL-Q’ benzene
        + TL-P’  lye or soda lye       sodium hydroxide
        + TL-T’ formalin      aqueous formaldehyde solution
        + TL-K’ rubbing alcohol      isopropyl alcohol
        + TL-Q’ methanol    methyl alcohol

        +

         

        +

        The stem pattern of the following Class 9 roots is identical to the pattern of the Class 6 root H-Ġ ‘GAS / FLUME’:
        + SL-P’ ‘carbon dioxide’
        + SL-T’  ‘carbon monoxide’
        + SL-K’ Chlorine    
        + SL-Q’ Argon        
        + PŢ-P’ Helium       
        + PŢ-T’ Hydrogen  
        + PŢ-K’ Fluorine     
        + PŢ-Q’ Nitrogen    
        + SP-P’ Oxygen      
        + SP-T’  Neon         
        + SP-K’ Radon       
        + SP-Q’ Xenon
        + ST-P’ ozone
        + ST-T’ laughing gas             
        + ST-K’ air

        - + @@ -5342,7 +5342,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        ST-P’   ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’

        ST-P’   ‘STICKY/ADHESIVE MATERIAL’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -5374,7 +5374,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        L-C’   ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’

        L-C’   ‘SIMILARITY/SAMENESS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - @@ -5408,23 +5408,23 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        M-C’   ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’
        +

        M-C’   ‘VALUE/WORTH/PRICE/COST’
        (Often used in conjunction with various Quantifying and Modulative affixes from Sections 7.7.6 and 7.7.7 to show relative degree of value within context)
        - + - - + + - - + + - - + + @@ -5443,7 +5443,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        T-C’ ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’

        T-C’ ‘POSSESSION / OWNERSHIP’

        INFORMAL Stems

        FORMAL Stems

        1. have/possess; possession (temporary/circumstantial and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand)

        1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing)

        1. have/possess; possession (temporary/circumstantial and alienable – e.g., a library book in one’s hand)

        1. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right and in one’s immediate possession-, e.g., a hat I bought and am wearing)

        2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + (quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema showing)

        2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily wearing)

        2. have/possess; possession (circumstantial and affective + (quasi-) inalienable, either permanent or temporary – e.g., a medical condition, an office at work I occupy, a seat at a cinema showing)

        2. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (alienable but quasi-permanent by law/right, not necessarily in one’s immediate possession -, e.g., a hat I bought/own but am not necessarily wearing)

        3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a memory)

        3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi-permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered

        3. have/possess; possession (genetic, intrinsic and inalienable, but not considered property – e.g., a sibling, a child, a limb, a memory)

        3. have/possess/own; possession, piece of property (quasi-permanent and legally inalienable except through formal/legal separation process – e.g., a house I own, a pet dog I registered

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems
        - + @@ -5475,7 +5475,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

         

        F-Časpiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’

        F-Časpiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS (ORNAMENTAL/SPECIALIZED)’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -5489,7 +5489,7 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        - + @@ -5499,11 +5499,11 @@ FL-M  back pain disorder (neuro-muscular, not spinal)

        M-Časpiration   ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’

        M-Časpiration   ‘CONTAIN / HOLD / CONTENTS’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. contain(ment) via enclosure / surrounding conveyance + contents

        3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated component or ingredient] + contents

        3. contain(ment) via imbuement / as ingredient; to “carry” [as integrated component or ingredient] + contents

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        same as above 3 stems referring to the container
        -

        The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ affix] 6) can/tin 7) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk

        +

        The -V1t’ affix provides the following distinctions: 1) bottle 2) jar/pot 3) barrel/cask 4) bin 5) vat / tub / basin [distinguished via SIZ affix] 6) can/tin 7) piece of furniture 8) purse/bag/satchel/pack 9) case/trunk

         

        - + @@ -5564,18 +5564,18 @@ KL-Časpiration powdery
        N-Ċaspiration gritty (like fine sand)
        XL-Časpiration grainy/granular
        -Ç-Caspiration mushy
        +Ç-Caspiration mushy
        L-Ċaspiration slushy
        PS-Časpiration gooey
        X-Caspiration slippery
        Ņ-Ċaspiration ice-cold, numbing cold
        KS-Časpiration numbing (= loss of sensation)
        - aspiration “pins & needles” sensation
        + aspiration “pins & needles” sensation
        H-Ċaspiration needle-like sharpness (e.g., a cactus)
        - PŠ-Časpiration bristly
        + PĹ -Časpiration bristly
        S-Caspiration feathery
        PS-Ċaspiration wispy/wafting
        - KŠ-Časpiration “cobwebby”/like cotton-candy
        + KĹ -Časpiration “cobwebby”/like cotton-candy
        M-Caspiration curvaceous/sensual (= soft/smooth/squeezable/rounded)
        PŞ-Ċaspiration rubbery
        L-Časpiration hard + semi-smooth (like wood)
        @@ -5594,7 +5594,7 @@ KL-Ċaspiration - + @@ -5642,19 +5642,19 @@ T-Časpiration elasticity <--> stiffness/rigidity
        K-Časpiration springiness/spring <--> inertness/immobility
        XL-Caspiration jiggliness <--> inertness/immobility
        -Ç-Ċaspiration limpness/flaccidity <--> stiffness/rigidity
        +Ç-Ċaspiration limpness/flaccidity <--> stiffness/rigidity
        Ķ-Časpiration buoyancy
        FL-Caspiration bounce/recoil <--> inertness/immobility
        Ţ-Ċaspiration brittleness <--> resiliency
        -Š-Časpiration flimsiness/fragility <--> resiliency/strength
        +Ĺ -Časpiration flimsiness/fragility <--> resiliency/strength
        KL-Caspiration flabbiness <--> cohesiveness / compactness
        F-Ċaspiration tendency to disintegrate/crumble/fall apart <--> coherence/cohesiveness/compositional integrity
        S-Časpiration spreadability
        - PL-Caspiration deformability / “dentability”

        + PL-Caspiration deformability / “dentability”

         

        P-Časpiration - ‘TEXTURE/TACTILE SENSATION’

        P-Časpiration - ‘TEXTURE/TACTILE SENSATION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        P-Ċaspiration   ‘CONSISTENCY/MALLEABILITY/FLEXIBILITY/PLASTICITY/RHEOLOGICAL PHENOMENON’

        P-Ċaspiration   ‘CONSISTENCY/MALLEABILITY/FLEXIBILITY/PLASTICITY/RHEOLOGICAL PHENOMENON’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -5665,8 +5665,8 @@ T-Časpiration

        1. geopolitical feature or element

        - - + + @@ -5686,7 +5686,7 @@ T-Časpiration - + @@ -5697,7 +5697,7 @@ T-Časpiration

        1. strut/buttress

        - + @@ -5718,8 +5718,8 @@ T-Časpiration - + @@ -5748,7 +5748,7 @@ T-Časpiration

        Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on the result or product

        Q-Časpiration   ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’

        Q-Časpiration   ‘GEOGRAPHICAL/GEOPOLITICAL ELEMENTS’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. geographical area / “land”

        2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

        2. geographical area / “land”

        2. geopolitical area / “land” or “country”

        3. natural piece of territory

        TL-Caspiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS/FORMS’

        TL-Caspiration   ‘ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS/FORMS’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. “side”/wall (external)

        2. “side”/wall (external)

        2. partition

        X- Časpiration   ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’
        - (NOTE:  This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.)

        X- Časpiration   ‘MAKE/CONSTRUCT/INTEGRATE/FORM’
        + (NOTE:  This root does not refer to ‘make/create’ meaning ‘emit/secrete/produce’as in ‘make noise’ or ‘make milk’, etc.)

        INFORMAL Stems
        -

        NOTE:  The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version.  Their default PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc.
        +

        NOTE:  The above meanings represent these stems as used in conjunction with the COMPLETIVE (CPT) version.  Their default PROCESSUAL (PCT) counterparts would translate as ‘plan (to)’, ‘design’, etc.
        Derivations:  cobble together, rig, system, conspire

         

        @@ -5757,7 +5757,7 @@ T-Časpiration -

        L-q + hacek   ‘MUSIC’

        +

        L-q + hacek   ‘MUSIC’

        INFORMAL Stems

        @@ -5793,14 +5793,14 @@ T-Časpiration -

        N-x + cedilla’  ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS’

        +

        N-x + cedilla’  ‘GOODWILL/FRIENDLINESS’

        INFORMAL Stems

        FORMAL Stems

        -

        1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s interests]

        +

        1. being nice [= emotional/spiritual/physical support of another’s interests]

        1. good samaritanship, going out of the way to help

        @@ -5826,7 +5826,7 @@ T-Časpiration -

        P-X’    ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’

        +

        P-X’    ‘CELEBRATORY ACT/ CEREMONIAL RITE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        @@ -5855,11 +5855,11 @@ T-Časpiration

        Same as above 3 stems referring to reason, cause or motive

        -

        MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  party, celebration, fęte, festivities, ceremony

        +

        MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES:  party, celebration, fęte, festivities, ceremony

         

        - + @@ -5892,7 +5892,7 @@ T-Časpiration - + @@ -5929,7 +5929,7 @@ T-Časpiration - + @@ -5962,7 +5962,7 @@ T-Časpiration - + @@ -5995,7 +5995,7 @@ T-Časpiration - + @@ -6029,18 +6029,18 @@ T-Časpiration - + - + - + @@ -6062,7 +6062,7 @@ T-Časpiration - + @@ -6087,74 +6087,74 @@ T-ČaspirationP-d + cedilla    ‘excitement/thrill’
        - Č-Ğ    ‘agitation/disquietude’
        - ST-V    ‘awe / be or feel impressed / humbleness in face of something’
        - N-Ř    ‘depression / be or feel depressed’
        - T-d + cedilla   ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’
        - Š-Ř    ‘cordiality/benevolence’
        - X-Ğ    ‘hysteria/loss of control’
        - SX-V    ‘commitment/loyalty’  Derivations:  ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’
        - PŠ-Ř    ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’
        - Ķ-d + cedilla   ‘feel hurt/offended’
        - Ķ-Ř   ‘spite’
        - K-d + cedilla  ‘stoicism/repression’
        - Ş-Ğ  ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations:  ‘callousness’
        - Ţ-Ř  ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’
        - R-Ğ   ‘numbness / emotional saturation’
        - Q-V    ‘wonder/enthrallment’
        - C-V   ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’
        - M-V  ‘fear/fright’ Derivation:  panic
        - H-V    ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.)
        - FL-Ğ    ‘jollity/merriment/gayness’
        - M-d + cedilla  ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’
        - ŠX-Ř    ‘stress / feel pressured’
        - KŢ-Ř    ‘worry / feel preoccupied’
        - ŠK-d + cedilla    ‘grief / sadness from loss’
        - KS-d + cedilla  ‘angst / weltschmertz’
        - P-V    ‘regret, repining, ruefulness’
        - T-Ř   ‘woe, despair, desolation’
        - SL-V    ‘sorrow, lamentation’
        - Q-Ř   ‘wistfulness, bittersweetness’
        - X-d + cedilla    ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuguese “saudade”)
        - T-V    ‘anticipate (something positive); feeling of anticipation (for something positive)’
        - QŢ-V  ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’
        - XL-V    ‘mix of humor and shame felt upon pulling joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains ignorant of the joke’
        + P-d + cedilla    ‘excitement/thrill’
        + Č-Ğ    ‘agitation/disquietude’
        + ST-V    ‘awe / be or feel impressed / humbleness in face of something’
        + N-Ř    ‘depression / be or feel depressed’
        + T-d + cedilla   ‘eagerness / fervor / zeal’
        + Ĺ -Ř    ‘cordiality/benevolence’
        + X-Ğ    ‘hysteria/loss of control’
        + SX-V    ‘commitment/loyalty’  Derivations:  ‘intransigence’, ‘stubbornness’
        + PĹ -Ř    ‘tenderness/nuturing/caring’
        + Ķ-d + cedilla   ‘feel hurt/offended’
        + Ķ-Ř   ‘spite’
        + K-d + cedilla  ‘stoicism/repression’
        + Ş-Ğ  ‘nonchalance/indifference’ Derivations:  ‘callousness’
        + Ţ-Ř  ‘torpor/lethargy’ Derivations: ‘stupor’, ‘catatonia’
        + R-Ğ   ‘numbness / emotional saturation’
        + Q-V    ‘wonder/enthrallment’
        + C-V   ‘inspiration / feeling of positive energy’
        + M-V  ‘fear/fright’ Derivation:  panic
        + H-V    ‘uplift/inspiration (e.g., by beauty, art, music, etc.)
        + FL-Ğ    ‘jollity/merriment/gayness’
        + M-d + cedilla  ‘feeling carefree / frivolity / relaxed’
        + Ĺ X-Ř    ‘stress / feel pressured’
        + KŢ-Ř    ‘worry / feel preoccupied’
        + Ĺ K-d + cedilla    ‘grief / sadness from loss’
        + KS-d + cedilla  ‘angst / weltschmertz’
        +         P-V    ‘regret, repining, ruefulness’
        + T-Ř   ‘woe, despair, desolation’
        + SL-V    ‘sorrow, lamentation’
        + Q-Ř   ‘wistfulness, bittersweetness’
        + X-d + cedilla    ‘bittersweet longing’ (Portuguese “saudade”)
        + T-V    ‘anticipate (something positive); feeling of anticipation (for something positive)’
        + QŢ-V  ‘feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that achievement of long-awaited vengeance or vindication is hollow and meaningless due to personal maturation or present irrelevance of original circumstances’
        + XL-V    ‘mix of humor and shame felt upon pulling joke on someone or at their expense but the target doesn’t “get it” or remains ignorant of the joke’
        K-V  serenity, peace of mind
        - T-Ğ schadenfreude; malicious glee at another’s (implicitly deserved) discomfort or inconvenience
        + T-Ğ schadenfreude; malicious glee at another’s (implicitly deserved) discomfort or inconvenience
        KL-d + cedilla impatience due to feeling that time/resources being wasted
        Ņ-Ř bother, annoyance (based on displeasure at or disagreement with external circumstances)
        -Ķ-V bother, annoyance at self due to one’s own actions/behavior
        +Ķ-V bother, annoyance at self due to one’s own actions/behavior
        K-Ğ feeling of disappointment at being letdown by another
        - TL-d + cedilla feeling of disappointment/let-down at one’s own actions/behavior
        + TL-d + cedilla feeling of disappointment/let-down at one’s own actions/behavior
        Ċ -Ř  anticipate a negative; dread
        -Ċ-V  feeling of emotional maturity/superiority; feeling “above it all”
        -Ķ -Ğ  feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that one can get past, and need not succumb to, feelings of defensiveness or “victimhood” upon being criticized, maligned, slandered, or disrespected
        +Ċ-V  feeling of emotional maturity/superiority; feeling “above it all”
        +Ķ -Ğ  feeling of surprise, revelation and self-growth upon discovering that one can get past, and need not succumb to, feelings of defensiveness or “victimhood” upon being criticized, maligned, slandered, or disrespected
        Č-V  achievement of zen-like enlightenment through meditation
        Q-Ğ  meditative bliss
        -Ņ-d + cedilla post-orgasmic/post-coital bliss; “afterglow”
        -C-Ř feeling of being “on edge”; at cusp of loss-of-control or loss of one’s actions/inhibitions
        +Ņ-d + cedilla post-orgasmic/post-coital bliss; “afterglow”
        +C-Ř feeling of being “on edge”; at cusp of loss-of-control or loss of one’s actions/inhibitions
        F-V being ultra-alert with senses heightened
        M-Ğ ecstatic/euphoric feeling of joie-de-vivre
        - L-d + cedilla feeling of inherent “connection” to or oneness with the universe through space and time
        -Ç-Ř feeling of puzzlement and curiosity, a desire to solve a mystery
        + L-d + cedilla feeling of inherent “connection” to or oneness with the universe through space and time
        +Ç-Ř feeling of puzzlement and curiosity, a desire to solve a mystery
        Ţ-V  feeling of piquancy, stimulated curiosity, a desire for a new experience
        -N-Ğ feeling of “devilishness” and spontaneous non-conformity
        +N-Ğ feeling of “devilishness” and spontaneous non-conformity
        Ş-d + cedilla feeling flustered at not knowing how to react or what to think
        -M-Ř embarrassment due to social faux pas, behavioral misstep, or others seeing through one’s façade or airs
        -Ç-V embarrassment at being unable to perform a task or activity as expected
        +M-Ř embarrassment due to social faux pas, behavioral misstep, or others seeing through one’s façade or airs
        +Ç-V embarrassment at being unable to perform a task or activity as expected
        L-Ğ humiliation
        - N-d + cedilla poignancy, “aaaaw” reaction to irresistable cuteness
        - R-Ř material lust, avarice, greed (for sexual lust see root H-Z   ŠŬ-)
        + N-d + cedilla poignancy, “aaaaw” reaction to irresistable cuteness
        + R-Ř material lust, avarice, greed (for sexual lust see root H-Z   Ĺ Ŭ-)
        S-V  shock, reeling (e.g., from bad news or an unexpected discovery)
        Ņ-Ğ swooning, feeling of faintness due to emotional overload
        S-d + cedilla repugnance, repellant feeling, disgust
        H-Ř  discomfiture at having been socially snubbed or at being ill-prepared for a situation after believing that one was accepted or was well-prepared
        -Š-d + cedilla solace, comfort in the face of sadness/grief

        +Ĺ -d + cedilla solace, comfort in the face of sadness/grief

         

        q-q + hacek   ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’

        q-q + hacek   ‘SALUTATION/GREETING/ACKNOWLEDGEMENT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        T-X’    ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’

        T-X’    ‘REPUTE/NOTORIETY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        Č-Ř   ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’

        Č-Ř   ‘DEGREE OF FUN/MERRIMENT/JOVIALITY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        F-Ř   ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’

        F-Ř   ‘HUMOR/WIT/JEST’

        INFORMAL Stems

        h-d + cedilla   ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’

        h-d + cedilla   ‘LOVE/AFFECTION/EMOTIONAL BOND’

        INFORMAL Stems

        L-Ř   ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES ’

        L-Ř   ‘ “HEART” / “ESSENCE” / VALUES ’

        INFORMAL Stems

        FORMAL Stems

        1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind

        1. metaphorical/psychological seat of one’s personality and emotions, i.e., “heart”, “soul”, mind

        1. personal value(s)/ what one holds dearest or as most important

        2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a certain depth of emotion

        2. degree/depth of one’s emotions / “feelings” / experience a certain depth of emotion

        2. personal virtues/ personality traits

        P- Ğ   ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’

        P- Ğ   ‘EXPERIENCE / UNDERGO A STATE OR FEELING’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -6183,11 +6183,11 @@ L-Ğ humiliation

        P-Ř   ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’

        P-Ř   ‘AFFECTIVE/NON-VOLITIONAL MENTAL STATE/PROCESS’

        INFORMAL Stems

        same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof
        -

        SSD Derivatives for Stem 3:  1) “high”, under-the-influence of a psycho-active substance  2) hallucination; hallucinate, (observe) apparition 3) trance 4) instance of telepathy 5) (experience) premonition/vision 6) synaesthetic experience 7) sensory illusion 8) out-of-body experience  9) state of prescience/clairvoyance

        +

        SSD Derivatives for Stem 3:  1) “high”, under-the-influence of a psycho-active substance  2) hallucination; hallucinate, (observe) apparition 3) trance 4) instance of telepathy 5) (experience) premonition/vision 6) synaesthetic experience 7) sensory illusion 8) out-of-body experience  9) state of prescience/clairvoyance

         

        - + @@ -6212,16 +6212,16 @@ L-Ğ humiliation
        - + - +

        Q-d + cedilla   ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’

        Q-d + cedilla   ‘DEGREE OF PLEASURE/FULFILLMENT/SATISFACTION/HAPPINESS’

        INFORMAL Stems

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a pleasant visit’ or ‘a satisfying meal’

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a fulfilling job’

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘a happy home’ or ‘a fulfilling job’

        Derivations:  gratify/gratification, satiety, ecstasy, joy

         

        - + @@ -6236,8 +6236,8 @@ L-Ğ humiliation
        - - + + @@ -6254,7 +6254,7 @@ L-Ğ humiliation

         

        S-Ř   ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’

        S-Ř   ‘PRIDE/EGO/RESPECT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. respect/admiration

        3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings)

        3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain an impression of someone’s self-identity

        3. one’s feelings/sensibilities (e.g., to hurt one’s feelings)

        3. ego/sense of self-identity; to sense (some)one’s ego / to gain an impression of someone’s self-identity

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems
        - + @@ -6279,9 +6279,9 @@ L-Ğ humiliation
        - + - +

        X-V    ‘DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’

        X-V    â€˜DEGREE OF PAIN/LOSS/DISSATISFACTION/MISERY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a terrible meal’

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unpleasant visit’ or ‘a terrible meal’

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the affective state/feeling/experience itself

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a miserable job’

        Same as above 3 stems referring to the cause or causal context, e.g., ‘an unhappy home’ or ‘a miserable job’

         

        @@ -6291,7 +6291,7 @@ L-Ğ humiliation
        - + @@ -6306,8 +6306,8 @@ L-Ğ humiliation
        - - + + @@ -6324,7 +6324,7 @@ L-Ğ humiliation

         

        F-Z     ‘ATTRACTION

        F-Z     ‘ATTRACTION

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. be attractive/seductive (emotional-philosophical attraction to inanimate thing, idea or abstraction, e.g., a political platform, buying a certain car, etc.)

        3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person)

        3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”)

        3. act/gesture indicating or hinting of attraction to; “(give) clue/hint” (physical attraction to other person)

        3. “selling point” / a “pro” (vs. “con”)

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems
        - + @@ -6369,7 +6369,7 @@ L-Ğ humiliation

         

        H-Z    ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’

        H-Z    ‘ROMANTIC AND/OR SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -6414,7 +6414,7 @@ L-Ğ humiliation

         

        H-Ž   ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’

        H-Ĺ˝   ‘CONFLICT-BASED HOSTILITY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -6459,7 +6459,7 @@ L-Ğ humiliation

         

        K-Z     ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’

        K-Z     ‘TRANSFER OF POSSESSION’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -6500,11 +6500,11 @@ L-Ğ humiliation

        L-Z     ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’

        L-Z     ‘MANAGE/GUIDANCE/COMPLIANCE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. personal rectitude
        -

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: guidance, management, morality, law, president, ruler; set of rules, steer, administer, order, drive; oversee, custom, “norm”, authority

        +

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: guidance, management, morality, law, president, ruler; set of rules, steer, administer, order, drive; oversee, custom, “norm”, authority

         

        - + @@ -6515,12 +6515,12 @@ L-Ğ humiliation
        - - + + - - + + @@ -6533,67 +6533,67 @@ L-Ğ humiliation

        N-Z - ‘SOCIAL INTERRELATION/INTERACTION’

        N-Z - ‘SOCIAL INTERRELATION/INTERACTION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. expected/natural role of member of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

        2. act/state of “dominant” or initiating partner in social interaction/relationship

        2. expected/natural role of “dominant” or initiating partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

        2. act/state of “dominant” or initiating partner in social interaction/relationship

        2. expected/natural role of “dominant” or initiating partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

        3. act/state of “passive” or secondary/complementary partner in social interaction/relationship

        3. expected/natural role of “passive” or secondary or complementary partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

        3. act/state of “passive” or secondary/complementary partner in social interaction/relationship

        3. expected/natural role of “passive” or secondary or complementary partner of a relationship + benefits, consequences, or implications thereof

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        Same as above 3 stems w/ focus on benefits, consequences, or implications of act/state of social interaction or interrelation

        -

        Note:  The above root (and those immediately below) are likely to be used in conjunction with the various Valence categories (see Section XXX) to specify the exact nature of the relationship between the parties involved.  Note also that, for relationships where the parties are acting in equivalent roles or positions of equal stature (i.e., no “dominant” vs. “passive” roles), use of Stems 2 and 3 above would be inapplicable.

        +

        Note:  The above root (and those immediately below) are likely to be used in conjunction with the various Valence categories (see Section XXX) to specify the exact nature of the relationship between the parties involved.  Note also that, for relationships where the parties are acting in equivalent roles or positions of equal stature (i.e., no “dominant” vs. “passive” roles), use of Stems 2 and 3 above would be inapplicable.

        THE STEMS OF THE FOLLOWING ROOTS DESCRIBING SPECIFIC TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS ARE STRUCTURED IDENTICALLY WITH THE ROOT ABOVE:
        -Ķ-Ž   close loving friendship
        +Ķ-Ĺ˝   close loving friendship
        x-cedilla-Z  business partnership
        - K-Ž   marriage
        + K-Ĺ˝   marriage
        M-Z,  temporary or youthful romantic dalliance/lovers (with or without involving sex)
        - F-Ž   sexual partners
        + F-Ĺ˝   sexual partners
        N-Z,  club members
        -Ţ-Ž   fellow hobbyists or enthusiasts
        +Ţ-Ĺ˝   fellow hobbyists or enthusiasts
        L-Z,  fan + celebrity
        -Ç-Ž   sage + disciples
        -Ņ -Z  “center of attention” + sycophants
        -X-Ž   master/servant
        +Ç-Ĺ˝   sage + disciples
        +Ņ -Z  “center of attention” + sycophants
        +X-Ĺ˝   master/servant
        Ķ-Z  sibling relations
        -X,-Ž   fellowship, “band of brothers”, fraternity, sorority, etc.
        +X,-Ĺ˝   fellowship, “band of brothers”, fraternity, sorority, etc.
        Ţ-Z  members of secret society
        -S-Ž   members of stigmatized/isolated/oppressed societal group
        -Ç-Z  owner + pet
        -M-Ž   co-workers/associates
        +S-Ĺ˝   members of stigmatized/isolated/oppressed societal group
        +Ç-Z  owner + pet
        +M-Ĺ˝   co-workers/associates
        PL-Z  co-authors/creators of joint opus or artistic work
        -L-Ž   autocrat or autarch + subjects
        +L-Ĺ˝   autocrat or autarch + subjects
        TL-Z  official/agent of authority + supplicant/petitioner/applicant
        -Ņ-Ž   interviewer/interrogator + interviewee
        +Ņ-Ĺ˝   interviewer/interrogator + interviewee
        KL-Z  seller + buyer
        -PL-Ž   members of same religion or belief system
        +PL-Ĺ˝   members of same religion or belief system
        FL-Z  members of holy order or spiritual fellowship
        -TL-Ž   members of business/executive management
        +TL-Ĺ˝   members of business/executive management
        ŢL-Z  strangers brought together by circumstances of the moment
        -KL-Ž   romantic love relationship
        +KL-Ĺ˝   romantic love relationship
        XL-Z  parent-child relationship
        -FL-Ž   relationship between business associates
        +FL-Ĺ˝   relationship between business associates
        Ŗ-Z  supervisor/boss + employee
        -ŢL-Ž   partners or team members in sporting match or sporting activity
        +ŢL-Ĺ˝   partners or team members in sporting match or sporting activity
        Ļ-Z  adversaries or opposing team members in sporting match or sporting activity
        -XL-Ž   socially adversarial based on social one-upmanship/ego gratification
        +XL-Ĺ˝   socially adversarial based on social one-upmanship/ego gratification
        x-cedilla-Z,  socially adversarial based on enmity/hatred
        - PŢ-Ž   relationship based on compulsion/threat
        + PŢ-Ĺ˝   relationship based on compulsion/threat
        X-Z,  adversarial based on a feud
        - KŢ -Ž   adversarial based on jealousy/coveting of one’s situation
        -Ç-Z,  adversarial based on material envy/coveting of one’s possessions
        -QŢ -Ž   enmity based on revenge
        + KŢ -Ĺ˝   adversarial based on jealousy/coveting of one’s situation
        +Ç-Z,  adversarial based on material envy/coveting of one’s possessions
        +QŢ -Ĺ˝   enmity based on revenge
        Ţ-Z,  adversarial based on anger/resentment
        -SL-Ž   allies
        +SL-Ĺ˝   allies
        F-Z,  predator + prey
        -SP-Ž   invader + invadee
        +SP-Ĺ˝   invader + invadee
        Q-Z,  co-participants in general activity
        -ST-Ž   matchmaker + parties being matched
        -Ņ-Z  member of couple being matched or “set up” with each other
        -SK-Ž   lender + borrower
        +ST-Ĺ˝   matchmaker + parties being matched
        +Ņ-Z  member of couple being matched or “set up” with each other
        +SK-Ĺ˝   lender + borrower
        Ķ-Z,  perpetrator + victim
        -SF-Ž   traders/barterers
        +SF-Ĺ˝   traders/barterers
        K-Z,  lessor + lessee
        -SŢ-Ž   creditor + debtor
        +SŢ-Ĺ˝   creditor + debtor
        T-Z,  advisor + party seeking advise
        -SX-Ž   warring parties
        +SX-Ĺ˝   warring parties
        P-Z,  entertainer/emcee + audience
        -R-Ž   speaker/speechmaker/presenter + audience

        +R-Ĺ˝   speaker/speechmaker/presenter + audience

         

        - + @@ -6609,7 +6609,7 @@ R- - + @@ -6630,8 +6630,8 @@ R- - - + +

        N-Ž    ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’

        N-Ĺ˝    ‘MARITAL/SPOUSAL RELATIONSHIP’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3.  betrothal / engagement; be betrothed, be engaged

        3. fiancé(e) / being a fiancé(e)

        3. fiancĂŠ(e) / being a fiancĂŠ(e)

        3. formal/legal status of being betrothed/engaged

        3. emotional bond of love/fealty underlying betrothal/engagement

        3. fiancé

        3. fiancée

        3. fiancĂŠ

        3. fiancĂŠe

         

        @@ -6639,7 +6639,7 @@ R-

         

        - @@ -6678,14 +6678,14 @@ R- - +

        P-Z     ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’
        +

        P-Z     ‘EXCHANGE/PURCHASE’
        Note: The stems below are generally used in conjunction with PROCESSUAL versus COMPLETIVE version (See Secs. 5.3.1 and 5.3.2) in order to distinguish an offer of exchange from a completed exchange. Alternately, the distinction between MONOACTIVE and COMPLEMENTARY valence (Sec. 5.2) can be used for the same purpose.

        3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity newly placed)

        3. change out / supplant / replace (focus on entity taken out of action)

        3. acquire via investment; act of acquisition via investment

        3. release interest in / sell one’s investment

        3. release interest in / sell one’s investment

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: commercial venture, a purchase, acquisition via trade, acquisition via investment; purvey, goods, thing sold, market, warehouse, buyer, seller, agent, business

         

        - + @@ -6716,7 +6716,7 @@ R- - + @@ -6731,7 +6731,7 @@ R-

         

        P-Ž  - ‘MASTERY/AUTHORITY/SERVITUDE/OBEDIENCE’

        P-Ĺ˝  - ‘MASTERY/AUTHORITY/SERVITUDE/OBEDIENCE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. act/state of supervision or formal oversight

        2. following of orders or instructions from super-visor/overseer

        2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble claim or “right”

        2. lordship, class-based rule/oversight by noble claim or “right”

        2. recognition/submission to claim of noble rule
        - + @@ -6742,7 +6742,7 @@ R- - + @@ -6760,11 +6760,11 @@ R-

        Q-Ž  - ‘PSYCHOLOGICAL or PSYCHO-LINGUISTIC MANIPULATION/TREATMENT’

        Q-Ĺ˝  - ‘PSYCHOLOGICAL or PSYCHO-LINGUISTIC MANIPULATION/TREATMENT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. state of delusion (both state + content)

        2. to “play games” (with someone) = mentally manipulate via words/behavior/actions; state of being toyed with mentally

        2. to “play games” (with someone) = mentally manipulate via words/behavior/actions; state of being toyed with mentally

        2. means of psychiatric treatment; component of psychotherapy

        same as above 3 stems referring to content thereof
        -

        Derivations:  to delude, to hypnotize, to “do a number” on someone mentally, to entrance

        +

        Derivations:  to delude, to hypnotize, to “do a number” on someone mentally, to entrance

         

        - + @@ -6793,11 +6793,11 @@ R-

        R-Z    ‘EFFORT/WORK’

        R-Z    ‘EFFORT/WORK’

        INFORMAL Stems

        Same as above 3 stems referring to result/product
        -

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee

        +

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: strain, struggle, “fight”, toil, strenuous, persevere, operation, job, achievement, industry, enterprise, employment, employer, employee

         

        - + @@ -6842,7 +6842,7 @@ R-

         

        T-Z   ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’

        T-Z   ‘OCCUPANCY/RESIDENCY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -6875,7 +6875,7 @@ R-

         

        T-Ž   ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’

        T-Ĺ˝   ‘MANNERS/DECORUM/DIGNITY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -6890,7 +6890,7 @@ R- - + @@ -6913,7 +6913,7 @@ R-

         

        X-Z   ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’

        X-Z   ‘GRATITUDE/THANKFULNESS/PRAISE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. gratefulness; feeling or manifestation of being beholden to someone or something [feeling is justified and an honor to be feeling]

        3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little or no effort on doer’s part

        3. thank(s) / offer gratitude within ironic circumstances or merely as a courtesy, i.e., where expectation of thanks is for an unwanted, unnecessary, or purely symbolic act or required little or no effort on doer’s part

        3. feeling or manifestation of being beholden or obliged to someone or something [feeling is resented and unwanted]
        - + @@ -6929,7 +6929,7 @@ R- - + @@ -6945,14 +6945,14 @@ R-

         

        K-R  ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’

        K-R  ‘APPEARANCE/SEMBLANCE/IMPRESSION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. on the surface/superficially/seemingly

        3. façade, veneer

        3. façade, veneer

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems
        - + - + @@ -6978,7 +6978,7 @@ R-

         

        M-J   ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’

        M-J   ‘HAPPEN/OCCUR(ENCE)/MANIFEST/EVENT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        FORMAL Stems

        1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass”

        1. happen / occur / take place / to “pass”

        1. step / act / action
        - + @@ -7005,14 +7005,14 @@ R-

         

        P-J   ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’

        P-J   ‘EXISTENCE/ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + - + @@ -7020,7 +7020,7 @@ R- - + @@ -7037,7 +7037,7 @@ R-

         

        K- z-bar    ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’

        K- z-bar    ‘TRANSCENDENCE / SPIRIT / RELIGION’

        INFORMAL Stems

        FORMAL Stems

        1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe

        1. one’s spirit or soul / transcendent “connection” to the universe

        1. religious belief

        2. feeling of religious fervor or zeal

        3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point”

        3. striving/quest for ultimate destiny/purpose/”Omega point”

        3. striving/quest for salvation/redemption/enlightment (specific to particular religion)
        - + @@ -7070,7 +7070,7 @@ R-

         

        P-R  ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’

        P-R  ‘APPEAR/MANIFEST/SHOW/EXHIBIT/DISPLAY’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -7082,7 +7082,7 @@ R- - + @@ -7103,7 +7103,7 @@ R-

         

        SP-R   ‘MANNERCONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’

        SP-R   ‘MANNERCONDUCT/BEHAVIOR/DEMEANOR’

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. guise, form; to take the form/guise of

        2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment

        2. behave/comport/conduct onself = outward display of one’s personality/thoughts/emotions/motives; behavior/conduct/deportment

        3. practice/policy
        - + @@ -7138,7 +7138,7 @@ R- - + @@ -7151,7 +7151,7 @@ R-

         

        X-J   ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

        X-J   ‘TEMPORARY ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

        INFORMAL Stems

        2. warm air front

        3. cloud [in the sky] – physical occurrence

        3. cloud [in the sky] – physical occurrence

        3. impact/effect of cloud [in the sky], e.g., its hiding of the sun, it causing zero visibility as a plane flies through it, etc.

        3. eye of storm [physical occurrence]

        3. short-lived calm/still conditions associated with the eye of a storm
        - @@ -7186,7 +7186,7 @@ R-

         

        C-H     ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’
        +

        C-H     ‘PLAY/RECREATION/LEISURE’
        (These stems are often used with the various Valence categories (Section 5.2) to specify the manner of participation)
        - @@ -7195,7 +7195,7 @@ R- - + @@ -7225,14 +7225,14 @@ R- - +

        Č-H     ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’
        +

        Č-H     ‘DEGREE OF WAKEFULNESS OR CONSCIOUSNESS’
        Note: Stems from this root are used in conjunction with various degree indicator affixes such as the EXN, EXD and SUF affixes from Sec. 7.7.6 in order to distinguish which polarity (awake vs. asleep) is implied.

        1. degree of consciousness or unconsciousness

        1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy”

        1. degree of activity/vivaciousness/“energy”

        2. degree of wakefulness or sleepiness

        3. capacity for or faculty of alertness/attention/awareness

        3. that to or of which one is alert/attentive/aware

        3. state of personal intent/diligence/enterprise

        3. object of one’s intent/diligence/enterprise

        3. object of one’s intent/diligence/enterprise
        -

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal

        +

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: sleepy, listless(ness), grogginess, “fresh”, unconscious, dull, inattentive, vigilant, to “stir”, frisky, ardent, eager, persevere, bustling, zeal

         

        - + @@ -7265,7 +7265,7 @@ R-

         

        P-H   ‘SEEK/SEARCH’

        P-H   ‘SEEK/SEARCH’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -7294,11 +7294,11 @@ R-

        P-X     ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’

        P-X     ‘WANT/DESIRE/REQUEST’

        INFORMAL Stems

        same as above 3 stems referring to the thing requested/needed
        -

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand

        +

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: whim, fancy, inclination, appetite, “hunger”, greed, covet, propensity, aptness, eagerness, longing, crave, urge, passion, attract, tempt, persuade, allure, popularity, demand

        - + @@ -7339,7 +7339,7 @@ R-

         

        Q-H - ‘HUNTING & GATHERING/PLANTING & HARVESTING/SUBSISTENCE FROM THE LAND’

        Q-H - ‘HUNTING & GATHERING/PLANTING & HARVESTING/SUBSISTENCE FROM THE LAND’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -7374,7 +7374,7 @@ R-

        T-H   ‘CHOICE/ALTERNTIVE’

        T-H   ‘CHOICE/ALTERNTIVE’

        INFORMAL Stems

        - + @@ -7382,7 +7382,7 @@ R- - + @@ -7406,11 +7406,11 @@ R-

        k-j + hacek    ‘DAY/NIGHT’

        k-j + hacek    ‘DAY/NIGHT’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. day [= 24-hour period]

        same as for INFORMAL stems except applied to a particular date or scheduled day as in “my first day at work” or “Independence Day”

        same as for INFORMAL stems except applied to a particular date or scheduled day as in “my first day at work” or “Independence Day”

        2. sky

        3. natural darkness
        -

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’]

        +

        EXAMPLE MORPHOLOGICAL DERIVATIVES FROM THE ABOVE STEMS: dawn, sunrise, daybreak, evening, sunset, twilight, morning, evening, afternoon, mid-day, noontime, midnight, the “wee” hours [= Spanish ‘madrugada’]

         

        - + @@ -7418,15 +7418,15 @@ R- - + - - + + - + @@ -7439,12 +7439,12 @@ R-

        M-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’

        M-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION LESS THAN ONE DAY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        1. moment/instant

        1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands once together then once with back of hands together]

        1. ‘second’ [= basic unit of cyclic time, based on clapping of hands once together then once with back of hands together]

        2. a ‘while’

        2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds

        2. a ‘while’

        2. ‘minute’ = 100 seconds

        3. portion of a day

        3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes

        3. ‘hour’ = 100 minutes

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which
        -

        SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree:  1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) ź 4) ˝  5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times

        -

        SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree:  1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late night, from darkness till midnight

        +

        SSD affix used with FORMAL stems by degree:  1) 1/100 of time period 2) 1/10 3) Ä˝ 4) ˝  5) exactly/precisely 6) twice the duration 7) 4 times 8) 10 times 9) 100 times

        +

        SSD affix used with INFORMAL Stem No. 3 by degree:  1) midnight to dawn period [Spanish ‘madrugada’] 2) dawn [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunrise’] 3) early morning 4) morning 5) midday 6) afternoon [use of CPT or TRM = ‘sunset’] 7) twilight 8) evening 9) late night, from darkness till midnight

         

        - + @@ -7476,7 +7476,7 @@ R-

         

        N-Ķ   ‘WAIT/AWAIT’

        N-Ķ   ‘WAIT/AWAIT’

        INFORMAL Stems
        - + @@ -7492,7 +7492,7 @@ R- - + @@ -7505,11 +7505,11 @@ R-

        P-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’

        P-Ķ   ‘TIME PERIOD/DURATION MORE THAN ONE DAY’

        INFORMAL Stems

        3. solar year

        3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something

        3. ‘lifetime’; timespan from beginning to end of something

        COMPLEMENTARY Stems

        Same as above three stems w/ focus on time during which
        -

        Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc.

        +

        Use of SSD affix give equivalents to ‘decade’, ‘century,’ ‘millenium’, etc.

         

        - + @@ -7539,12 +7539,12 @@ R-

        T-Ķ   ‘SEASON’

        T-Ķ   ‘SEASON’

        INFORMAL Stems

        THE ABOVE PATTERN IS APPLIED TO FOLLOWING ROOTS:
        - R-Ķ    ‘SPRING’
        - L-Ķ    ‘SUMMER’
        - S-Ķ    ‘AUTUMN/FALL’
        - C -Ķ    ‘WINTER’
        - PS-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’
        - TL-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’

        + R-Ķ    ‘SPRING’
        + L-Ķ    ‘SUMMER’
        + S-Ķ    ‘AUTUMN/FALL’
        + C -Ķ    ‘WINTER’
        + PS-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL RAINY SEASON’
        + TL-Ķ    ‘TROPICAL DRY SEASON’


        @@ -7602,7 +7602,7 @@ R- -

        Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion +

        Š2004-2009 by John Quijada. You may copy or excerpt any portion of the contents of this website provided you give full attribution to the author and this website.

         

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